Chapter III: Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908) (9)

On the 25th of May 1085 he died, unbroken by the misfortunes of his last years, and unshaken in his self-certainty. _Dilexi justitiam et odivi iniquitatem: propterea morior in exilio_--are said to have been his last words. In 1584 Gregory XIII. received him into the _Martyrologium Romanum_; in 1606 he was canonized by Paul V. The words dedicated to him in the _Breviarium Romanum_, for May 25, contain such an apotheosis of his pontificate that in the 18th and 19th centuries they were prohibited by the governments of several countries with Roman Catholic populations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A comprehensive survey of the sources and literature
for the history of Gregory VII. is given by C. Mirbt, s.v. "Gregor
VII." in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd ed. vol. vii. pp. 96
sqq. The main source for the reign of Gregory consists of his letters
and decrees, the greater part of which are collected in the
_Registrum_ (ed. P. Jaffe, _Bibliotheca rerum Germanicarum_, ii.,
Berlin, 1865). The letters preserved in addition to this official
collection are also reprinted by Jaffe under the title of _Epistolae
collectae_. The _Dictatus Papae_--a list of twenty-seven short
sentences on the rights of the pope,--which is given in the
_Registrum_, is not the work of Gregory VII., but should probably be
ascribed to Cardinal Deusdedit. Further: A. Potthast, _Bibliotheca
historica medii aevi_, i. (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), pp. 541 sq., ii.
1351; P. Jaffe, _Regesta pontificum_ (2nd ed., 1865), tome i. pp.
594-649, Nr. 4771-5313, tome ii. p. 751. The most important letters
and decrees of Gregory VII. are reprinted by C. Mirbt, _Quellen zur
Geschichte des Papsttums_ (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), Nr. 183 sqq., pp.
100 sqq. The oldest life of Gregory is that by Paul von Bermried,
reprinted, e.g. by Watterich, _Vitae pontificum_, i. 474-546. Among
the historians the following are of especial importance: Berthold,
Bernold, Lambert von Hersfeld, Bruno, Marianus Scotus, Leo of Ostia,
Peter of Marte Cassino, Sigebert of Gembloux, Hugo of Flavigny,
Arnulph and Landulf of Milan, Donizo--their works being reprinted in
the section "Scriptores" in the _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, vols.
v., vi., vii., viii., xii. The struggles which broke out under Gregory
VII. and were partially continued in the subsequent decades gave rise
to a pamphlet literature which is of extreme importance for their
internal history. The extant materials vary greatly in extent, and
display much diversity from the literary-historical point of view.
Most of them are printed in the _Monumenta Germaniae_, under the
title, _Libelli de lite imperatorum et pontificum saeculis XI. et XII.
conscripti_, tome i. (Hanover, 1891), tome ii. (1892), tome iii.
(1897). The scientific investigation of the Gregorian age has received
enormous benefit from the critical editions of the sources in the
_Monumenta Germaniae_, so that the old literature is for the most part
antiquated. This is true even of the great monograph on this pope--A.
F. Gfrorer, _Papst Gregorius VII. und sein Zeitalter_ (7 vols.,
Schaffhausen, 1859-1861), which must be used with extreme caution. The
present state of criticism is represented by the following works: G.
Meyer von Knonau, _Jahrbucher des deutschen Reichs unter Heinrich IV.
und Heinrich V._, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1890), ii. (1894), iii. (1900),
iv. (1903); W. Martens, _Gregor VII., sein Leben und Werken_ (2 vols.,
Leipzig, 1904); C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors VII._
(Leipzig, 1894); A. Hauck, _Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands_ (3 vols.,
Leipzig, 1894). The special literature on individual events during the
Gregorian pontificate is so extensive that no list can be given here.
On Gregory's elevation to the chair, cf. C. Mirbt, _Die Wahl Gregors
VII._ (Marburg, 1892). See also A. H. Mathew, D.D., _Life and Times of
Hildebrand, Pope Gregory VII._ (1910). (C. M.)

GREGORY VIII. (_Mauritius Burdinus_), antipope from 1118 to 1121, was a native of southern France, who had crossed the Pyrenees while young and had later been made archbishop of Braga. Suspended by Paschal II. in 1114 on account of a dispute with the Spanish primate and papal legate, the archbishop of Toledo, he went to Rome and regained favour to such an extent that he was employed by the pope on important legations. He opposed the extreme Hildebrandine policy, and, on the refusal of Gelasius II. to concede the emperor's claim to investiture, he was proclaimed pope at Rome by Henry V. on the 8th of March 1118. He was not universally recognized, however, and never fully enjoyed the papal office. He was excommunicated by Gelasius II. in April 1118, and by Calixtus II. at the synod of Reims (October 1119). He was driven from Rome by the latter in June 1121, and, having been surrendered by the citizens of Sutri, he was forced to accompany in ridiculous guise the triumphal procession of Calixtus through Rome. He was exiled to the convent of La Cava, where he died.

The life of Gregory VIII. by Baluzius in _Baluzii miscellanea_, vol.
i, ed. by J. D. Mansi (Lucca, 1761), is an excellent vindication of an
antipope. The chief sources are in _Monumenta Germaniae historica_,
_Scriptores_, vols. 5 and 20, and in J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman.
vitae_, vol. 2. See C. Mirbt, _Die Publizistik im Zeitalter Gregors
VII._ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Langen, _Geschichte der romischen Kirche von
Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._ (Bonn, 1893); Jaffe, _Regesta pontif.
Roman._, 2nd ed., (1885-1888); K. J. von Hefele,
_Conciliengeschichte_, Bd. 5, 2nd ed.; F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the
Middle Ages_, vol. 4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
1900-1902); P. B. Gams, _Kirchengeschichte von Spanien_, vol. 3
(Regensburg, 1876).

GREGORY VIII. (_Alberto de Mora_), pope from the 21st of October to the 17th of December 1187, a native of Benevento and Praemonstratensian monk, successively abbot of St Martin at Laon, cardinal-deacon of San' Adriano al foro, cardinal-priest of San Lorenzo in Lucina, and chancellor of the Roman Church, was elected to succeed Urban III. Of amiable disposition, he hastened to make peace with Henry VI. and promised not to oppose the latter's claim to Sicily. He addressed general letters both to the bishops, reminding them of their duties to the Roman Church, especially of their required visits _ad limina_, and to the whole Christian people, urging a new crusade to recover Jerusalem. He died at Pisa while engaged in making peace between the Pisans and Genoese in order to secure the help of both cities in the crusade. His successor was Clement III.

His letters are in J. P. Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ vol. 202. Consult also
J. M. Watterich, _Pontif. Roman. vitae_, vol. 2 (Leipzig, 1862), and
Jaffe-Wattenbach, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (1885-1888). See J. Langen,
_Geschichte der romischen Kirche von Gregor VII. bis Innocenz III._
(Bonn, 1893); P. Nadig, _Gregors VIII. 57 tagiges Pontifikat_ (Basel,
1890); P. Scheffer-Boichorst, _Friedrichs I. letzter Streit mit der
Kurie_ (Berlin, 1866); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol.
4, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1896).

GREGORY IX. (_Ugolino Conti de Segni_), pope from the 19th of March 1227, to the 22nd of August 1241, was a nobleman of Anagni and probably a nephew of Innocent III. He studied at Paris and Bologna, and, having been successively archpriest of St Peter's, papal chaplain, cardinal-deacon of Sant' Eustachio, cardinal-bishop of Ostia, the first protector of the Franciscan order, and papal legate in Germany under Innocent III., and Honorius III., he succeeded the latter in the papacy. He had long been on friendly terms with the emperor Frederick II., but now excommunicated him (29th of September 1227) for continued neglect of his vows and refusal to undertake the crusade. When Frederick finally set out the following June without making submission to the pope, Gregory raised an insurrection against him in Germany, and forced him in 1230 to beg for absolution. The Romans, however, soon began a very bitter war against the temporal power and exiled the pope (1st of June 1231). Hardly had this contest been brought to an end favourable to the papacy (May 1235) when Gregory came into fresh conflict with Frederick II. He again excommunicated the emperor and released his subjects from their allegiance (24th of March 1239). Frederick, on his side, invaded the Papal States and prevented the assembling of a general council convoked for Easter 1241. The work of Gregory, however, was by no means limited to his relations with emperor and Romans. He systematized the Inquisition and entrusted it to the Dominicans; his rules against heretics remained in force until the time of Sixtus V. He supported Henry III. against the English barons, and protested against the Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX. of France. He sent monks to Constantinople to negotiate with the Greeks for church unity, but without result. He canonized Saints Elizabeth of Thuringia, Dominic, Anthony of Padua and Francis of Assisi. He permitted free study of the Aristotelian writings, and issued (1234), through his chaplain, Raymond of Pennaforte, an important new compilation of decretals which he prescribed in the bull _Rex pacificus_ should be the standard text-book in canon law at the universities of Bologna and Paris. Gregory was famed for his learning and eloquence, his blameless life, and his great strength of character. He died on the 22nd of August 1241, while Frederick II. was advancing against him, and was succeeded by Celestine IV.

For the life of Gregory IX., consult his Letters in _Monumenta
Germaniae historica, Epistolae saeculi XIII. e regestis pontif. Roman.
selectae_ (Berlin, 1883); "Les Registres de Gregoire IX," ed. L.
Auvray in _Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_
(Paris, 1890-1905); A. Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ (Berlin,
1875) and "Registri dei Cardinali Ugolino d' Ostia et Ottaviano degli
Ubaldini," ed. G. Levi in _Fonti per la storia d' Italia_ (1890). See
J. Felten, _Papst Gregor IX._ (Freiburg i. B., 1886); J. Marx, _Die
Vita Gregorii IX. quellenkritisch untersucht_ (1889); P. Balan,
_Storia di Gregorio IX e dei suoi tempi_ (3 vols., Modena, 1872-1873);
F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W.
Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); H. H. Milman, _Latin Christianity_, vol.
5 (London, 1899); R. Honig, _Rapporti tra Federico II e Gregorio IX
rispetto alla spedizione in Palestina_ (1896); P. T. Masetti, _I
Pontefici Onorio III, Gregorio IX ed Innocenzo IV a fronte dell'
Imperatore Federico II nel secolo XIII_ (1884); T. Frantz, _Der grosse
Kampf zwischen Kaisertum u. Papsttum zur Zeit des Hohenstaufen
Friedrich II._ (Berlin, 1903); W. Norden, _Das Papsttum u. Byzanz_
(Berlin, 1903). An exhaustive bibliography and an excellent article on
Gregory by Carl Mirbt are to be found in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_,
3rd edition.

GREGORY X. (_Tebaldo Visconti_), pope from the 1st of September 1271, to the 10th of January 1276, was born at Piacenza in 1208, studied for the church, and became archdeacon of Liege. The eighteen cardinals who met to elect a successor to Clement IV. were divided into French and Italian factions, which wrangled over the election for nearly three years in the midst of great popular excitement, until finally, stirred by the eloquence of St Bonaventura, the Franciscan monk, they entrusted the choice to six electors, who hit on Visconti, at that time accompanying Edward of England on the crusade. He returned to Rome and was ordained priest on the 19th of March 1272, and consecrated on the 27th. He at once summoned the fourteenth general council of the Catholic Church, which met at Lyons in 1274, with an attendance of some 1600 prelates, for the purpose of considering the eastern schism, the condition of the Holy Land, and the abuses in the church. The Greeks were persuaded, thanks to St Bonaventura, to consent to a union with Rome for the time being, and Rudolph of Habsburg renounced at the council all imperial rights in the States of the Church. The most celebrated among the many reform decrees issued by Gregory was the constitution determining for the first time the form of conclave at papal elections, which in large measure has remained ever since the law of the church. Gregory was on his way to Rome to crown Rudolph and send him out on a great crusade in company with the kings of England, France, Aragon and Sicily, when he died at Arezzo on the 10th of January 1276. He was a nobleman, fond of peace and actuated by the consciousness of a great mission. He has been honoured as a saint by the inhabitants of Arezzo and Piacenza. His successor in the papacy was Innocent V.

The registers of Gregory X. have been published by J. Guiraud in the
_Bibliotheque des ecoles francaises d'Athenes et de Rome_ (Paris,
1892-1898). See K. J. von Hefele, _Conciliengeschichte_, vol. 5, 2nd
edition (1873-1890); H. Finke, _Konzilienstudien z. Gesch. des 13ten
Jahrhunderts_ (Munster, 1891); P. Piacenza, _Compendia della storia
del b. Gregorio X, papa_ (Piacenza, 1876); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in
the Middle Ages_, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London,
1900-1902); H. Otto, _Die Beziehungen Rudolfs von Habsburgs zu Papst
Gregor X._ (Innsbruck, 1895); A. Zisterer, _Gregor X. u. Rudolf von
Habsburg in ihren gegenseitigen Beziehungen_ (Freiburg i. B., 1891);
F. Walter, _Die Politik der Kurie unter Gregor X._ (Berlin, 1894); A.
Potthast, _Regesta pontif. Roman._ vol. 2 (Berlin, 1875); W. Norden,
_Das Papsttum und Byzanz_ (Berlin, 1903); J. Loserth, "Akten uber die
Wahl Gregors X." in _Neues Archiv_, xxi. (1895); A. von
Hirsch-Gereuth, "Die Kreuzzugspolitik Gregors X." in _Studien z.
Gesch. d. Kreuzzugsidee nach den Kreuzzugen_ (Munich, 1896). There is
an excellent article by Carl Mirbt in Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_, 3rd
edition.

GREGORY XI. (_Pierre Roger de Beaufort_), pope from the 30th of December 1370 to the 27th of March 1378, born in Limousin in 1330, created cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria Nuova by his uncle, Clement VI., was the successor of Urban V. His efforts to establish peace between France and England and to aid the Eastern Christians against the Turks were fruitless, but he prevented the Visconti of Milan from making further encroachments on the States of the Church. He introduced many reforms in the various monastic orders and took vigorous measures against the heresies of the time. His energy was stimulated by the stirring words of Catherine of Siena, to whom in particular the transference of the papal see back to Italy (17th of January 1377) was almost entirely due. Whilst at Rome he issued several bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury, the king of England, and the university of Oxford, commanding an investigation of Wycliffe's doctrines. Gregory was meditating a return to Avignon when he died. He was the last of the French popes who for some seventy years had made Avignon their see, a man learned and full of zeal for the church, but irresolute and guilty of nepotism. The great schism, which was to endure fifty years, broke out soon after the election of his successor, Urban VI.

See H. J. Tomaseth, "Die Register u. Secretare Urbans V. u. Gregors
XI." in _Mitteilungen des Instituts fur osterreichische
Geschichtsforschung_ (1898); Baluzius, _Vitae pap. Avenion._ vol. I
(Paris, 1693); L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. I, trans. by F.
I. Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,
vol. 6, trans. by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J. P.
Kirsch, _Die Ruckkehr der Papste Urban V. u. Gregor XI. von Avignon
nach Rom_ (Paderborn, 1898); J. B. Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute
pendant le XIV^e siecle_, vol. 2 (Paris, 1853). There is a good
article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_, 2nd edition.

GREGORY XII. (_Angelo Coriaro_, or _Correr_), pope from the 30th of November 1406, to the 4th of July 1415, was born of a noble family at Venice about 1326. Successively bishop of Castello, Latin patriarch of Constantinople, cardinal-priest of San Marco, and papal secretary, he was elected to succeed Innocent VII., after an interregnum of twenty-four days, under the express condition that, should the antipope Benedict XIII. at Avignon renounce all claim to the papacy, he also would renounce his, so that the long schism might be terminated. As pope, he concluded a treaty with his rival at Marseilles, by which a general council was to be held at Savona in September, 1408, but King Ladislaus of Naples, who opposed the plan from policy, seized Rome and brought the negotiations to nought. Gregory had promised not to create any more cardinals, and when he did so, in 1408, his former cardinals deserted him and, together with the Avignon cardinals, convoked the council of Pisa, which, despite its irregularity, proclaimed in June 1409 the deposition of both popes and the election of Alexander V. Gregory, still supported by Naples, Hungary, Bavaria, and by Rupert, king of the Romans, found protection with Ladislaus, and in a synod at Cividale del Friuli banned Benedict and Alexander as schismatical, perjured and scandalous. John XXIII., having succeeded to the claims of Alexander in 1410, concluded a treaty with Ladislaus, by which Gregory was banished from Naples on the 31st of October 1411. The pope then took refuge with Carlo Malatesta, lord of Rimini, through whom he presented his resignation to the council of Constance on the 4th of July 1415. A weak and easily-influenced old man, his resignation was the noblest act of his pontificate. The rest of his life was spent in peaceful obscurity as cardinal-bishop of Porto and legate of the mark of Ancona. He died at Recanati on the 18th of October 1417. Some writers reckon Alexander V. and John XXIII. as popes rather than as antipopes, and accordingly count Gregory's pontificate from 1406 to 1409. Roman Catholic authorities, however, incline to the other reckoning.

See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans. by F. I.
Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. 1
(London, 1899); N. Valois, _La France et le grand schisme d'occident_
(Paris, 1896-1902); Louis Gayet, _Le Grand Schisme d'occident_ (Paris,
1898); J. von Haller, _Papsttum u. Kirchenreform_ (Berlin, 1903); J.
Loserth, _Geschichte des spateren Mittelalters_ (1903); _Theoderici de
Nyem de schismate libri tres_, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890). There
is an excellent article by J. N. Brischar in the _Kirchenlexikon_ 2nd
ed., vol. 5. (C. H. Ha.)

GREGORY XIII. (_Ugo Buoncompagno_), pope from 1572 to 1585, was born on the 7th of January 1502, in Bologna, where he received his education, and subsequently taught, until called to Rome (1539) by Paul III., who employed him in various offices. He bore a prominent part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. In 1564 he was made cardinal by Pius IV., and, in the following year, sent to Spain as legate. On the 13th of May 1572 he was chosen pope to succeed Pius V. His previous life had been rather worldly, and not wholly free from spot; but as pope he gave no occasion of offence. He submitted to the influence of the rigorists, and carried forward the war upon heresy, though not with the savage vehemence of his predecessor. However, he received the news of the massacre of St Bartholomew (23rd of August 1572) with joy, and publicly celebrated the event, having been led to believe, according to his apologists, that France had been miraculously delivered, and that the Huguenots had suffered justly as traitors. Having failed to rouse Spain and Venice against the Turks, Gregory attempted to form a general coalition against the Protestants. He subsidized Philip II. in his wars in the Netherlands; aided the Catholic League in France; incited attacks upon Elizabeth by way of Ireland. With the aid of the Jesuits, whose privileges he multiplied, he conducted a vigorous propaganda. He established or endowed above a score of colleges, among them the Collegium Romanum (founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1550), and the Collegium Germanicum, in Rome. Among his noteworthy achievements are the reform of the calendar on the 24th of February 1582 (see CALENDAR); the improved edition of the _Corpus juris canonici_, 1582; the splendid Gregorian Chapel in St Peter's; the fountains of the Piazza Navona; the Quirinal Palace; and many other public works. To meet the expenses entailed by his liberality and extravagance, Gregory resorted to confiscation, on the pretext of defective titles or long-standing arrearages. The result was disastrous to the public peace: nobles armed in their defence; old feuds revived; the country became infested with bandits; not even in Rome could order be maintained. Amid these disturbances Gregory died, on the 10th of April 1585, leaving to his successor, Sixtus V., the task of pacifying the state.

See the contemporary lives by Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De
vitis pontiff. Rom._; Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); and Ciappi, _Comp. dell' attioni e
santa vita di Gregorio XIII_ (Rome, 1591). See also Bompiano, _Hist.
pontificatus Gregorii XIII._ (Rome, 1655); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng.
trans., Austin), i. 428 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom._ iii.
2, 566 seq.; and for numerous references upon Gregory's relation to
the massacre of St Bartholomew, _Cambridge Mod. Hist._ iii. 771 seq.

GREGORY XIV. (_Nicolo Sfondrato_), pope 1590-1591, was born in Cremona, on the 11th of February 1535, studied in Perugia, and Padua, became bishop of his native place in 1560, and took part in the council of Trent, 1562-1563. Gregory XIII. made him a cardinal, 1583, but ill-health forbade his active participation in affairs. His election to the papacy, to succeed Urban VII., on the 5th of December 1590, was due to Spanish influence. Gregory was upright and devout, but utterly ignorant of politics. During his short pontificate the States of the Church suffered dire calamities, famine, epidemic and a fresh outbreak of brigandage. Gregory was completely subservient to Philip II.; he aided the league, excommunicated Henry of Navarre, and threatened his adherents with the ban; but the effect of his intervention was only to rally the moderate Catholics to the support of Henry, and to hasten his conversion. Gregory died on the 15th of October 1591, and was succeeded by Innocent IX.

See Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._ (Rome,
1601-1602); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, _De vitis pontiff.
Rom._ (both contemporary); Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ (1880).
i. 300; Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 228 seq.

GREGORY XV. (_Alessandro Ludovisi_) was born on the 9th of January 1554, in Bologna, where he also studied and taught. He was made archbishop of his native place and cardinal by Paul V., whom he succeeded as pope on the 9th of February 1621. Despite his age and feebleness, Gregory displayed remarkable energy. He aided the emperor in the Thirty Years' War, and the king of Poland against the Turks. He endorsed the claims of Maximilian of Bavaria to the electoral dignity, and was rewarded with the gift of the Heidelberg library, which was carried off to Rome. Gregory founded the Congregation of the Propaganda, encouraged missions, fixed the order to be observed in conclaves, and canonized Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip Neri and Theresa de Jesus. He died on the 8th of July 1623, and was succeeded by Urban VIII.

See the contemporary life by Vitorelli, continuator of Ciaconius,
_Vitae et res gestae summorum pontiff. Rom._; Ranke's excellent
account, _Popes_ (Eng. trans., Austin), ii. 468 seq.; v. Reumont,
_Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 609 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des
Kirchenstaates_ (1880), i. 370 seq.; and the extended bibliography in
Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, s.v. "Gregor XV." (T. F. C.)

GREGORY XVI. (_Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari_), pope from 1831 to 1846, was born at Belluno on the 18th of September 1765, and at an early age entered the order of the Camaldoli, among whom he rapidly gained distinction for his theological and linguistic acquirements. His first appearance before a wider public was in 1799, when he published against the Italian Jansenists a controversial work entitled _Il Trionfo della Santa Sede_, which, besides passing through several editions in Italy, has been translated into several European languages. In 1800 he became a member of the Academy of the Catholic Religion, founded by Pius VII., to which he contributed a number of memoirs on theological and philosophical questions and in 1805 was made abbot of San Gregorio on the Caelian Hill. When Pius VII. was carried off from Rome in 1809, Cappellari withdrew to Murano, near Venice, and in 1814, with some other members of his order, he removed to Padua; but soon after the restoration of the pope he was recalled to Rome, where he received successive appointments as vicar-general of the Camaldoli, councillor of the Inquisition, prefect of the Propaganda, and examiner of bishops. In March 1825 he was created cardinal by Leo XII., and shortly afterwards was entrusted with an important mission to adjust a concordat regarding the interests of the Catholics of Belgium and the Protestants of Holland. On the 2nd of February 1831 he was, after sixty-four days' conclave, unexpectedly chosen to succeed Pius VIII. in the papal chair. The revolution of 1830 had just inflicted a severe blow on the ecclesiastical party in France, and almost the first act of the new government there was to seize Ancona, thus throwing all Italy, and particularly the Papal States, into an excited condition which seemed to demand strongly repressive measures. In the course of the struggle which ensued it was more than once necessary to call in the Austrian bayonets. The reactionaries in power put off their promised reforms so persistently as to anger even Metternich; nor did the replacement of Bernetti by Lambruschini in 1836 mend matters; for the new cardinal secretary of state objected even to railways and illuminating gas, and was liberal chiefly in his employment of spies and of prisons. The embarrassed financial condition in which Gregory left the States of the Church makes it doubtful how far his lavish expenditure in architectural and engineering works, and his magnificent patronage of learning in the hands of Mai, Mezzofanti, Gaetano, Moroni and others, were for the real benefit of his subjects. The years of his pontificate were marked by the steady development and diffusion of those ultramontane ideas which were ultimately formulated, under the presidency of his successor Pius IX., by the council of the Vatican. He died on the 1st of June 1846.

See A. M. Bernasconi, _Acta Gregorii Papae XVI. scilicet
constitutiones, bullae, litterae apostolicae, epistolae_, vols. i-4
(Rome, 1901 ff.); Cardinal Wiseman, _Recollections of the Last Four
Popes_ (London, 1858); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_, vol. vii.
(Leipzig, 1899), 127 ff. (gives literature); Frederik Nielsen,
_History of the Papacy in the 19th Century_, ii. (London, 1906).
(W. W. R.*)

GREGORY,[1] the name of a Scottish family, many members of which attained high eminence in various departments of science, fourteen having held professorships in mathematics or medicine. Of the most distinguished of their number a notice is given below.