Chapter III: Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908) (6)

The most noteworthy buildings are the hospital and the observatory. Greenwich Hospital, as it is still called, became in 1873 a Royal Naval College. Upon it or its site centre nearly all the historical associations of the place. The noble buildings, contrasting strangely with the wharves adjacent and opposite to it, make a striking picture, standing on the low river-bank with a background formed by the wooded elevation of Greenwich Park. They occupy the site of an ancient royal palace called Greenwich House, which was a favourite royal residence as early as 1300, but was granted by Henry V. to Thomas Beaufort, duke of Exeter, from whom it passed to Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, who largely improved the property and named it _Placentia_. It did not revert to the crown till his death in 1447. It was the birthplace of Henry VIII., Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. The building was enlarged by Edward IV., by Henry VIII., who made it one of his chief residences, by James I. and by Charles I., who erected the "Queen's House" for Henrietta Maria. The tenure of land from the crown "as of the manor of East Greenwich" became at this time a recognized formula, and occurs in a succession of American colonial charters from those of Virginia in 1606, 1609 and 1612 to that of New Jersey in 1674. Along with other royal palaces Greenwich was at the Revolution appropriated by the Protector, but it reverted to the crown on the restoration of Charles II., by whom it was pulled down, and the west wing of the present hospital was erected as part of an extensive design which was not further carried out. In its unfinished state it was assigned by the patent of William and Mary to certain of the great officers of state, as commissioners for its conversion into a hospital for seamen; and it was opened as such in 1705. The building consists of four blocks. Behind a terrace 860 ft. in length, stretching along the river side, are the buildings erected in the time of Charles II. from Inigo Jones's designs, and in that of Queen Anne from designs by Sir Christopher Wren; and behind these buildings are on the west those of King William and on the east those of Queen Mary, both from Wren's designs. In the King William range is the painted hall. Here in 1806 the remains of Nelson lay in state before their burial in St Paul's Cathedral. Its walls and ceiling were painted by Sir James Thornhill with various emblematic devices, and it is hung with portraits of the most distinguished admirals and paintings of the chief naval battles of England. In the Queen Anne range is the Royal Naval Museum, containing models, relics of Nelson and of Franklin, and other objects. In the centre of the principal quadrangle of the hospital there is a statue of George II. by Rysbrack, sculptured out of a single block of marble taken from the French by Admiral Sir George Rooke. In the upper quadrangle is a bust of Nelson by Chantrey, and there are various other memorials and relics. The oldest part of the building was in some measure rebuilt in 1811, and the present chapel was erected to replace one destroyed by fire in 1779. The endowments of the hospital were increased at various periods from bequests and forfeited estates. Formerly 2700 retired seamen were boarded within it, and 5000 or 6000 others, called out-pensioners, received stipends at various rates out of its funds; but in 1865 an act was passed empowering the Admiralty to grant liberal pensions in lieu of food and lodging to such of the inmates as were willing to quit the hospital, and in 1869 another act was passed making their leaving on these conditions compulsory. It was then devoted to the accommodation of the students of the Royal Naval College, the Infirmary being granted to the Seamen's Hospital Society. Behind the College is the Royal Hospital School, where 1000 boys, sons of petty officers and seamen, are boarded.

To the south of the hospital is Greenwich Park (185 acres), lying high, and commanding extensive views over London, the Thames and the plain of Essex. It was enclosed by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, and laid out by Charles II., and contains a fine avenue of Spanish chestnuts planted in his time. In it is situated the Royal Observatory, built in 1675 for the advancement of navigation and nautical astronomy. From it the exact time is conveyed each day at one o'clock by electric signal to the chief towns throughout the country; British and the majority of foreign geographers reckon longitude from its meridian. A standard clock and measures are seen at the entrance. A new building was completed in 1899, the magnetic pavilion lying some 400 yds. to the east, so placed to avoid the disturbance of instruments which would be occasioned by the iron used in the principal building. South of the park lies the open common of Blackheath, mainly within the borough of Lewisham, and in the east the borough includes the greater part of Woolwich Common.

At Greenwich an annual banquet of cabinet ministers, known as the whitebait dinner, formerly took place. This ceremony arose out of a dinner held annually at Dagenham, on the Essex shore of the Thames, by the commissioners for engineering works carried out there in 1705-1720--a remarkable achievement for this period--to save the lowlands from flooding. To one of these dinners Pitt was invited, and was subsequently accompanied by some of his colleagues. Early in the 19th century the venue of the dinner, which had now become a ministerial function, was transferred to Greenwich, and though at first not always held here, was later celebrated regularly at the "Ship," an hotel of ancient foundation, closed in 1908. The banquet continued till 1868, was revived in 1874-1880, and was held for the last time in 1894.

The parish church of Greenwich, in Church Street, is dedicated to St Alphege, archbishop, who was martyred here by the Danes in 1012. In the church Wolfe, who died at Quebec (1759), and Tallis, the musician, are buried. A modern stained-glass window commemorates Wolfe.

The parliamentary borough of Greenwich returns one member. Two burgesses were returned in 1577, but it was not again represented till the same privilege was conferred on it in 1832. The borough council consists of a mayor, five aldermen and thirty councillors.

GREENWOOD, FREDERICK (1830-1909), English journalist and man of letters, was born in April 1830. He was one of three brothers--the others being James and Charles--who all gained reputation as journalists. Frederick started life in a printing house, but at an early age began to write in periodicals. In 1853 he contributed a sketch of Napoleon III. to a volume called _The Napoleon Dynasty_ (2nd ed., 1855). He also wrote several novels: _The Loves of an Apothecary_ (1854), _The Path of Roses_ (1859) and (with his brother James) _Under a Cloud_ (1860). To the second number of the _Cornhill Magazine_ he contributed "An Essay without End," and this led to an introduction to Thackeray. In 1862, when Thackeray resigned the editorship of the _Cornhill_, Greenwood became joint editor with G. H. Lewes. In 1864 he was appointed sole editor, a post which he held until 1868. While at the _Cornhill_ he wrote an article in which he suggested, to some extent, how Thackeray might have intended to conclude his unfinished work _Denis Duval_, and in its pages appeared _Margaret Denzil's History_, Greenwood's most ambitious work of fiction, published in volume form in 1864. At that time Greenwood had conceived the idea of an evening newspaper, which, while containing "all the news proper to an evening journal," should, for the most part, be made up "of original articles upon the many things which engage the thoughts, or employ the energies, or amuse the leisure of mankind." Public affairs, literature and art, "and all the influences which strengthen or dissipate society" were to be discussed by men whose independence and authority were equally unquestionable. Canning's _Anti-Jacobin_ and the _Saturday Review_ of 1864 were the joint models Greenwood had before him. The idea was taken up by Mr George Smith, and the _Pall Mall Gazette_ (so named after Thackeray's imaginary paper in _Pendennis_) was launched in February 1865, with Greenwood as editor. Within a few years he had come to exercise a great influence on public affairs. His views somewhat rapidly ripened from what was described as philosophic Liberalism into Conservatism. No minister in Great Britain, Mr Gladstone declared, ever had a more able, a more zealous, a more effective supporter for his policy than Lord Beaconsfield had in Greenwood. It was on the suggestion of Greenwood that Beaconsfield purchased in 1875 the Suez Canal shares of the Khedive Ismail; the British government being ignorant, until informed by Greenwood, that the shares were for sale and likely to be bought by France. It was characteristic of Greenwood that he declined to publish the news of the purchase of the shares in the _Pall Mall_ before the official announcement was made.

Early in 1880 the _Pall Mall_ changed owners, and the new proprietor required it to support Liberal policy. Greenwood at once resigned his editorship, but in May a new paper, the _St James's Gazette_, was started for him by Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Aldenham), and Greenwood proceeded to carry on in it the tradition which he had established in the _Pall Mall_. At the _St James's_ Greenwood remained for over eight years, continuing to exercise a marked influence upon political affairs, notably as a pungent critic of the Gladstone administration (1880-1885) and an independent supporter of Lord Salisbury. His connexion with the paper ceased in August 1888, owing to disagreements with the new proprietor, Mr E. Steinkopff, who had bought the _St James's_ at Greenwood's own suggestion. In January 1891 Greenwood brought out a weekly review which he named the _Anti-Jacobin_. It failed, however, to gain public support, the last number appearing in January 1892. In 1893 he published _The Lover's Lexicon_ and in 1894 _Imagination in Dreams_. He continued to express his views on political and social questions in contributions to newspapers and magazines, writing frequently in the _Westminster Gazette_, the _Pall Mall_, _Blackwood_, the _Cornhill_, &c. Towards the end of his life his political views reverted in some respects to the Liberalism of his early days.

In the words of George Meredith "Greenwood was not only a great journalist, he had a statesman's head. The national interests were always urgent at his heart." He was remarkable for securing for his papers the services of the ablest writers of the day, and for the gift of recognizing merit in new writers, such, for instance, as Richard Jeffries and J. M. Barrie. His instinct for capacity in others was as sure as was his journalistic judgment. In 1905, on the occasion of his 75th birthday, a dinner was given in his honour by leading statesmen, journalists, and men of letters (with John Morley--who had succeeded him as editor of the _Pall Mall_--in the chair). In May 1907 he contributed to _Blackwood_ an article on "The New Journalism," in which he drew a sharp contrast between the old and the new conditions under which the work of a newspaper writer is conducted. He died at Sydenham on the 14th of December 1909.

See _Honouring Frederick Greenwood_, being a report of the speeches at
the dinner on the 8th of April 1905 (London, privately printed, 1905);
"Birth and Infancy of the _Pall Mall Gazette_," an article contributed
by Greenwood to the _Pall Mall_ of the 14th of April 1897; "The
Blowing of the Trumpet" in the introduction to the _St James's_ (May
31, 1880); obituary notices in the _Athenaeum_ (Dec. 25, 1909) and
_The Times_ (Dec. 17, 1909).

GREENWOOD, JOHN (d. 1593), English Puritan and Separatist (the date and place of his birth are unknown), entered as a sizar at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, on the 18th of March 1577-1578, and commenced B.A. 1581. Whether he was directly influenced by the teaching of Robert Browne (q.v.), a graduate of the same college, is uncertain; in any case he held strong Puritan opinions, which ultimately led him to Separatism of the most rigid type. In 1581 he was chaplain to Lord Rich, at Rochford, Essex. At some unspecified time he had been made deacon by John Aylmer, bishop of London, and priest by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Lincoln; but ere long he renounced this ordination as "wholly unlawful." Details of the next few years are lacking; but by 1586 he was the recognized leader of the London Separatists, of whom a considerable number had been imprisoned at various times since 1567. Greenwood was arrested early in October 1586, and the following May was committed to the Fleet prison for an indefinite time, in default of bail for conformity. During his imprisonment he wrote some controversial tracts in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner Henry Barrowe (q.v.). He is understood to have been at liberty in the autumn of 1588; but this may have been merely "the liberty of the prison." However, he was certainly at large in September 1592, when he was elected "teacher" of the Separatist church. Meanwhile he had written (1590) "An Answer to George Gifford's pretended Defence of Read Prayers." On the 5th of December he was again arrested; and the following March was tried, together with Barrowe, and condemned to death on a charge of "devising and circulating seditious books." After two respites, one at the foot of the gallows, he was hanged on the 6th of April 1593.

AUTHORITIES.--H. M. Dexter, _Congregationalism during the last three
hundred years_; _The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_; F. J.
Powicke, _Henry Barrowe and the Exiled Church of Amsterdam_; B. Brook,
_Lives of the Puritans_; C. H. Cooper, _Athenae Cantabrigienses_, vol.
ii.

GREG, WILLIAM RATHBONE (1809-1881), English essayist, the son of a merchant, was born at Manchester in 1809. He was educated at the university of Edinburgh and for a time managed a mill of his father's at Bury, and in 1832 began business on his own account. He entered with ardour into the struggle for free trade, and obtained in 1842 the prize offered by the Anti-Corn Law League for the best essay on "Agriculture and the Corn Laws." He was too much occupied with political, economical and theological speculations to give undivided attention to his business, which he gave up in 1850 to devote himself to writing. His _Creed of Christendom_ was published in 1851, and in 1852 he contributed no less than twelve articles to four leading quarterlies. Disraeli praised him; Sir George Cornewall Lewis bestowed a Commissionership of Customs upon him in 1856; and in 1864 he was made Comptroller of the Stationery Office. Besides contributions to periodicals he produced several volumes of essays on political and social philosophy. The general spirit of these is indicated by the titles of two of the best known, _The Enigmas of Life_ (1872) and _Rocks Ahead_ (1874). They represent a reaction from the high hopes of the author's youth, when wise legislation was assumed to be a remedy for every public ill. Greg was a man of deep moral earnestness of character and was interested in many philanthropic works. He died at Wimbledon on the 15th of November 1881. His brother, ROBERT HYDE GREG (1795-1875), was an economist and antiquary of some distinction. Another brother, SAMUEL GREG (1804-1876), became well known in Lancashire by his philanthropic efforts on behalf of the working-people. PERCY GREG (1836-1889), son of William Rathbone Greg, also wrote, like his father, on politics, but his views were violently reactionary. His _History of the United States to the Reconstruction of the Union_ (1887) is a polemic rather than a history.

GREGARINES (mod. Lat. _Gregarina_, from _gregarius_, collecting in a flock or herd, _grex_) a large and abundant order of Sporozoa Ectospora, in which a very high degree of morphological specialization and cytological differentiation of the cell-body is frequently found. On the other hand, the life-cycle is, in general, fairly simple. Other principal characters which distinguish Gregarines from allied Sporozoan parasites are as follows:--The fully-grown adult (trophozoite) is always "free" in some internal cavity, i.e. it is extracellular; in nearly all cases prior to sporulation two Gregarines (associates) become attached to one another, forming a couple (syzygy), and are surrounded by a common cyst; inside the cyst the body of each associate becomes segmented up into a number of sexual elements (gametes, primary sporoblasts), which then conjugate in pairs; the resulting copula (zygote, definitive sporoblast) becomes usually a spore by the secretion of spore-membranes (sporocyst), its protoplasm (sporoplasm) dividing up to form the germs (sporozoites).

Historical.

F. Redi (1684) is said to have been the first to observe a Gregarine parasite, but his claim to this honour is by no means certain. Much later (1787) Cavolini described and figured an indubitable Gregarine (probably the form now known as _Aggregata conformis_) from a Crustacean (_Pachygrapsus_), which, however, he regarded as a tapeworm. Leon Dufour, who in his researches on insect anatomy came across several species of these parasites, also considered them as allied to the worms and proposed the generic name of _Gregarina_. The unicellular nature of Gregarines was first realized by A. von Kolliker, who from 1845-1848 added considerably to our knowledge of the frequent occurrence and wide distribution of these organisms. Further progress was due to F. Stein who demonstrated about this time the relation of the "pseudo-navicellae" (spores) to the reproduction of the parasites.

FIG. 1.--a, Transverse Section of Intestine of Mealworm, infected with _Gregarina_ (_Clepsydrina_) _polymorpha_;[1] b, Part of a highly magnified.]

Apart from the continually increasing number of known species, matters remained at about this stage for many years. It is, in fact, only since the closing years of the 19th century that the complete life-history has been fully worked out; this has now been done in many cases, thanks to the researches of M. Siedlecki, L. Cuenot, L. Leger, O. Duboscq, A. Laveran, M. Caullery, F. Mesnil and others, to whom also we owe most of our knowledge regarding the relations of the parasites to the cells of their host during their early development.

Occurrence; mode of infection.

Gregarines are essentially parasites of Invertebrates; they are not known to occur in any true Vertebrate although met with in Ascidians. By far the greatest number of hosts is furnished by the Arthropods. Many members of the various groups of worms (especially the Annelids) also harbour the parasites, and certain very interesting forms are found in Echinoderms; in the other classes, they either occur only sporadically or else are absent. Infection is invariably of the accidental (casual) type, by way of the alimentary canal, the spores being usually swallowed by the host when feeding; a novel variation of this method has been described by Woodcock (31) in the case of a Gregarine parasitic in Cucumaria, where the spores are sucked up through the cloaca into the respiratory trees, by the inhalant current.

FIG. 2.--Cysts of a Coelomic Gregarine, in the body-cavity of a larva of _Tipula_.]

Habitat and effects on host.

The favourite habitat is either the intestine (fig. 1) or its diverticula (e.g. the Malpighian tubules), or the body-cavity. In the latter case, after infection has occurred, the liberated germs at once traverse the intestinal epithelium. They may come to rest in the connective tissue of the sub-mucosa (remaining, however, extracellular), grow considerably in that situation, and ultimately fall into the body-cavity (e.g. _Diplocystis_); or they may pass straightway into the body-cavity and there come into relation with some organ or tissue (e.g. _Monocystis_) of the earthworm, which is for a time intracellular in the spermatoblasts (fig. 4, c). In the case of intestinal Gregarines, the behaviour of the young trophozoite with respect to the epithelial cells of its host varies greatly. The parasite may remain only attached to the host-cell, never becoming actually intracellular (e.g. _Pterocephalus_); more usually it penetrates partially into it, the extracellular portion of the Gregarine, however, giving rise subsequently to most of the adult (e.g. _Gregarina_); or lastly, in a few forms, the early development is entirely intracellular (e.g. _Lankesteria_, _Stenophora_).

FIG. 3.--_Porospora gigantea f_, (E. van Ben.), from the intestine of the lobster. a, Nucleus.]

FIG. 4.

a-c, Trophozoites of _Monocystis agilis_.
a and b, Young individuals showing changes of body-form.
c, Older individual, still enveloped in a coat of spermatozoa.
d, e, Trophozoites of _M. magna_ attached to seminal funnel of
_Lumbricus_.
Goblet-shaped epithelial cells, in which the extremity of the parasite
is inserted.]

The effects on the host are confined to the parasitized cells. These generally undergo at first marked hypertrophy and alteration in character; this condition is succeeded by one of atrophy, when the substance of the cell becomes in one way or another practically absorbed by the growing parasite (cf. also COCCIDIA). Since, however, the Gregarines never overrun their hosts in the way that many other Sporozoa do (because of their lack, in general, of the power of endogenous multiplication), the number of cells of any tissue attacked, even in the case of a strong infection, is only a very small percentage of the whole. In short the hosts do not, as a rule, suffer any appreciable inconvenience from the presence of the parasites.

Morphology.

The body of a Gregarine is always of a definite shape, usually oval
or elongated; in one or two instances (e.g. _Diplodina_) it is
spherical, and, on the other hand, in _Porospora_ (fig. 3) it is
greatly drawn out and vermiform. In many adult Gregarines, the body is
divided into two distinct but unequal regions or halves, the anterior
part being known as the _protomerite_, the hinder, generally the
larger, as the _deutomerite_. This feature is closely associated with
another important morphological character, one which is observable,
however, only during the earlier stages of growth and development,
namely, the presence of a definite organ, the _epimerite_, which
serves for the attachment of the parasite to the host-cell (fig. 6).

FIG. 5.--Part of a section through the apparatus of fixation of a
_Pterocephalus_, showing root-like processes extending from the
Gregarine between the epithelial cells. g, Head of Gregarine; r,
Root-like processes; ep, Epithelial cells.]

In those Gregarines (most intestinal forms) which become attached to
an epithelial cell, the attachment occurs by means of a minute
projection or beak (rostrum) at the anterior end of the sporozoite,
which pushes its way into the cell, followed by the first part of the
growing germ. This portion of the body increases in size much quicker
at first than the rest (the extracellular part), more or less fills up
the host-cell, and forms the well-developed epimerite or secondary
attaching organella. The extracellular part of the Gregarine next
grows rapidly, and a transverse septum is formed at a short distance
away from (outside) the point where the body penetrates into the cell
(fig. 6); this marks off the large deutomerite posteriorly (distally).
Leger thinks that this partition most likely owes its origin to
trophic considerations, i.e. to the slightly different manner in which
the two halves of the young parasite (the proximal, largely
intracellular part, and the distal, extracellular one) may be supposed
to obtain their nutriment. In the case of the one half, the host-cell
supplies the nutriment, in that of the other, the intestinal liquid;
and the septum is, as it were, the expression of the conflicting limit
between these two methods. Nevertheless, the present writer does not
think that mechanical considerations should be altogether left out of
account. The septum may also be, to some extent, an adaption for
strengthening the body of the fixed parasite against lateral thrusts
or strains, due to the impact of foreign bodies (food, &c.) in the
intestine.

FIG. 6.--_Corycella armata_, Leger. a, Cephalont; b, Epimerite in
host-cell; c, Sporont.]

At the point where the body becomes actually intracellular, it is
constricted, and this constriction marks off the epimerite
(internally) from the middle portion (between this point and the
septum), which is the protomerite. Further growth is restricted,
practically, to the extracellular regions, and the epimerite often
comes to appear ultimately as a small appendage at the anterior end of
the protomerite. A Gregarine at this stage is known as a cephalont.
Later on, the parasite breaks loose from the host-cell and becomes
free in the lumen, the separation taking place at the constriction
between the protomerite and the epimerite; the latter is left behind
in the remains of the host-cell, the former becomes the anterior part
of the free trophozoite.

In other Gregarines, however, those, namely, which pass inwards,
ultimately becoming "coelomic," as well as those which become entirely
intracellular, no epimerite is ever developed, and, further, the body
remains single or unseptate. These forms, which include, for instance,
_Monocystis_ (fig. 4), _Lankesteria_, _Diplocystis_, are
distinguished, as _Acephalina_ or _Aseptata_ (_Haplocyta_,
_Monocystida_), according to which character is referred to, from the
others, termed _Cephalina_ or _Septata_ (_Polycystida_).

The two sets of terms are not, however, completely identical or
interchangeable, for there are a few forms which possess an epimerite,
but which lack the division into protomerite and deutomerite, and are
hence known as _Pseudomonocystida_; this condition may be primitive
(_Doliocystis_) or (possibly) secondary, the partition having in
course of time disappeared. Again, _Stenophora_ is a septate form
which has become, secondarily, completely intracellular during the
young stages, and, doubtless correlated with this, shows no sign of an
epimerite.

FIG. 7.--Forms of Epimerites.

1, _Gregarina longa_.
2, _Sycia inopinata_.
3, _Pileocephalus heerii_.
4, _Stylorhynchus longicollis_.
5, _Beloides firmus_.
6, _Cometoides crinitus_.
7, _Geneiorhynchus monnieri_.
8, _Echinomera hispida_.
9, _Pterocephalus nobilis_.]

With regard to the epimerites themselves, they are of all variety of
form and shape and need not be described in detail (fig. 7). In one or
two cases, however, another variety of attaching organella is met
with. Thus in _Pterocephalus_, only the rostrum of the sporozoite
penetrates into the host-cell, and no epimerite is formed. Instead, a
number of fine root-like processes are developed from near the
anterior end, which pass in between the host-cells (fig. 5) and thus
anchor the parasite firmly. Similarly, in the curious
_Schizogregarinae_, the anterior end of the (unseptate) body forms a
number of stiff, irregular processes, which perform the same function
(fig. 8). It is to be noted that these processes are non-motile, and
not in any way comparable to pseudopodia, to which they were formerly
likened.

A very interesting and remarkable morphological peculiarity has been
recently described by Leger (18) in the case of a new Gregarine,
_Taeniocystis_. In this form the body is elongated and metamerically
segmented, recalling that of a segmented worm, the adult trophozoites
possessing numerous partitions or segments (each corresponding to the
septum between the proto- and deuto-merite in an ordinary Polycystid),
which divide up the cytoplasm into roughly equal compartments. Leger
thinks only the deutomerite becomes thus segmented, the protomerite
remaining small and undivided. The nucleus remains single, so that
there is no question as to the unicellular or individual nature of the
entire animal.

FIG. 8.--Three Individuals (G) of _Ophryocystis schneideri_, attached
to wall of Malpighian tubule of _Blaps_ sp. p, Syncytial protoplasm of
the tubule; c, Cilia lining the lumen.]

Minute structure.

The general cytoplasm usually consists of distinct ectoplasm and
endoplasm, and is limited by a membrane or cuticle (epicyte), secreted
by the former. The cuticle varies considerably in thickness, being
well developed in active, intestinal forms, but very thin and delicate
in non-motile coelomic forms (e.g. _Diplodina_). In the former case it
may show longitudinal striations. The cuticle also forms the hooks or
spines of many epimerites. The ectoplasm usually shows (fig. 9A) a
differentiation into two layers, an outer, firmer layer, clear and
hyaline, the sarcocyte, and an inner layer, the myocyte, which is
formed of a network of muscle-fibrillae (mainly longitudinal and
transverse, fig. 9B). The sarcocyte alone constitutes the septum,
traversing the endoplasm, in septate Gregarines. The myonemes are
undoubtedly the agents responsible for the active "gregarinoid"
movements (of flexion and contraction) to be observed in many forms.
The peculiar gliding movements were formerly thought to be produced by
the extrusion of a gelatinous thread posteriorly, but Crawley (8) has
recently ascribed them to a complicated succession of wave-like
contractions of the myocyte layer. This view is supported by the fact
that certain coelomic forms, like _Diplodina_ and others, which either
lack muscle-fibrils or else show no ectoplasmic differentiation at
all, are non-motile. The endoplasm, or nutritive plasm, consists of a
semi-fluid matrix in which are embedded vast numbers of grains and
spherules of various kinds and of all sizes, representing an
accumulation of food-material which is being stored up prior to
reproduction. The largest and most abundant grains are of a substance
termed para-glycogen, a carbohydrate; in addition, flattened
lenticular platelets, of an albuminoid character, and
highly-refringent granules often occur.

FIG. 9A.--Longitudinal section of a Gregarine in the region of the
septum between protomerite and deutomerite.

Pr, Protomerite.
De, Deutomerite.
s, Septum.
en, Endoplasm.
sc, Sarcocyte.
c, Cuticle.
m, f, Myocyte fibrils (cut across).
g, Gelatinous layer.]

The nucleus is always lodged in the endoplasm, and, in the septate
forms, in the deutomeritic half of the body. It is normally spherical
and always limited by a distinct nuclear membrane, which itself often
contains chromatin. The most characteristic feature of the nucleus is
the deeply-staining, more or less vacuolated spherical karyosome
(consisting of chromatin intimately bound up with a plastinoid basis)
which is invariably present. In one or two instances (e.g.
_Diplocystis schneideri_) the nucleus has more than one karyosome. All
the chromatin of the nucleus is not, however, confined to the
karyosome, some being in the form of grains in the nuclear sap; and in
some cases at any rate (e.g. _Diplodina, Lankesteria_) there is a
well-marked nuclear reticulum which is impregnated with granules and
dots of chromatin.

FIG. 10.--Schizogony in _Ophryocystis francisci_. a, Rosette of small
individuals, produced from a schizont which has just divided; b, A
later stage, the daughter-individuals about to separate and assuming
the characters of the adult.]

Life-history.

A sexual multiplication (schizogony) is only known certainly to occur
in a few cases, one being in a Monocystid form, a species of
_Gonospora_, which is for a long time intracellular (Caullery and
Mesnil [4]), the rest among the _Schizogregarinae_, so named for this
reason, in which schizogonous fission takes place regularly during the
free, trophic condition. Usually, the body divides up, by a process of
multiple fission (fig. 10), into a few (up to eight)
daughter-individuals; but in a new genus (_Eleutheroschizon_), Brasil
(3) finds that a great number of little merozoites are formed, and a
large amount of vacuolated cytoplasm is left over unused.

In the vast majority of Gregarines, however, the life-cycle is limited
to gametogony and sporogony. A very general, if not indeed universal,
prelude to gametogony is the characteristic and important feature of
the order, known as association, the biological significance of which
has only lately been fully brought out (see H. M. Woodcock [31]). In
normal association, two individuals which are to be regarded as of
opposite sex, come into close contact with each other and remain thus
attached. The manner in which the parasites join varies in different
forms; the association may be end-to-end (terminal), either by like or
by unlike poles, or it may be side-to-side (lateral) (fig. 12). The
couple (syzygy) thus formed may proceed forthwith to encystment and
sporoblast-formation (_Lankesteria, Monocystis_), or may continue in
the trophic phase for some time longer (_Gregarina_). In one or two
instances (_Zygocystis_), association occurs as soon as the
trophozoites become adult. This leads on to the interesting
phenomenon of precocious association (neogamy), found in non-motile,
coelomic Gregarines (e.g. _Cystobia_, _Diplodina_ and _Diplocystis_),
in which the parasitism is most advanced. Woodcock (_loc. cit._) has
described and compared the different methods adopted to ensure a
permanent union, and the degree of neogamy attained, in these forms.
Here it must suffice to say that, in the extreme condition (seen, for
instance, in _Diplodina minchinii_) the union takes place very early
in the life-history, between individuals which are little more than
sporozoites, and is of a most intimate character, the actual cytoplasm
of the two associates joining. In such cases, there is absolutely
nothing to indicate the "double" nature of the growing trophozoite,
but the presence of the two nuclei which remain quite distinct.

FIG. 11.--_Eirmocystis spp._ a, b, Associations of two and three
Gregarines; c, Chain of five parasites; p, Primite; s, Satellites.]

There can be little doubt that, in the great majority, if not in all
Gregarines, association is necessary for subsequent sporulation to
take place; i.e. that the cytotactic attraction imparts a
developmental stimulus to both partners, which is requisite for the
formation of primary sporoblasts (gametes). This association is
usually permanent; but in one or two cases (perhaps _Gonospora sp._)
temporary association may suffice. While association has fundamentally
a reproductive (sexual) significance, in some cases, this function may
be delayed or, as it were, temporarily suspended, the cytotactic
attraction serving meanwhile a subsidiary purpose in trophic life.
Thus, probably, are to be explained the curious multiple associations
and long chains of Gregarines (fig. 11) sometimes met with (e.g.
_Eirmocystis_, _Clepsydrina_).

Encystment is nearly always double, i.e. of an associated couple.
Solitary encystment has been described, but whether successful
independent sporulation results, is uncertain; if it does, the
encystment in such cases is, in all probability, only after prior
(temporary) association. In the case of free parasites, a
well-developed cyst is secreted by the syzygy, which rotates and
gradually becomes spherical. A thick, at first gelatinous, outer
cyst-membrane (_ectocyst_) is laid down, and then a thin, but firm
internal one (endocyst). The cyst once formed, further development is
quite independent of the host, and, in fact, often proceeds outside
it. In certain coelomic Gregarines, on the other hand, which remain in
very close relation with the host's tissues, little or nothing of an
encystment-process on the part of the parasites is recognizable, the
cyst-wall being formed by an enclosing layer of the host
(_Diplodina_).

FIG. 12.--Associations of _Gonospora sparsa_.]

The nuclear changes and multiplication which precede
sporoblast-formation vary greatly in different Gregarines and can only
be outlined here. In the formation of both sets of sexual elements
(gametes) there is always a comprehensive nuclear purification or
maturation. This elimination of a part of the nuclear material (to be
distinguished as trophic or somatic, from the functional or germinal
portion, which forms the sexual nuclei) may occur at widely-different
periods. In some cases (_Lankesteria_, _Monocystis_), a large part of
the original (sporont-) nucleus of each associate is at once got rid
of, and the resulting (segmentation-) nucleus, which is
highly-specialized, represents the sexual part. In other cases, again,
the entire sporont-nucleus proceeds to division, and the distinction
between somatic and germinal portions does not become manifest until
after nuclear multiplication has continued for some little time, when
certain of the daughter-nuclei become altered in character, and
ultimately degenerate, the remainder giving rise to the
sporoblast-nuclei (_Diplodina_, _Stylorhynchus_). Even after the
actual sporoblasts (sex-cells) themselves are constituted, their
nuclei may yet undergo a final maturation (e.g. _Clepsydrina ovata_);
and in _Monocystis_, indeed, Brasil (2) finds that what is apparently
a similar process is delayed until after conjugation and formation of
the zygote (definitive sporoblast).

Nuclear multiplication is usually indirect, the mitosis being, as a
rule, more elaborate in the earlier than in the later divisions. The
attraction-spheres are generally large and conspicuous, sometimes
consisting of a well-developed centrosphere, with or without
centrosomic granules, at other times of very large centrosomes with a
few astral rays. In those cases where the karyosome is retained, and
the sporont-nucleus divides up as a whole, however, the earliest
nuclear divisions are direct; the daughter-nuclei being formed either
by a process of simple constriction (e.g. _Diplodina_), or by a kind
of multiple fission or fragmentation (_Gregarina_ and _Selenidium
spp._). Nevertheless, the later divisions, at any rate in _Diplodina_,
are indirect.

By the time nuclear multiplication is well advanced or completed, the
bodies of the two parent-Gregarines (associates) have usually become
very irregular in shape, and produced into numerous lobes and
processes. While in some forms (e.g. _Monocystis_, _Urospora_,
_Stylorhynchus_) the two individuals remain fairly separate and
independent of each other, in others (_Lankesteria_) they become
intertwined and interlocked, often to a remarkable extent
(_Diplodina_). The sexual nuclei next pass to the surface of the
processes and segments, where they take up a position of uniform
distribution. Around each, a small area of cytoplasm becomes
segregated, the whole often projecting as a little bud or hillock from
the general surface. These uninuclear protuberances are at length cut
off as the sporoblasts or gametes. Frequently a large amount of the
general protoplasm of each parent-individual is left over unused,
constituting two cystal residua, which may subsequently fuse; in
_Diplodina_, however, practically the whole cytoplasm is used up in
the formation of the gametes.

FIG. 13.--Development of the Gametes and Conjugation in _Stylorhynchus
longicollis_.

a, Undifferentiated gamete, attached to body of parent-individual.
b-d, Stages in development of motile male gamete.
e, Mature female gamete.
f, g, Stages in conjugation and nuclear union of the two elements.
h, Zygote (copula).
i, Spore, still with single nucleus and undivided sporoplasm.]

The sporoblasts themselves show all gradations from a condition of
marked differentiation into male and female (anisogamy), to one of
complete equality (isogamy). Anisogamy is most highly developed in
_Pterocephalus_. Here, the male elements (microgametes) are minute,
elongated and spindle-like in shape, with a minute rostrum anteriorly
and a long flagellum posteriorly, and very active; the female elements
(megagametes) are much larger, oblong to ovoid, and quite passive. In
_Stylorhynchus_ the difference between the conjugating gametes is not
quite so pronounced (fig. 13), the male elements being of about the
same bulk as the females, but pyriform instead of round, and
possessing a distinct flagellum; a most interesting point about this
parasite is that certain highly motile and spermatozoon-like male
gametes are formed (fig. 13), which are, however, quite sterile and
have acquired a subsidiary function. In other cases, again, the two
kinds of element exhibit either very slight differences (_Monocystis_)
or none (_Urospora_, _Gonospora_), in size and appearance, the chief
distinction being in the nuclei, those of the male elements being
smaller and chromatically denser than those of the females.

Lastly, in _Lankesteria_, _Gregarina_, _Clepsydrina_, _Diplocystis_
and _Diplodina_ complete isogamy is found, there being no apparent
difference whatever between the conjugating elements. Nevertheless,
these forms are also to be regarded as instances of binary sexuality
and not merely of exogamy; for it is practically certain that this
condition of isogamy is derived from one of typical anisogamy, through
a stage such as is seen in _Gonospora_, &c. And, similarly, just as in
all instances where the formation of differentiated gametes has been
observed, the origin of the two conjugates is from different
associates (parent-sporonts), and all the elements arising from the
same parent are of the same sex, so it is doubtless the case here.

The actual union is brought about or facilitated by the well-known
phenomenon termed the _danse des sporoblastes_, which is due to
various causes. In the case of highly-differentiated gametes
(_Pterocephalus_), the actively motile microgametes rush about here
and there, and seek out the female elements. In _Stylorhynchus_, Leger
has shown that the function of the sterile male gametes is to bring
about, by their vigorous movements, the _melee sexuelle_. In the forms
where the gametes are isogamous or only slightly differentiated and
(probably) not of themselves motile, other factors aid in producing
the necessary commingling. Thus in _Gregarina sp._ from the mealworm,
the unused somata or cystal residua become amoeboid and send out
processes which drive the peripherally-situated gametes round in the
cyst; in some cases where the residual soma becomes liquefied
(_Urospora_) the movements of the host are considered to be
sufficient; and lastly, in _Diplodina_, owing to the extent to which
the intertwining process is carried, if each gamete is not actually
contiguous to a suitable fellow-conjugant, a very slight movement or
mutual attraction will bring two such, when liberated, into contact.

An unusual modification of the process of sporoblast-formation and
conjugation, which occurs in _Ophryocystis_, must be mentioned. Here
encystment of two associates takes place as usual; the sporont-nucleus
of each, however, only divides twice, and one of the daughter-nuclei
resulting from each division degenerates. Hence only one
sporoblast-nucleus, representing a quarter of the original
nuclear-material, persists in each half. Around this some of the
cytoplasm condenses, the rest forming a residuum. The sporoblast or
gamete thus formed is completely isogamous and normally conjugates
with the like one from the other associate, when a single zygote
results which becomes a spore containing eight sporozoites, in the
ordinary manner. Sometimes, however, the septum between the two halves
of the cyst does not break down, in which case parthenogenesis occurs,
each sporoblast developing by itself into a small spore.

The two conjugating elements unite completely, cytoplasm with
cytoplasm and nucleus with nucleus, to form the definitive sporoblast
or zygote. The protoplasm assumes a definite outline, generally that
of an ovoid or barrel, and secretes a delicate membrane, the
ectospore. This subsequently becomes thickened, and often produced
into rims, spines or processes, giving rise to the characteristic
appearance of the Gregarine spore. Internal to the ectocyst, another,
thinner membrane, the endocyst, is also laid down. These two membranes
form the spore-wall (sporocyst). Meanwhile the contents of the spore
have been undergoing division. By successive divisions, usually
mitotic, the zygote-nucleus gives rise to eight daughter-nuclei, each
of which becomes the nucleus of a sporozoite. Next, the sporoplasm
becomes split longitudinally, around each nucleus, and thus eight
sickle-shaped (falciform) sporozoites are formed. There is usually a
certain amount of unused sporoplasm left over in the centre of the
spore, constituting the sporal residuum. It is important to note that
in all known Gregarines, with one exception, the number of sporozoites
in the spore is eight; the exception is _Selenidium_, in many ways far
from typical, where the number is half, viz. four.

Hitherto a variation from the general mode of spore-formation has been
considered to occur in certain Crustacean Gregarines, the
_Aggregatidae_ and the _Porosporidae_. The spores of these forms have
been regarded as gymnospores (naked), lacking the enveloping membranes
(sporocyst) of the ordinary spores, and the sporozoites, consequently,
as developed freely in the cyst. In the case of the first-named
parasites, however, what was taken for sporogony has been proved to be
really schizogony, and on other grounds these forms are, in the
present writer's opinion, preferably associated with the Coccidia
(q.v.). With regard to the _Porosporidae_, also, it is quite likely
that the gymnosporous cysts considered to belong to the Gregarine
_Porospora_ (as known in the trophic condition) have really no
connexion with it, but represent the schizogonous generation of some
other form, similar to _Aggregata_; in which case the true spores of
_Porospora_ have yet to be identified.

In the intestine of a fresh host the cysts rupture and the spores are
liberated. This is usually largely brought about by the swelling of
the residual protoplasm. Sometimes (e.g. _Gregarina_) long tubular
outgrowths, known as sporoducts (fig. 15), are developed from the
residual protoplasm, for the passage of the spores to the exterior.

Classification.

The Gregarines are extremely numerous, and include several families,
characterized, for the most part, by the form of the spores (fig. 16).
The specialized _Schizogregarinae_ are usually separated off from the
rest as a distinct sub-order.

SUB-ORDER I.--_Schizogregarinae._

Forms in which schizogonic reproduction is of general occurrence
during the extra-cellular, trophic phase. Three genera,
_Ophryocystis_, _Schizocystis_ and _Eleutheroschizon_, different
peculiarities of which have been referred to above. Mostly parasitic
in the intestine or Malpighian tubules of insects. (In this type of
parasite, as exemplified by _Ophryocystis_, the body was formerly
wrongly considered as amoeboid, and hence this genus was placed in a
special order, the _Amoebosporidia_.)

FIG. 16.--Spores of various Gregarines.

a, _Eirmocystis, Sphaerocystis_, &c.
b, _Echinomera, Pterocephalus_, &c.
c, _Gregarina_, &c.
d, _Beloides_.
e, _Ancyrophora_.
f, _Stylorhynchidae_ (type of).
g, _Menosporidae_.
h, _Gonospora terebellae_.
i, _Ceratospora_.
k, _Urospora synaptae_.]

SUB-ORDER II.--_Eugregarinae._

Schizogony very exceptional, only occurring during the intracellular
phase, if at all. Gregarines fall naturally into two tribes, described
as cephalont and septate, or as acephalont and aseptate (haplocytic),
respectively. In strictness, however, as already mentioned, these two
sets of terms do not agree absolutely, and whichever set is adopted,
the other must be taken into account in estimating the proper position
of certain parasites. Here the cephalont or acephalont condition is
regarded as the more primary and fundamental.

Tribe A.--_Cephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Septata_).

Save exceptionally, the body possesses an epimerite, at any rate
during the early stages of growth, and is typically septate. Mostly
intestinal parasites of Arthropods.

The chief families, with representative genera, are as follows:
_Porosporidae_, with _Porospora gigantea_, at present thought to be
gymnosporous; _Gregarinidae_ (_Clepsydrinidae_), with _Gregarina_,
_Clepsydrina_, _Eirmocystis_, _Hyalospora_, _Cmenidospora_,
_Stenophora_; _Didymophyidae_, with _Didymophyes_; _Dactylophoridae_,
with _Dactylophorus_, _Pterocephalus_, _Echinomera_, _Rhopalonia_;
_Actinocephalidae_ with _Actinocephalus_, _Pyxinia_, _Coleorhynchus_,
_Stephanophora_, _Legeria_, _Stictospora_, _Pileocephalus_,
_Sciadophora_; _Acanthosporidae_ with _Acanthospora_, _Corycella_,
_Cometoides_; _Menosporidae_ with _Menospora_, _Hoplorhynchus_;
_Stylorhynchidae_, with _Stylorhynchus_, _Lophocephalus_;
_Doliocystidae_ with _Doliocystis_; and _Taeniocystidae_, with
_Taeniocystis_. The curious genus _Selenidium_ is somewhat apart.

Tribe B.--_Acephalina_ (practically equivalent to _Aseptata_,
_Haplocyta_).

The body never possesses an epimerite and is non-septate. Chiefly
coelomic parasites of "worms," Holothurians and insects.

The _Aseptata_ have not been so completely arranged in families as the
_Septata_. Leger has distinguished two well-marked ones, but the
remaining genera still want classifying more in detail. Fam.
_Gonosporidae_, with _Gonospora_, _Diplodina_; and _Urosporidae_, with
_Urosopora_, _Cystobia_, _Lithocystis_, _Ceratospora_; the genera
_Monocystis_, _Diplocystis Lankesteria_ and _Zygocystis_ probably
constitute another; _Pterospora_ and, again, _Syncystis_ are distinct;
lastly, certain forms, e.g. _Zygosoma_, _Anchora_ (_Anchorina_), are
incompletely known.

There remains for mention the remarkable parasite, recently described
by J. Nusbaum (24) under the appropriate name of _Schaudinnella
henleae_, which inhabits the intestine of _Henlea leptodera_. Briefly
enumerated, the principal features in the life-cycle are as follows.
The young trophozoites (aseptate) are attached to the intestinal
cells, but practically entirely extracellular. Association is very
primitive in character and indiscriminate; it takes place
indifferently between individuals which will give rise to gametes of
the same or opposite sex. Often it is only temporary; at other times
it is multiple, several adults becoming more or less enclosed in a
gelatinous investment. Nevertheless, in no case does true encystment
occur, the sex-cells being developed practically free. The female
gametes are large and egg-like; the males, minute and sickle-like, but
with no flagellum and apparently non-motile. While many of the zygotes
("amphionts") resulting from copulation pass out to the exterior, to
infect a new host, others, possessing a more delicate
investing-membrane, penetrate in between the intestinal cells,
producing a further infection (auto-infection). Numerous sporozoites
are formed in each zygote. It will be seen that _Schaudinnella_ is a
practically unique form. While, on the one hand, it recalls the
Gregarines in many ways, on the other hand it differs widely from them
in several characteristic features, being primitive in some respects,
but highly specialized in others, so that it cannot be properly
included in the order. _Schaudinnella_ rather represents a primitive
Ectosporan parasite, which has proceeded upon a line of its own,
intermediate between the Gregarines and Coccidia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the important papers relating to Gregarines are
the following: 1. A. Berndt, "Beitrag zur Kenntnis der ...
Gregarinen," _Arch. Protistenk._ I, p. 375, 3 pls. (1902); 2. L.
Brasil, "Recherches sur la reproduction des Gregarines monocystidees,"
_Arch. zool. exp._ (4) 3, p. 17, pl. 2 (1905), and _op. cit._ 4, p.
69, 2 pls. (1905); 3. L. Brazil, "_Eleutheroschizon duboscqi_,
parasite nouveau, &c.," _op. cit._ (N. et R.) (4), p. xvii., 5 figs.
(1906); 4. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une Gregarine ...
presentant ... une phase de multiplication asporulee," _C.R. Ac. Sci._
126, p. 262 (1898); 5. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Le Parasitisme
intracellulaire des Gregarines," _op. cit._ 132, p. 220 (1901); 6. M.
Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur une mode particuliere de division
nucleaire chez les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 3, p. 146, 1
pl. (1900); 7. M. Caullery and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques parasites
internes des Annelides," _Misc. biol._ (_Trav. Stat. Wimereux_), 9, p.
80, 1 pl. (1899); 7a. J. Cecconi, "Sur l'_Anchorina sagittata_, &c.,"
_Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 230, 2 pls. (1905); 8. H. Crawley,
"Progressive Movement of Gregarines," _P. Ac. Philad._ 54, p. 4, 2
pls. (1902), also _op. cit._ 57, p. 89 (1905); 9. H. Crawley, "List of
the Polycystid Gregarines of the U.S.," _op. cit._ 55, pp. 41, 632, 4
pls. (1903); 10. L. Cuenot, "Recherches sur l'evolution et la
conjugaison des Gregarines," _Arch. biol._ 17, p. 581, 4 pls. (1901);
11. A. Laveran and F. Mesnil, "Sur quelques particularites de
l'evolution d'une Gregarine et la reaction de la cellule-hote," _C.R.
Soc. Biol._ 52, p. 554, 9 figs. (1900); 12. L. Leger, "Recherches sur
les Gregarines," _Tabl. zool._ 3, p. i., 22 pls. (1892); 13. L. Leger,
"Contribution a la connaissance des Sporozoaires, &c.," _Bull. Sci.
France_, 30, p. 240, 3 pls. (1897); 14. L. Leger, "Sur un nouveau
Sporozoaire (_Schizocystis_), &c.," _C.R. Ac. Sci._ 131, p. 722
(1900); 15. L. Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Ophryocystis,"
_t. c._ p. 761 (1900); 16. L. Leger, "Sur une nouvelle Gregarine
(_Aggregata coelomica_,), &c." _op. cit._ 132, p. 1343 (1901); 17. L.
Leger, "La Reproduction sexuee chez les Stylorhynchus," _Arch.
Protistenk._ 3, p. 304, 2 pls. (1904); 18. L. Leger, "Etude sur
_Taeniocystis mira_ (Leger), &c.," _op. cit._ 7, p. 307, 2 pls.
(1906); 19. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "La Reproduction sexuee chez
_Pterocephalus_," _Arch. zool. exp._ (N. et R.) (4) 1, p. 141, 11
figs. (1903); 20. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "_Aggregata vagans_, n.
sp., &c." _t. c._ p. 147, 6 figs. (1903); 21. L. Leger and O. Duboscq,
"Les Gregarines et l'epithelium intestinal, &c.," _Arch. parasitol._
6, p. 377, 4 pls. (1902); 22. L. Leger and O. Duboscq, "Nouvelles
Recherches sur les Gregarines, &c.," _Arch. Protistenk._ 4, p. 335, 2
pls. (1904); 23. M. Luhe, "Bau und Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _t.
c._ p. 88, several figs. (1904); 24. J. Nusbaum, "Uber die ...
Fortpflanzung einer ... Gregarine, _Schaudinnella henleae_," _Zeit.
wiss. Zool._ 75, p. 281, pl. 22 (1903); 25. F. Paehler, "Uber die
Morphologie, Fortpflanzung ... von _Gregarina ovata_," _Arch.
Protistenk._ 4, p. 64, 2 pls. (1904); 26. S. Prowazek, "Zur
Entwickelung der Gregarinen," _op. cit._, 1, p. 297, pl. 9 (1902); 27.
A. Schneider (Various memoirs on Gregarines), _Tabl. zool._ 1 and 2
(1886-1892); 28. H. Schnitzler, "Uber die Fortpflanzung von
_Clepsydrina ovata_," _Arch. Protistenk._ 6, p. 309, 2 pls. (1905);
29. M. Siedlecki, "Uber die geschlechtliche Vermehrung der _Monocystis
ascidiae_," _Bull. Ac. Cracovie_, p. 515, 2 pls. (1900); 30. M.
Siedlecki, "Contribution a l'etude des changements cellulaires
provoquees par les Gregarines," _Arch. anat. microsc._ 4, p. 87, 9
figs. (1901); 31. H. M. Woodcock, "The Life-Cycle of _Cystobia
irregularis_, &c.," _Q.J.M. Sci._ 50, p. 1. 6 pls. (1906).
(H. M. Wo.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Figures 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12 and 16 are redrawn from
Wasielewski's _Sporozoenkunde_, by permission of the author and of
the publisher, Gustav Fischer, Jena.

GREGOIRE, HENRI (1750-1831), French revolutionist and constitutional bishop of Blois, was born at Veho near Luneville, on the 4th of December 1750, the son of a peasant. Educated at the Jesuit college at Nancy, he became cure of Embermenil and a teacher at the Jesuit school at Pont-a-Mousson. In 1783 he was crowned by the academy of Nancy for his _Eloge de la poesie_, and in 1788 by that of Metz for an _Essai sur la regeneration physique et morale des Juifs_. He was elected in 1789 by the clergy of the _bailliage_ of Nancy to the states-general, where he soon became conspicuous in the group of clerical and lay deputies of Jansenist or Gallican sympathies who supported the Revolution. He was among the first of the clergy to join the third estate, and contributed largely to the union of the three orders; he presided at the permanent sitting of sixty-two hours while the Bastille was being attacked by the people, and made a vehement speech against the enemies of the nation. He subsequently took a leading share in the abolition of the privileges of the nobles and the Church. Under the new civil constitution of the clergy, to which he was the first priest to take the oath (December 27, 1790), he was elected bishop by two departments. He selected that of Loire-et-Cher, taking the old title of bishop of Blois, and for ten years (1791-1801) ruled his diocese with exemplary zeal. An ardent republican, it was he who in the first session of the National Convention (September 21, 1792) proposed the motion for the abolition of the kingship, in a speech in which occurred the memorable phrase that "kings are in the moral order what monsters are in the natural." On the 15th of November he delivered a speech in which he demanded that the king should be brought to trial, and immediately afterwards was elected president of the Convention, over which he presided in his episcopal dress. During the trial of Louis XVI., being absent with other three colleagues on a mission for the union of Savoy to France, he along with them wrote a letter urging the condemnation of the king, but omitting the words _a mort_; and he endeavoured to save the life of the king by proposing in the Convention that the penalty of death should be suspended.