Chapter III: Modern Greek Literature (1453-1908) (5)

[16] A. W. Greely, _Report on the Proceedings of the United States
Expedition to Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell Land_, vols. i. and ii.
(Washington, 1885); _Three Years of Arctic Service_ (2 vols. London,
1886).

[17] R. E. Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice"_ (2 vols. New York,
1898); E. Astrup, _Blandt Nordpolen's Naboer_ (Christiania, 1895).

[18] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part i. (Copenhagen, 1879).

[19] _Ibid._ part xvi. (Copenhagen, 1896).

[20] See C. Kruuse in _Geografisk Tidskrift_, xv. 64 (Copenhagen,
1899). See also F. Nansen, "Die Ostkuste Gronlands," Erganzungsheft
No. 105 zu _Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (Gotha, 1892), p. 55 and pl.
iv., sketch No. 11.

[21] E. v. Drygalski, _Gronland-Expedition der Gesellschaft fur
Erdkunde zu Berlin, 1891-1893_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1897).

[22] _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part viii. pp. 203-270 (Copenhagen,
1889).

[23] _Ibid._ part iv. p. 230 (Copenhagen, 1883); see also part xiv.
pp. 317 et seq., 323.

[24] _Ibid._ part xiv. p. 323 (Copenhagen, 1898).

[25] _Ibid._ part ii. pp. 181-188 (Copenhagen, 1881).

[26] _Ibid._ part i. pp. 99-101 (Copenhagen, 1879).

[27] _Ibid._ part ii. p. 39 (Copenhagen, 1881); part xvi. pp. 150-154
(1896).

[28] _Ibid._, part xix. p. 175 (1896).

[29] _Ibid._ part i. p. 34; part ii. p. 40; part xiv. pp. 343-347;
part iv. p. 237; part viii. p. 26.

[30] See A. G. Nathorst, "Bidrag till nordostra Gronlands geologi,"
with map _Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar_, No. 257,
Bd. 23, Heft 4, 1901; O. Heer, _Flora fossilis Arctica_ (7 vols.,
1868-1883), and especially _Meddelelser om Gronland_ for numerous
papers on the geology and palaeontology.

[31] _Medd. om Gronl._, part iv. pp. 115-131 (Copenhagen, 1883).

[32] See Peary, _Northward over the "Great Ice,"_ ii. 604 et seq.
(New York, 1898).

[33] See _loc. cit._ pp. 127-128.

[34] H. Mohn, "The Climate of the Interior of Greenland," _The Scott.
Geogr. Magazine_, vol. ix. (Edinburgh, 1893), pp. 142-145, 199; H.
Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse," &c.
Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p. 51.

[35] On the climate of the east coast of Greenland see V.
Willaume-Jantzen, _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part ix. (1889), pp.
285-310, part xvii. (1895), pp. 171-180.

[36] See A. Paulsen, _Meteorolog. Zeitschrift_ (1889), p. 241; F.
Nansen, _The First Crossing of Greenland_ (London, 1890), vol. ii.
pp. 496-497; H. Mohn and F. Nansen, "Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse,"
&c. Erganzungsheft No. 105 _zu Petermanns Mitteilungen_ (1892), p.
51.

[37] H. Winge, "Gronlands Fugle," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part
xxi. pp. 62-63 (Copenhagen, 1899).

[38] See J. Lange, "Conspectus florae Groenlandicae," _Meddelelser om
Gronland_, part iii. (Copenhagen, 1880 and 1887); E. Warming, "Om
Gronlands Vegetation," _Meddelelser om Gronland_, part xii.
(Copenhagen, 1888); and in _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. x.
(1888-1889). See also A. Blytt, _Englers Jahrbucher_, ii. (1882), pp.
1-50; A. G. Nathorst, _Otversigt af K. Vetenskap. Akad. Forhandl._
(Stockholm, 1884); "Kritische Bemerkungen uber die Geschichte der
Vegetation Gronlands," _Botanische Jahrbucher_, vol. xiv. (1891).

[39] Owing to representations of the Swedish government in 1874 as to
the killing of seals at breeding time on the east coast of Greenland,
and the consequent loss of young seals left to die of starvation, the
Seal Fisheries Act 1875 was passed in England to provide for the
establishment of a close time for seal fishery in the seas in
question. This act empowered the crown, by order in council, to put
its provisions in force, when any foreign state, whose ships or
subjects were engaged in the seal fishery in the area mentioned in
the schedule thereto, had made, or was about to make, similar
provisions with respect to its ships and subjects. An order in
council under the act, declaring the season to begin on the 3rd of
April in each year, was issued February 8, 1876. Rescinded February
15, 1876, it was re-enacted on November 28, 1876, and is still
operative.

[40] Cf. F. Nansen, _Eskimo Life_ (London, 1893).

GREENLAW (a "grassy hill"), a town of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 611. It is situated on the Blackadder, 62-1/4 m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway company's branch line from Reston Junction to St Boswells. The town was built towards the end of the 17th century, to take the place of an older one, which stood about a mile to the S.E. It was the county town from 1696 to 1853, when for several years it shared this dignity with Duns, which, however, is now the sole capital. The chief manufactures are woollens and agricultural implements. About 3 m. to the S. the ruin of Hume Castle, founded in the 13th century, occupies a commanding site. Captured by the English in 1547, in spite of Lady Home's gallant defence, it was retaken two years afterwards, only to fall again in 1569. After its surrender to Cromwell in 1650 it gradually decayed. Towards the close of the 18th century the 3rd earl of Marchmont had the walls rebuilt out of the old stones, and the castle, though a mere shell of the original structure, is now a picturesque ruin.

GREENLEAF, SIMON (1783-1853), American jurist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, on the 5th of December 1783. When a child he was taken by his father to Maine, where he studied law, and in 1806 began to practise at Standish. He soon removed to Gray, where he practised for twelve years, and in 1818 removed to Portland. He was reporter of the supreme court of Maine from 1820 to 1832, and published nine volumes of _Reports of Cases in the Supreme Court of Maine_ (1822-1835). In 1833 he became Royall professor, and in 1846 succeeded Judge Joseph Story as Dane professor of law in Harvard University; in 1848 he retired from his active duties, and became professor emeritus. After being for many years president of the Massachusetts Bible Society, he died at Cambridge, Mass., on the 6th of October 1853. Greenleaf's principal work is a _Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (3 vols., 1842-1853). He also published _A Full Collection of Cases Overruled, Denied, Doubted, or Limited in their Application, taken from American and English Reports_ (1821), and _Examination of the Testimony of the Four Evangelists by the Rules of Evidence administered in the Courts of Justice, with an account of the Trial of Jesus_ (1846; London, 1847). He revised for the American courts William Cruise's _Digest of Laws respecting Real Property_ (3 vols., 1849-1850).

GREEN MONKEY, a west African representative of the typical group of the guenon monkeys technically known as _Cercopithecus callitrichus_, taking its name from the olive-greenish hue of the fur of the back, which forms a marked contrast to the white whiskers and belly.

GREENOCK, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on the southern shore of the Firth of Clyde, 23 m. W. by N. of Glasgow by the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways, 21 m. by the river and firth. Pop. (1901) 68,142. The town has a water frontage of nearly 4 m. and rises gradually to the hills behind the town in which are situated, about 3 m. distant, Loch Thom and Loch Gryfe, from both of which is derived the water supply for domestic use, and for driving several mills and factories. The streets are laid out on the comparatively level tract behind the firth, the older thoroughfares and buildings lying in the centre. The west end contains numerous handsome villas and a fine esplanade, 1-1/2 m. long, running from Prince's Pier to Fort Matilda, which is supplied with submarine mines for the defence of the river. The capacious bay, formerly known as the Bay of St Lawrence from a religious house long since demolished, is protected by a sandbank that ends here, and is hence known as the Tail of the Bank. The fairway between this bank, which begins to the west of Dumbarton, and the southern shore constitutes the safest anchorage in the upper firth. There is a continuous line of electric tramways, connecting with Port Glasgow on the east and Gourock on the west, a total distance of 7-1/2 m. The annual rainfall amounts to 64 in. and Greenock thus has the reputation of being the wettest town in Scotland.

Many of the public buildings are fine structures. The municipal buildings, an ornate example of Italian Renaissance, with a tower 244 ft. high, were opened in 1887. The custom house on the old steamboat quay, in classic style with a Doric portico, dates from 1818. The county buildings (1867) have a tower and spire 112 ft. high. The Watt Institution, founded in 1837 by a son of the famous engineer, James Watt, contains the public library (established in 1783), the Watt scientific library (presented in 1816 by Watt himself), and the marble statue of James Watt by Sir Francis Chantrey. Adjoining it are the museum and lecture hall, the gift of James McLean, opened in 1876. Other buildings are the sheriff court house, and the Spence Library, founded by the widow of William Spence the mathematician. In addition to numerous board schools there are the Greenock academy for secondary education, the technical college (1900), the school of art, and a school of navigation and engineering. The charitable institutions include the infirmary; the cholera hospital; the eye infirmary; the fever reception house; Sir Gabriel Wood's mariners' asylum, an Elizabethan building erected in 1851 for the accommodation of aged merchant seamen; and the Smithson poorhouse and lunatic asylum, built beyond the southern boundary in 1879. Near Albert Harbour stands the old west now the north parish church (a Gothic edifice dating from 1591) containing some stained-glass windows by William Morris; in its kirkyard Burns's "Highland Mary" was buried (1786). The west parish church in Nicholson Street (1839) is in the Italian Renaissance style and has a campanile. The middle parish church (1759) in Cathcart Square is in the Classic style with a fine spire. Besides burial grounds near the infirmary and attached to a few of the older churches, a beautiful cemetery, 90 acres in extent, has been laid out in the south-western district. The parks and open spaces include Wellington Park, Well Park in the heart of the town (these were the gift of Sir Michael Shaw-Stewart), Whin Hill, Lyle Road--a broad drive winding over the heights towards Gourock, constructed as a "relief work" in the severe winter of 1879-1880.

Greenock is under the jurisdiction of a town council with provost and bailies. It is a parliamentary burgh, represented by one member. The corporation owns the supplies of water (the equipment of works and reservoirs is remarkably complete), gas, electric light and power, and the tramways (leased to a company). The staple industries are shipbuilding (established in 1760) and sugar refining (1765). Greenock-built vessels have always been esteemed, and many Cunard, P. & O. and Allan liners have been constructed in the yards. The town has been one of the chief centres of the sugar industry. Other important industries include the making of boilers, steam-engines, locomotives, anchors, chain-cables, sailcloth, ropes, paper, woollen and worsted goods, besides general engineering, an aluminium factory, a flax-spinning mill, distilleries and an oil-refinery. The seal and whale fisheries, once vigorously prosecuted, are extinct, but the fishing-fleets for the home waters and the Newfoundland grounds are considerable. Till 1772 the town leased the first harbour (finished in 1710) from Sir John Shaw, the superior, but acquired it in that and the following year, and a graving dock was opened in 1786. Since then additions and improvements have been periodically in progress, and there are now several tidal harbours--among them Victoria harbour, Albert harbour, the west harbour, the east harbour, the northern tidal harbour, the western tidal harbour, the great harbour and James Watt dock (completed in 1886 at a cost of L650,000 with an area of 2000 ft. by 400 ft. with a depth at low water of 32 ft.), Garvel graving dock and other dry docks. The quayage exceeds 100 acres in area and the quay walls are over 3 m. in length. Both the Caledonian and the Glasgow & South-Western railways (in Prince's Pier the latter company possesses a landing-stage nearly 1400 ft. long) have access to the quays. From first to last the outlay on the harbour has exceeded L1,500,000.

In the earlier part of the 17th century Greenock was a fishing village, consisting of one row of thatched cottages. A century later there were only six slated houses in the place. In 1635 it was erected by Charles I. into a burgh of barony under a charter granted to John Shaw, the government being administered by a baron-bailie, or magistrate, appointed by the superior. Its commercial prosperity received an enormous impetus from the Treaty of Union (1707), under which trade with America and the West Indies rapidly developed. The American War of Independence suspended progress for a brief interval, but revival set in in 1783, and within the following seven years shipping trebled in amount. Meanwhile Sir John Shaw--to whom and to whose descendants, the Shaw-Stewarts, the town has always been indebted--by charter (dated 1741 and 1751) had empowered the householders to elect a council of nine members, which proved to be the most liberal constitution of any Scots burgh prior to the Reform Act of 1832, when Greenock was raised to the status of a parliamentary burgh with the right to return one member to parliament. Greenock was the birthplace of James Watt, William Spence (1777-1815) and Dr John Caird (1820-1898), principal of Glasgow University, who died in the town and was buried in Greenock cemetery. John Galt, the novelist, was educated in Greenock, where he also served some time in the custom house as a clerk. Rob Roy is said to have raided the town in 1715.

GREENOCKITE, a rare mineral composed of cadmium sulphide, CdS, occurring as small, brilliant, honey-yellow crystals or as a canary-yellow powder. Crystals are hexagonal with hemimorphic development, being differently terminated at the two ends. The faces of the hexagonal prism and of the numerous hexagonal pyramids are deeply striated horizontally. The crystals are translucent to transparent, and have an adamantine to resinous lustre; hardness 3-3-1/2; specific gravity 4.9. Crystals have been found only in Scotland, at one or two places in the neighbourhood of Glasgow, where they occur singly on prehnite in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic igneous rocks--a rather unusual mode of occurrence for a metallic sulphide. The first, and largest crystal (about 1/2 in. across) was found, about the year 1810, in the dolerite quarry at Bowling in Dumbartonshire, but this was thought to be blende. A larger number of crystals, but of smaller size, were found in 1840 during the cutting of the Bishopton tunnel on the Glasgow & Greenock railway; they were detected by Lord Greenock, afterwards the 2nd earl of Cathcart, after whom the mineral was named. A third locality is the Boyleston quarry near Barrhead. At all other localities--Przibram in Bohemia, Laurion in Greece, Joplin in Missouri, &c.--the mineral is represented only as a powder dusted over the surface of zinc minerals, especially blende and calamine, which contain a small amount of cadmium replacing zinc.

Isomorphous with greenockite is the hexagonal zinc sulphide (ZnS) known as wurtzite. Both minerals have been prepared artificially, and are not uncommon as furnace products. Previous to the recent discovery in Sardinia of cadmium oxide as small octahedral crystals, greenockite was the only known mineral containing cadmium as an essential constituent. (L. J. S.)

GREENORE, a seaport and watering-place of county Louth, Ireland, beautifully situated at the north of Carlingford Lough on its western shore. It was brought to importance by the action of the London & North-Western railway company of England, which owns the pier and railways joining the Great Northern system at Dundalk (12-1/2 m.) and Newry (14 m.). A regular service of passenger steamers controlled by the company runs to Holyhead, Wales, 80 m. S.E. A steam ferry crosses the Lough to Greencastle, for Kilkeel, and the southern watering-places of county Down. The company also owns the hotel, and laid out the golf links. In the vicinity a good example of raised beach, some 10 ft. above present sea-level, is to be seen.

GREENOUGH, GEORGE BELLAS (1778-1855), English geologist, was born in London on the 18th of January 1778. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards (1795) entered Pembroke College, Oxford, but never graduated. In 1798 he proceeded to Gottingen to prosecute legal studies, but having attended the lectures of Blumenbach he was attracted to the study of natural history, and, coming into the possession of a fortune, he abandoned law and devoted his attention to science. He studied mineralogy at Freiburg under Werner, travelled in various parts of Europe and the British Isles, and worked at chemistry at the Royal Institution. A visit to Ireland aroused deep interest in political questions, and he was in 1807 elected member of parliament for the borough of Gatton, continuing to hold his seat until 1812. Meanwhile his interest in geology increased, he was elected F.R.S. in 1807, and he was the chief founder with others of the Geological Society of London in 1807. He was the first chairman of that Society, and in 1811, when it was more regularly constituted, he was the first president: and in this capacity he served on two subsequent occasions, and did much to promote the advancement of geology. In 1819 he published _A Critical Examination of the First Principles of Geology_, a work which was useful mainly in refuting erroneous theories. In the same year was published his famous _Geological Map of England and Wales_, in six sheets; of which a second edition was issued in 1839. This map was to a large extent based on the original map of William Smith; but much new information was embodied. In 1843 he commenced to prepare a geological map of India, which was published in 1854. He died at Naples on the 2nd of April 1855.

GREENOUGH, HORATIO (1805-1852), American sculptor, son of a merchant, was born at Boston, on the 6th of September 1805. At the age of sixteen he entered Harvard, but he devoted his principal attention to art, and in the autumn of 1825 he went to Rome, where he studied under Thorwaldsen. After a short visit in 1826 to Boston, where he executed busts of John Quincy Adams and other people of distinction, he returned to Italy and took up his residence at Florence. Here one of his first commissions was from James Fenimore Cooper for a group of Chanting Cherubs; and he was chosen by the American government to execute the colossal statue of Washington for the national capital. It was unveiled in 1843, and was really a fine piece of work for its day; but in modern times it has been sharply criticized as unworthy and incongruous. Shortly afterwards he received a second government commission for a colossal group, the "Rescue," intended to represent the conflict between the Anglo-Saxon and Indian races. In 1851 he returned to Washington to superintend its erection, and in the autumn of 1852 he was attacked by brain fever, of which he died in Somerville near Boston on the 18th of December. Among other works of Greenough may be mentioned a bust of Lafayette, the Medora and the Venus Victrix in the gallery of the Boston Athenaeum. Greenough was a man of wide culture, and wrote well both in prose and verse.

See H. T. Tuckerman, _Memoir of Horatio Greenough_ (New York, 1853).

GREENOUGH, JAMES BRADSTREET (1833-1901), American classical scholar, was born in Portland, Maine, on the 4th of May 1833. He graduated at Harvard in 1856, studied one year at the Harvard Law School, was admitted to the Michigan bar, and practised in Marshall, Michigan, until 1865, when he was appointed tutor in Latin at Harvard. In 1873 he became assistant professor, and in 1883 professor of Latin, a post which he resigned hardly six weeks before his death at Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the 11th of October 1901. Following the lead of Goodwin's _Moods and Tenses_ (1860), he set himself to study Latin historical syntax, and in 1870 published _Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive_, a brief treatise, privately printed, of much originality and value, and in many ways coinciding with Berthold Delbruck's _Gebrauch des Conjunctivs und Optativs in Sanskrit und Griechischen_ (1871), which, however, quite overshadowed the Analysis. In 1872 appeared _A Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges, founded on Comparative Grammar_, by Joseph A. Allen and James B. Greenough, a work of great critical carefulness. His theory of _cum_-constructions is that adopted and developed by William Gardner Hale. In 1872-1880 Greenough offered the first courses in Sanskrit and comparative philology given at Harvard. His fine abilities for advanced scholarship were used outside the classroom in editing the Allen and Greenough Latin Series of text-books, although he occasionally contributed to _Harvard Studies in Classical Philology_ (founded in 1889 and endowed at his instance by his own class) papers on Latin syntax, prosody and etymology--a subject on which he planned a long work--on Roman archaeology and on Greek religion at the time of the New Comedy. He assisted largely in the founding of Radcliffe College. An able English scholar and an excellent etymologist, he collaborated with Professor George L. Kittredge on _Words and their Ways in English Speech_ (1901), one of the best books on the subject in the language. He wrote clever light verse, including _The Blackbirds_, a comedietta, first published in _The Atlantic Monthly_ (vol. xxxix. 1877); _The Rose and the Ring_ (1880), a pantomime adapted from Thackeray; _The Queen of Hearts_ (1885), a dramatic fantasia; and _Old King Cole_ (1889), an operetta.

See the sketch by George L. Kittredge in _Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology_, vol. xiv. (1903). pp. 1-17 (also printed in _Harvard
Graduates' Magazine_, vol. x., Dec. 1901, pp. 196-201).

GREEN RIBBON CLUB, one of the earliest of the loosely combined associations which met from time to time in London taverns or coffee-houses for political purposes in the 17th century. It had its meeting-place at the King's Head tavern at Chancery Lane End, and was therefore known as the "King's Head Club." It seems to have been founded about the year 1675 as a resort for members of the political party hostile to the court, and as these associates were in the habit of wearing in their hats a bow, or "bob," of green ribbon, as a distinguishing badge useful for the purpose of mutual recognition in street brawls, the name of the club became changed, about 1679, to the Green Ribbon Club. The frequenters of the club were the extreme faction of the country party, the men who supported Titus Oates, and who were concerned in the Rye House Plot and Monmouth's rebellion. Roger North tells us that "they admitted all strangers that were confidingly introduced, for it was a main end of their institutions to make proselytes, especially of the raw estated youth newly come to town." According to Dryden (_Absalom and Achitophel_) drinking was the chief attraction, and the members talked and organized sedition over their cups. Thomas Dangerfield supplied the court with a list of forty-eight members of the Green Ribbon Club in 1679; and although Dangerfield's numerous perjuries make his unsupported evidence worthless, it receives confirmation as regards several names from a list given to James II. by Nathan Wade in 1885 (_Harleian MSS._ 6845), while a number of more eminent personages are mentioned in _The Cabal_, a satire published in 1680, as also frequenting the club. From these sources it would appear that the duke of Monmouth himself, and statesmen like Halifax, Shaftesbury, Buckingham, Macclesfield, Cavendish, Bedford, Grey of Warke, Herbert of Cherbury, were among those who fraternized at the King's Head Tavern with third-rate writers such as Scroop, Mulgrave and Shadwell, with remnants of the Cromwellian regime like Falconbridge, Henry Ireton and Claypole, with such profligates as Lord Howard of Escrik and Sir Henry Blount, and with scoundrels of the type of Dangerfield and Oates. An allusion to Dangerfield, notorious among his other crimes and treacheries for a seditious paper found in a meal-tub, is found in connexion with the club in _The Loyal Subjects' Litany_, one of the innumerable satires of the period, in which occur the lines:

"From the dark-lanthorn Plot, and the Green Ribbon Club
From brewing sedition in a sanctified Tub,
_Libera nos, Domine_."

The club was the headquarters of the Whig opposition to the court, and its members were active promoters of conspiracy and sedition. The president was either Lord Shaftesbury or Sir Robert Peyton, M.P. for Middlesex, who afterwards turned informer. The Green Ribbon Club served both as a debating society and an intelligence department for the Whig faction. Questions under discussion in parliament were here threshed out by the members over their tobacco and ale; the latest news from Westminster or the city was retailed in the tavern, "for some or others were continually coming and going," says Roger North, "to import or export news and stories." Slander of the court or the Tories was invented in the club and sedulously spread over the town, and measures were there concerted for pushing on the Exclusion Bill, or for promoting the pretensions of the duke of Monmouth. The popular credulity as to Catholic outrages in the days of the Popish Plot was stimulated by the scandalmongers of the club, whose members went about in silk armour, supposed to be bullet proof, "in which any man dressed up was as safe as a house," says North, "for it was impossible to strike him for laughing"; while in their pockets, "for street and crowd-work," they carried the weapon of offence invented by Stephen College and known as the "Protestant Flail."

The genius of Shaftesbury found in the Green Ribbon Club the means of constructing the first systematized political organization in England. North relates that "every post conveyed the news and tales legitimated there, as also the malign constructions of all the good actions of the government, especially to places where elections were depending, to shape men's characters into fit qualifications to be chosen or rejected." In the general election of January and February 1679 the Whig interest throughout the country was managed and controlled by a committee sitting at the club in Chancery Lane. The club's organizing activity was also notably effective in the agitation of the Petitioners in 1679. This celebrated movement was engineered from the Green Ribbon Club with all the skill and energy of a modern caucus. The petitions were prepared in London and sent down to every part of the country, where paid canvassers took them from house to house collecting signatures with an air of authority that made refusal difficult. The great "pope-burning" processions in 1680 and 1681, on the anniversary of Queen Elizabeth's accession, were also organized by the club. They ended by the lighting of a huge bon-fire in front of the club windows; and as they proved an effective means of inflaming the religious passions of the populace, it was at the Green Ribbon Club that the _mobile vulgus_ first received the nickname of "the mob." The activity of the club was, however, short-lived. The failure to carry the Exclusion Bill, one of the favourite projects of the faction, was a blow to its influence, which declined rapidly after the flight of Shaftesbury, the confiscation of the city of London's charter, and the discovery of the Rye House Plot, in which many of its members were implicated. In 1685 John Ayloffe, who was found to have been "a clubber at the King's Head Tavern and a green-ribon man," was executed in front of the premises on the spot where the "pope-burning" bon-fires had been kindled; and although the tavern was still in existence in the time of Queen Anne, the Green Ribbon Club which made it famous did not survive the accession of James II. The precise situation of the King's Head Tavern, described by North as "over against the Inner Temple Gate," was at the corner of Fleet Street and Chancery Lane, on the east side of the latter thoroughfare.

See Sir George Sitwell, _The First Whig_ (Scarborough, 1894),
containing an illustration of the Green Ribbon Club and a pope-burning
procession; Roger North, _Examen_ (London, 1740); Anchitell Grey,
_Debates of the House of Commons_, 1667-1684, vol. viii. (10 vols.,
London, 1769); Sir John Bramston, _Autobiography_ (Camden Soc.,
London, 1845). (R. J. M.)

GREENSAND, in geology, the name that has been applied to no fewer than three distinct members of the Cretaceous System, viz. the Upper Greensand (see GAULT), the Lower Greensand and the so-called Cambridge Greensand, a local phase of the base of the Chalk (q.v.). The term was introduced by the early English geologists for certain sandy rocks which frequently exhibited a greenish colour on account of the presence of minute grains of the green mineral glauconite. Until the fossils of these rocks came to be carefully studied there was much confusion between what is now known as the Upper Greensand (Selbornian) and the Lower Greensand. Here we shall confine our attention to the latter.

The Lower Greensand was first examined in detail by W. H. Fitton (_Q.J.G.S._ iii., 1847), who, in 1845, had proposed the name "Vectine" for the formation. The name was revived under the form "Vectian" in 1885 by A. J. Jukes-Browne, because, although sands and sandstones prevail, the green colour has often changed by oxidation of the iron to various shades of red and brown, and other lithological types, clays and limestones represent this horizon in certain areas. The Lower Greensand is typically developed in the Wealden district, in the Isle of Wight, in Dorsetshire about Swanage, and it appears again beneath the northern outcrop of the Chalk in Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Bedfordshire, and thence it is traceable through Norfolk and Lincolnshire into east Yorkshire. It rests conformably upon the Wealden formation in the south of England, but it is clearly separable from the beds beneath by the occurrence of marine fossils, and by the fact that there is a marked overlap of the Lower Greensand on the Weald in Wiltshire, and derived pebbles are found in the basal beds. The whole series is 800 ft. thick at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, but it thins rapidly westward. It is usually clearly marked off from the overlying Gault.

In the Wealden area the Lower Greensand has been subdivided as follows, although the several members are not everywhere recognizable:--

Isle of Wight.
Folkestone Beds (70-100 ft.) Carstone and Sand rock series.
Sandgate Beds (75-100 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Shanklin sands).
Hythe Beds (80-300 ft.) Ferruginous Sands (Walpen sands).
Atherfield Clay (20-90 ft.) Atherfield Clay.

The Atherfield Clay is usually a sandy clay, fossiliferous. The basal portion, 5-6 ft., is known as the "Perna bed" from the abundance of _Perna Mulleti_; other fossils are _Hoplites Deshayesii_, _Exogyra sinuata_, _Ancyloceras Mathesonianum_. The Hythe beds are interstratified thin limestones and sandstones; the former are bluish-grey in colour, compact and hard, with a certain amount of quartz and glauconite. The limestone is known locally as "rag"; the Kentish Rag has been largely employed as a building stone and roadstone; it frequently contains layers of chert (known as Sevenoaks stone near that town). The sandy portions are very variable; the stone is often clayey and calcareous and rarely hard enough to make a good building stone; locally it is called "hassock" (or Calkstone). The two stones are well exposed in the Iguanodon Quarry near Maidstone (so called from the discovery of the bones of that reptile). Southwest of Dorking sandstone and grit become more prevalent, and it is known there as "Bargate stone," much used around Godalming. Pulborough stone is another local sandstone of the Hythe beds. Fuller's earth occurs in parts of this formation in Surrey. The Sandgate beds, mainly dark, argillaceous sand and clay, are well developed in east Kent, and about Midhurst, Pulborough and Petworth. At Nutfield the celebrated fuller's earth deposits occur on this horizon; it is also found near Maidstone, at Bletchingley and Red Hill. The Folkestone beds are light-coloured, rather coarse sands, enclosing layers of siliceous limestone (Folkestone stone) and chert; a phosphatic bed is found near the top. These beds are well seen in the cliffs at Folkestone and near Reigate. At Ightham there is a fine, hard, white sandstone along with a green, quartzitic variety (Ightham stone). In Sussex the limestone and chert are usually lacking, but a ferruginous grit, "carstone," occurs in lenticular masses and layers, which is used for road metal at Pulborough, Fittleworth, &c.

The Lower Greensand usually forms picturesque, healthy country, as about Leith Hill, Hindhead, Midhurst, Petworth, at Woburn, or at Shanklin and Sandown in the Isle of Wight. Outside the southern area the Lower Greensand is represented by the Faringdon sponge-bearing beds in Berkshire, the Sandy and Potton beds in Bedfordshire, the Shotover iron sands of Oxfordshire, the sands and fuller's earth of Woburn, the Leighton Buzzard sands, the brick clays of Snettisham, and perhaps the Sandringham sands of Norfolk, and the carstone of that county and Lincolnshire. The upper ironstone, limestone and clay of the Lincolnshire Tealby beds appear to belong to this horizon along with the upper part of the Speeton beds of Yorkshire. The sands of the Lower Greensand are largely employed for the manufacture of glass, for which purpose they are dug at Aylesford, Godstone, near Reigate, Hartshill, near Aylesbury and other places; the ferruginous sand is worked as an iron ore at Seend.

This formation is continuous across the channel into France, where it is well developed in Boulonnais. According to the continental classification the Atherfield Clay is equivalent to the Urgonian or Barremian; the Sandgate and Hythe beds belong to the Aptian (q.v.); while the upper part of the Folkestone beds would fall within the lower Albian (q.v.).

See the _Memoirs of the Geological Survey_, "Geology of the Weald"
(1875), "Geology of the Isle of Wight" (2nd ed., 1889), "Geology of
the Isle of Purbeck" (1898); and the _Record of Excursions_,
Geologists' Association (London, 1891). (J. A. H.)

GREENSBORO, a city and the county-seat of Guilford county, North Carolina, U.S.A., about 80 m. N.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) 3317, (1900) 10,035, of whom 4086 were negroes; (1910 census), 15,895. Greensboro is served by several lines of the Southern railway. It is situated in the Piedmont region of the state and has an excellent climate. The city is the seat of the State Normal and Industrial College (1892) for girls; of the Greensboro Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South; chartered in 1838 and opened in 1846), of which the Rev. Charles F. Deems was president in 1850-1854, and which, owing to the burning of its buildings, was suspended from 1863 to 1874; and of two institutions for negroes--a State Agricultural and Mechanical College, and Bennett College (Methodist Episcopal, co-educational, 1873). Another school for negroes, Immanuel Lutheran College (Evangelical Lutheran, co-educational), was opened at Concord, N.C., in 1903, was removed to Greensboro in 1905, and in 1907 was established at Lutherville, E. of Greensboro. About 6 m. W. of Greensboro is Guilford College (co-educational; Friends), founded as "New Garden Boarding School" in 1837 and rechartered under its present name in 1888. Greensboro has a Carnegie library, St Leo hospital and a large auditorium. It is the shipping-point for an agricultural, lumbering and trucking region, among whose products Indian corn, tobacco and cotton are especially important; is an important insurance centre; has a large wholesale trade; and has various manufactures, including cotton goods[1] (especially blue denim), tobacco and cigars, lumber, furniture, sash, doors and blinds, machinery, foundry products and terra-cotta. The value of the factory products increased from $925,411 in 1900 to $1,828,837 in 1905, or 97.6%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. Greensboro was named in honour of General Nathanael Greene, who on the 15th of March 1781 fought with Cornwallis the battle of Guilford Court House, about 6 m. N.W. of the city, where there is now a Battle-Ground Park of 100 acres (including Lake Wilfong); this park contains a Revolutionary museum, and twenty-nine monuments, including a Colonial Column, an arch (1906) in memory of Brig.-General Francis Nash (1720-1777), of North Carolina, who died in October 1777 of wounds received at Germantown, and Davidson Arch (1905), in honour of William Lee Davidson (1746-1781), a brigadier-general of North Carolina troops, who was killed at Catawba and in whose honour Davidson College, at Davidson, N.C., was named. Greensboro was founded and became the county-seat in 1808, was organized as a town in 1829, and was first chartered as a city in 1870.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] One of the first cotton mills in the South and probably the first
in this state was established at Greensboro in 1832. It closed about
20 years afterwards, and in 1889 new mills were built. Three very
large mills were built in the decade after 1895, and three mill
villages, Proximity, Revolution and White Oak, named from these three
mills, lie immediately N. of the city; in 1908 their population was
estimated at 8000. The owners of these mills maintain schools for the
children of operatives and carry on "welfare work" in these villages.

GREENSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Westmoreland county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., 31 m. E.S.E. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 4202; (1900) 6508 (484 foreign-born); (1910) 5420. It is served by two lines of the Pennsylvania railway. It is an important coal centre, and manufactures engines, iron and brass goods, flour, lumber and bricks. In addition to its public school system, it has several private schools, including St Mary's Academy and St Joseph's Academy, both Roman Catholic. About 3 m. N.E. of what is now Greensburg stood the village of Hanna's Town, settled about 1770 and almost completely destroyed by the Indians on the 13th of July 1782; here what is said to have been the first court held west of the Alleghanies opened on the 6th of April 1773, and the county courts continued to be held here until 1787. Greensburg was settled in 1784-1785, immediately after the opening of the state road, not far from the trail followed by General John Forbes on his march to Fort Duquesne in 1758; it was made the county-seat in 1787, and was incorporated in 1799. In 1905 the boroughs of Ludwick (pop. in 1900, 901), East Greensburg (1050), and South-east Greensburg (620) were merged with Greensburg.

See John N. Boucher's _History of Westmoreland County, Pa._ (3 vols.,
New York, 1906).

GREENSHANK, one of the largest of the birds commonly known as sandpipers, the _Totanus glottis_ of most ornithological writers. Some exercise of the imagination is however needed to see in the dingy olive-coloured legs of this species a justification of the English name by which it goes, and the application of that name, which seems to be due to Pennant, was probably by way of distinguishing it from two allied but perfectly distinct species of _Totanus_ (_T. calidris_ and _T. fuscus_) having red legs and usually called redshanks. The greenshank is a native of the northern parts of the Old World, but in winter it wanders far to the south, and occurs regularly at the Cape of Good Hope, in India and thence throughout the Indo-Malay Archipelago to Australia. It has also been recorded from North America, but its appearance there must be considered accidental. Almost as bulky as a woodcock, it is of a much more slender build, and its long legs and neck give it a graceful appearance, which is enhanced by the activity of its actions. Disturbed from the moor or marsh, where it has its nest, it rises swiftly into the air, conspicuous by its white back and rump, and uttering shrill cries flies round the intruder. It will perch on the topmost bough of a tree, if a tree be near, to watch his proceedings, and the cock exhibits all the astounding gesticulations in which the males of so many other _Limicolae_ indulge during the breeding-season--with certain variations, however, that are peculiarly its own. It breeds in no small numbers in the Hebrides, and parts of the Scottish Highlands from Argyllshire to Sutherland, as well as in the more elevated or more northern districts of Norway, Sweden and Finland, and probably also thence to Kamchatka. In North America it is represented by two species, _Totanus semipalmatus_ and _T. melanoleucus_, there called willets, telltales or tattlers, which in general habits resemble the greenshank of the Old World. (A. N.)

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Washington county, Mississippi, U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, about 75 m. N. of Vicksburg. Pop. (1890) 6658; (1900) 7642 (4987 negroes); (1910) 9610. Greenville is served by the Southern and the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railways, and by various passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Mississippi river. It is situated in the centre of the Yazoo Delta, a rich cotton-producing region, and its industries are almost exclusively connected with that staple. There are large warehouses, compresses and gins, extensive cotton-seed oil works and sawmills. Old Greenville, about 1 m. S. of the present site, was the county seat of Jefferson county until 1825 (when Fayette succeeded it), and later became the county-seat of Washington county. Much of the old town caved into the river, and during the Civil War it was burned by the Federal forces soon after the capture of Memphis. The present site was then adopted. The town of Greenville was incorporated in 1870; in 1886 it was chartered as a city.

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Darke county, Ohio, U.S.A., on Greenville Creek, 36 m. N.W. of Dayton. Pop. (1900) 5501; (1910) 6237. It is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis and the Cincinnati Northern railways, and by interurban electric railways. It is situated about 1050 ft. above sea-level and is the trade centre of a large and fertile agricultural district, producing cereals and tobacco. It manufactures lumber, foundry products, canned goods and creamery products and has grain elevators and tobacco warehouses. In the city is a Carnegie library, and 3 m. distant there is a county Children's Home and Infirmary. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Greenville occupies the site of an Indian village and of Fort Greenville (built by General Anthony Wayne in 1793 and burned in 1796). Here, on the 3rd of August 1795, General Wayne, the year after his victory over the Indians at Fallen Timbers, concluded with them the treaty of Greenville, the Indians agreeing to a cessation of hostilities and ceding to the United States a considerable portion of Ohio and a number of small tracts in Indiana, Illinois and Michigan (including the sites of Sandusky, Toledo, Defiance, Fort Wayne, Detroit, Mackinac, Peoria and Chicago), and the United States agreeing to pay to the Indians $20,000 worth of goods immediately and an annuity of goods, valued at $9500, for ever. The tribes concerned were the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Shawnees, the Ottawas, the Chippewas, the Pottawatomies, the Miamis, the Weeas, the Kickapoos, the Piankashas, the Kaskaskias and the Eel-river tribe. Tecumseh lived at Greenville from 1805 to 1809, and a second Indian treaty was negotiated there in July 1814 by General W. H. Harrison and Lewis Cass, by which the Wyandots, the Delawares, the Shawnees, the (Ohio) Senecas and the Miamis agreed to aid the United States in the war with Great Britain. The first permanent white settlement of Greenville was established in 1808 and the town was laid out in the same year. It was made the county-seat of the newly erected county in 1809, was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a city in 1887.

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Greenville county, South Carolina, U.S.A., on the Reedy river, about 140 m. N.W. of Columbia, in the N.W. part of the state. Pop. (1890) 8607; (1900) 11,860, of whom 5414 were negroes; (1910, census) 15,741. It is served by the Southern, the Greenville & Knoxville and the Charleston & Western Carolina railways. It lies 976 ft. above sea-level, near the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, its climate and scenery attracting summer visitors. It is in an extensive cotton-growing and cotton-manufacturing district. Greenville's chief interest is in cotton, but it has various other manufactures, including carriages, wagons, iron and fertilizers. The total value of the factory products of the city in 1905 was $1,676,774, an increase of 73.5% since 1900. The city is the seat of Furman University, Chicora College for girls (1893; Presbyterian), and Greenville Female College (1854; Baptist), which in 1907-1908 had 379 students, and which, besides the usual departments, has a conservatory of music, a school of art, a school of expression and physical culture and a kindergarten normal training school. Furman University (Baptist; opened in 1852) grew out of the "Furman Academy and Theological Institution," opened at Edgefield, S.C., in 1827, and named in honour of Richard Furman (1755-1825), a well-known Baptist clergyman of South Carolina, whose son, James C. Furman (1809-1891), was long president of the University. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of 15 and 250 students, of whom 101 were in the Furman Fitting School. Greenville was laid out in 1797, was originally known as Pleasantburg and was first chartered as a city in 1868.

GREENVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Hunt county, Texas, U.S.A., near the headwaters of the Sabine river, 48 m. N.E. of Dallas. Pop. (1900) 6860, of whom 114 were foreign-born and 1751 were negroes; (1910) 8850. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the St Louis South-Western and the Texas Midland railways. It is an important cotton market, has gins and compresses, a large cotton seed oil refinery, and other manufactories, and is a trade centre for a rich agricultural district. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. It is the seat of Burleson College (Baptist), founded in 1893, and 1 m. from the city limits, in the village of Peniel (pop. 1908, about 500), a community of "Holiness" people, are the Texas Holiness University (1898), a Holiness orphan asylum and a Holiness press. Greenville was settled in 1844, and was chartered as a city in 1875. In 1907 the Texas legislature granted to the city a new charter establishing a commission government similar to that of Galveston.

GREENWICH, a township of Fairfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., on Long Island Sound, in the extreme S.W. part of the state, about 28 m. N.E. of New York City. It contains a borough of the same name and the villages of Cos Cob, Riverside and Sound Beach, all served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railway; the township has steamboat and electric railway connexions with New York City. Pop. of the township (1900) 12,172, of whom 3271 were foreign-born; (1910) 16,463; of the borough (1910) 3886. Greenwich is a summer resort, principally for New Yorkers. Among the residents have been Edwin Thomas Booth, John Henry Twachtman, the landscape painter, and Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1847-1907), founder of the American Sugar Company. There are several fine churches in the township; of one in Sound Beach the Rev. William H. H. Murray (1840-1904), called "Adirondack Murray," from his _Camp Life in the Adirondack Mountains_ (1868), was once pastor. In the borough are a public library, Greenwich Academy (1827; co-educational), the Brunswick School for boys (1901), with which Betts Academy of Stamford was united in 1908, and a hospital. The principal manufactures are belting, woollens, tinners' hardware, iron and gasolene motors. Oysters are shipped from Greenwich. The first settlers came from the New Haven Colony in 1640; but the Dutch, on account of the exploration of Long Island Sound by Adrian Blok in 1614, laid claim to Greenwich, and as New Haven did nothing to assist the settlers, they consented to union with New Netherland in 1642. Greenwich then became a Dutch manor. By a treaty of 1650, which fixed the boundary between New Netherland and the New Haven Colony, the Dutch relinquished their claim to Greenwich, but the inhabitants of the town refused to submit to the New Haven Colony until October 1656. Six years later Greenwich was one of the first towns of the New Haven Colony to submit to Connecticut. The township suffered severely during the War of Independence on account of the frequent quartering of American troops within its borders, the depredations of bands of lawless men after the occupation of New York by the British in 1778 and its invasion by the British in 1779 (February 25) and 1781 (December 5). There was also a strong loyalist sentiment. On the old post-road in Greenwich is the inn, built about 1729, at which Israel Putnam was surprised in February 1779 by a force under General Tryon; according to tradition he escaped by riding down a flight of steep stone steps. The inn was purchased in 1901 by the Daughters of the American Revolution, who restored it and made it a Putnam Memorial. The township government of Greenwich was instituted in the colonial period. The borough of Greenwich was incorporated in 1858.

See D. M. Mead, _History of the Town of Greenwich_ (New York, 1857).

GREENWICH, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of London, England, bounded N. by the river Thames, E. by Woolwich, S. by Lewisham and W. by Deptford. Pop. (1901) 95,770. Area, 3851.7 acres. It has a river-frontage of 4-1/2 m., the Thames making two deep bends, enclosing the Isle of Dogs on the north and a similar peninsula on the Greenwich side. Greenwich is connected with Poplar on the north shore by the Greenwich tunnel (1902), for foot-passengers, to the Isle of Dogs (Cubitt Town), and by the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) for street traffic, crossing to a point between the East and West India Docks (see POPLAR). The main thoroughfares from W. to E. are Woolwich and Shooter's Hill Roads, the second representing the old high road through Kent, the Roman Watling Street. Greenwich is first noticed in the reign of Ethelred, when it was a station of the Danish fleet (1011-1014).