Chapter XIV: Part 14

HERAULT, a department in the south of France, formed from Lower Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 482,779. Area, 2403 sq. m. It is bounded N.E. by Gard, N.W. by Aveyron and Tarn, and S. by Aude and the Golfe du Lion. The southern prolongation of the Cevennes mountains occupies the north-western zone of the department, the highest point being about 4250 ft. above the sea-level. South-east of this range comes a region of hills and plateaus decreasing in height as they approach the sea, from which they are separated by the rich plains at the mouth of the Orb and the Herault and, farther to the north-east, by the line of intercommunicating salt lagoons (Etang de Thau, &c.) which fringes the coast. The region to the north-west of Montpellier comprises an extensive tract of country known as the Garrigues, a district of dry limestone plateaus and hills, which stretches into the neighbouring department of Gard. The mountains of the north-west form the watershed between the Atlantic and Mediterranean basins. From them flow the Herault, its tributary the Lergue, and more to the south-west the Livron and the Orb, which are the main rivers of the department. Dry summers, varied by occasional violent storms, are characteristic of Herault. The climate is naturally colder and more rainy in the mountains.

A third of the surface of Herault is planted with vines, which are the chief source of agricultural wealth, the department ranking first in France with respect to the area of its vineyards; the red wines of St Georges, Cazouls-les-Beziers, Picpoul and Maranssan, and the white wines of Frontignan and Lunel (pop. in 1906, 6769) are held in high estimation. The area given over to arable land and pasture is small in extent. Fruit trees of various kinds, but especially mulberries, olives and chestnuts flourish. The rearing of silk-worms is largely carried on. Considerable numbers of sheep are raised, their milk being utilized for the preparation of Roquefort cheeses. The mineral wealth of the department is considerable. There are mines of lignite, coal in the vicinity of Graissessac, iron, calamine and copper, and quarries of building-stone, limestone, gypsum, &c.; the marshes supply salt. Mineral springs are numerous, the most important being those of Lamalon-les-Bains and Balaruc-les-Bains. The chief manufactures are woollen and cotton cloth, especially for military use, silk (Ganges), casks, soap and fertilizing stuffs. There are also oil-works, distilleries (Beziers) and tanneries (Bedarieux). Fishing is an important industry. Cette and Meze (pop. in 1906, 5574) are the chief ports. Herault exports salt fish, wine, liqueurs, timber, salt, building-material, &c. It imports cattle, skins, wool, cereals, vegetables, coal and other commodities. The railway lines belong chiefly to the Southern and Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee companies. The Canal du Midi traverses the south of the department for 44 m. and terminates at Cette. The Canal des Etangs traverses the department for about 20 m., forming part of a line of communication between Cette and Aigues-Mortes. Montpellier, the capital, is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon, and of a court of appeal and centre of an academic (educational division). The department belongs to the 16th military region, which has its headquarters at Montpellier. It is divided into the arrondissements of Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve and St Pons, with 36 cantons and 340 communes.

Montpellier, Beziers, Lodeve, Bedarieux, Cette, Agde, Pezenas, Lamalou-les-Bains and Clermont-l'Herault are the more noteworthy towns and receive separate treatment. Among the other interesting places in the department are St Pons, with a church of the 12th century, once a cathedral, Villemagne, which has several old houses and two ruined churches, one of the 13th, the other of the 14th century; Pignan, a medieval town, near which is the interesting abbey-church of Vignogoul in the early Gothic style; and St Guilhem-le-Desert, which has a church of the 11th and 12th centuries. Maguelonne, which in the 6th century became the seat of a bishopric transferred to Montpellier in 1536, has a cathedral of the 12th century.

HERAULT DE SECHELLES, MARIE JEAN (1759-1794), French politician, was born at Paris on the 20th of September 1759, of a noble family connected with those of Contades and Polignac. He made his debut as a lawyer at the Chatelet, and delivered some very successful speeches; later he was _avocat general_ to the parlement of Paris. His legal occupations did not prevent him from devoting himself also to literature, and after 1789 he published an account of a visit he had made to the comte de Buffon at Montbard. Herault's account is marked by a delicate irony, and it has with some justice been called a masterpiece of interviewing, before the day of journalists. Herault, who was an ardent champion of the Revolution, took part in the taking of the Bastille, and on the 8th of December 1789 was appointed judge of the court of the first arrondissement in the department of Paris. From the end of January to April 1791 Herault was absent on a mission in Alsace, where he had been sent to restore order. On his return he was appointed _commissaire du roi_ in the court of cassation. He was elected as a deputy for Paris to the Legislative Assembly, where he gravitated more and more towards the extreme left; he was a member of several committees, and, when a member of the diplomatic committee, presented a famous report demanding that the nation should be declared to be in danger (11th June 1793). After the revolution of the 10th of August 1792 (see FRENCH REVOLUTION), he co-operated with Danton, one of the organizers of this rising, and on the 2nd of September was appointed president of the Legislative Assembly. He was a deputy to the National Convention for the department of Seine-et-Oise, and was sent on a mission to organize the new department of Mont Blanc. He was thus absent during the trial of Louis XVI., but he made it known that he approved of the condemnation of the king, and would probably have voted for the death penalty. On his return to Paris, Herault was several times president of the Convention, notably on the 2nd of June 1793, the occasion of the attack on the Girondins, and on the 10th of August 1793, on which the passing of the new constitution was celebrated. On this occasion Herault, as president of the Convention, had to make several speeches. It was he, moreover, who, on the rejection of the projected constitution drawn up by Condorcet, was entrusted with the task of preparing a fresh one; this work he performed within a few days, and his plan, which, however, differed very little from that of Condorcet, became the Constitution of 1793, which was passed, but never applied. As a member of the Committee of Public Safety, it was with diplomacy that Herault was chiefly concerned, and from October to December 1793 he was employed on a diplomatic and military mission in Alsace. But this mission helped to make him an object of suspicion to the other members of the Committee of Public Safety, and especially to Robespierre, who as a deist and a fanatical follower of the ideas of Rousseau, hated Herault, the follower of the naturalism of Diderot. He was accused of treason, and after being tried before the revolutionary tribunal, was condemned at the same time as Danton, and executed on the 16th Germinal in the year II. (5th April 1794). He was handsome, elegant and a lover of pleasure, and was one of the most individual figures of the Revolution.

See the _Voyage a Montbard_, published by A. Aulard (Paris, 1890); A.
Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention_, 2nd ed.
(Paris, 1906); J. Claretie, _Camille Desmoulins ... etude sur les
Dantonistes_ (Paris, 1875); Dr Robinet, _Le Proces des Dantonistes_
(Paris, 1879); "Herault de Sechelles, sa premiere mission en Alsace"
in the review _La Revolution Francaise_, tome 22; E. Daudet, _Le Roman
d'un conventionnel. Herault de Sechelles et les dames de Bellegarde_
(1904). His _Oeuvres litteraires_ were edited (Paris, 1907) by E.
Dard. (R. A.*)

HERB (Lat. _herba_, grass, food for cattle, generally taken to represent the Old Lat. _forbea_, Gr. [Greek: phorbe], pasture, [Greek: pherbein], to feed, Sans. _bharb_, to eat), in botany, the name given to those plants whose stem or stalk dies entirely or down to the root each year, and does not become, as in shrubs or trees, woody or permanent, such plants are also called "herbaceous." The term "herb" is also used of those herbaceous plants, which possess certain properties, and are used for medicinal purposes, for flavouring or garnishing in cooking, and also for perfumes (see HORTICULTURE and PHARMACOLOGY).

HERBARIUM, or HORTUS SICCUS, a collection of plants so dried and preserved as to illustrate as far as possible their characters. Since the same plant, owing to peculiarities of climate, soil and situation, degree of exposure to light and other influences may vary greatly according to the locality in which it occurs, it is only by gathering together for comparison and study a large series of examples of each species that the flora of different regions can be satisfactorily represented. Even in the best equipped botanical garden it is impossible to have, at one and the same time, more than a very small percentage of the representatives of the flora of any given region or of any large group of plants. Hence a good herbarium forms an indispensable part of a botanical museum or institution. There are large herbaria at the British Museum and at the Royal Gardens, Kew, and smaller collections at the botanical institutions at the principal British universities. The original herbarium of Linnaeus is in the possession of the Linnaean Society of London. It was purchased from the widow of Linnaeus by Dr (afterwards Sir) J. E. Smith, one of the founders of the Linnaean Society, and after his death was purchased by the society. Herbaria are also associated with the more important botanic gardens and museums in other countries. The value of a herbarium is much enhanced by the possession of "types," that is, the original specimens on the study of which a species was founded. Thus the herbarium at the British Museum, which is especially rich in the earlier collections made in the 18th and early 19th centuries, contains the types of many species founded by the earlier workers in botany. It is also rich in the types of Australian plants in the collections of Sir Joseph Banks and Robert Brown, and contains in addition many valuable modern collections. The Kew herbarium, founded by Sir William Hooker and greatly increased by his son Sir Joseph Hooker, is also very rich in types, especially those of plants described in the _Flora of British India_ and various colonial floras. The collection of Dillenius is deposited at Oxford, and that of Professor W. H. Harvey at Trinity College, Dublin. The collections of Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, his son Adrien, and of Auguste de St Hilaire, are included in the large herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and in the same city is the extensive private collection of Dr Ernest Cosson. At Geneva are three large collections--Augustin Pyrame de Candolle's, containing the typical specimens of the _Prodromus_, a large series of monographs of the families of flowering plants, Benjamin Delessert's fine series at the Botanic Garden, and the Boissier Herbarium, which is rich in Mediterranean and Oriental plants. The university of Gottingen has had bequeathed to it the largest collection (exceeding 40,000 specimens) ever made by a single individual--that of Professor Grisebach. At the herbarium in Brussels are the specimens obtained by the traveller Karl Friedrich Philipp von Martius, the majority of which formed the groundwork of his _Flora Brasiliensis_. The Berlin herbarium is especially rich in more recent collections, and other national herbaria sufficiently extensive to subserve the requirements of the systematic botanist exist at St Petersburg, Vienna, Leiden, Stockholm, Upsala, Copenhagen and Florence. Of those in the United States of America, the chief, formed by Asa Gray, is the property of Harvard university; there is also a large one at the New York Botanical Garden. The herbarium at Melbourne, Australia, under Baron Muller, attained large proportions; and that of the Botanical Garden of Calcutta is noteworthy as the repository of numerous specimens described by writers on Indian botany.

Specimens of flowering plants and vascular cryptograms are generally mounted on sheets of stout smooth paper, of uniform quality; the size adopted at Kew is 17 in. long by 11 in. broad, that at the British Museum is slightly larger; the palms and their allies, however, and some ferns, require a larger size. The tough but flexible coarse grey paper (German _Fliesspapier_), upon which on the Continent specimens are commonly fixed by gummed strips of the same, is less hygroscopic than ordinary cartridge paper, but has the disadvantage of affording harbourage in the inequalities of its surface to a minute insect, _Atropos pulsatoria_, which commits great havoc in damp specimens, and which, even if noticed, cannot be dislodged without difficulty. The majority of plant specimens are most suitably fastened on paper by a mixture of equal parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic made into a thick paste with water. Rigid leathery leaves are fixed by means of glue, or, if they present too smooth a surface, by stitching at their edges. Where, as in private herbaria, the specimens are not liable to be handled with great frequency, a stitch here and there round the stem, tied at the back of the sheet, or slips of paper passed over the stem through two slits in the sheet and attached with gum to its back, or simply strips of gummed paper laid across the stem, may be resorted to.

To preserve from insects, the plants, after mounting, are often brushed over with a liquid formed by the solution of 1/4 lb. each of corrosive sublimate and carbolic acid in 1 gallon of methylated spirits. They are then laid out to dry on shelves made of a network of stout galvanized iron wire. The use of corrosive sublimate is not, however, recommended, as it forms on drying a fine powder which when the plants are handled will rub off and, being carried into the air, may prove injurious to workers. If the plants are subjected to some process, before mounting, by which injurious organisms are destroyed, such as exposure in a closed chamber to vapour of carbon bisulphide for some hours, the presence of pieces of camphor or naphthalene in the cabinet will be found a sufficient preservative. After mounting are written--usually in the right-hand corner of the sheet, or on a label there affixed--the designation of each species, the date and place of gathering, and the name of the collector. Other particulars as to habit, local abundance, soil and claim to be indigenous may be written on the back of the sheet or on a slip of writing paper attached to its edge. It is convenient to place in a small envelope gummed to an upper corner of the sheet any flowers, seeds or leaves needed for dissection or microscopical examination, especially where from the fixation of the specimen it is impossible to examine the leaves for oil-receptacles and where seed is apt to escape from ripe capsules and be lost. The addition of a careful dissection of a flower greatly increases the value of the specimen. To ensure that all shall lie evenly in the herbarium the plants should be made to occupy as far as possible alternately the right and left sides of their respective sheets. The species of each genus are then arranged either systematically or alphabetically in separate covers of stout, usually light brown paper, or, if the genus be large, in several covers with the name of the genus clearly indicated in the lower left-hand corner of each, and opposite it the names or reference numbers of the species. Undetermined species are relegated to the end of the genus. Thus prepared, the specimens are placed on shelves or movable trays, at intervals of about 6 in., in an air-tight cupboard, on the inner side of the door of which, as a special protection against insects, is suspended a muslin bag containing a piece of camphor.

The systematic arrangement varies in different herbaria. In the great British herbaria the orders and genera of flowering plants are usually arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's _Genera plantarum_; the species generally follow the arrangement of the most recent complete monograph of the family. In non-flowering plants the works usually followed are for ferns, Hooker and Baker's _Synopsis filicum_; for mosses, Muller's _Synopsis muscorum frondosorum_, Jaeger & Sauerbeck's _Genera et species muscorum_, and Engler & Prantl's _Pflanzenfamilien_; for algae, de Toni's _Sylloge algarum_; for hepaticae, Gottsche, Lindenberg and Nees ab Esenbeck's _Synopsis hepaticarum_, supplemented by Stephani's _Species hepaticarum_; for fungi, Saccardo's _Sylloge fungorum_, and for mycetozoa Lister's monograph of the group. For the members of large genera, e.g. _Piper_ and _Ficus_, since the number of cosmopolitan or very widely distributed species is comparatively few, a geographical grouping is found specially convenient by those who are constantly receiving parcels of plants from known foreign sources. The ordinary systematic arrangement possesses the great advantage, in the case of large genera, of readily indicating the affinities of any particular specimen with the forms most nearly allied to it. Instead of keeping a catalogue of the species contained in the herbarium, which, owing to the constant additions, would be almost impossible, such species are usually ticked off with a pencil in the systematic work which is followed in arranging them, so that by reference to this work it is possible to see at a glance whether the specimen sought is in the herbarium and what species are still wanted.

Specimens intended for the herbarium should be collected when possible
in dry weather, care being taken to select plants or portions of
plants in sufficient number and of a size adequate to illustrate all
the characteristic features of the species. When the root-leaves and
roots present any peculiarities, they should invariably be collected,
but the roots should be dried separately in an oven at a moderate
heat. Roots and fruits too bulky to be placed on the sheet of the
herbarium may be conveniently arranged in glass-covered boxes
contained in drawers. The best and most effective mode of drying
specimens is learned only by experience, different species requiring
special treatment according to their several peculiarities. The chief
points to be attended to are to have a plentiful supply of botanical
drying paper, so as to be able to use about six sheets for each
specimen; to change the paper at intervals of six to twelve hours; to
avoid contact of one leaf or flower with another; and to increase the
pressure applied only in proportion to the dryness of the specimen. To
preserve the colour of flowers pledgets of cotton wool, which prevent
bruising, should be introduced between them, as also, if the stamens
are thick and succulent, as in _Digitalis_, between these and the
corolla. A flower dissected and gummed on the sheets will often retain
the colour which it is impossible to preserve in a crowded
inflorescence. A flat sheet of lead or some other suitable weight
should be laid upon the top of the pile of specimens, so as to keep up
a continuous pressure. Succulent specimens, as many of the
_Orchidaceae_ and sedums and various other Crassulaceous plants,
require to be killed by immersion in boiling water before being placed
in drying paper, or, instead of becoming dry, they will grow between
the sheets. When, as with some plants like _Verbascum_, the thick hard
stems are liable to cause the leaves to wrinkle in drying by removing
the pressure from them, small pieces of bibulous paper or cotton wool
may be placed upon the leaves near their point of attachment to the
stem. When a number of specimens have to be submitted to pressure,
ventilation is secured by means of frames corresponding in size to the
drying paper, and composed of strips of wood or wires laid across each
other so as to form a kind of network. Another mode of drying is to
keep the specimens in a box of dry sand in a warm place for ten or
twelve hours, and then press them in drying paper. A third method
consists in placing the specimen within bibulous paper, and enclosing
the whole between two plates of coarsely perforated zinc supported in
a wooden frame. The zinc plates are then drawn close together by means
of straps, and suspended before a fire until the drying is effected.
By the last two methods the colour of the flowers may be well
preserved. When the leaves are finely divided, as in _Conium_, much
trouble will be experienced in lifting a half-dried specimen from one
paper to another; but the plant may be placed in a sheet of thin
blotting paper, and the sheet containing the plant, instead of the
plant itself, can then be moved. Thin straw-coloured paper, such as is
used for biscuit bags, may be conveniently employed by travellers
unable to carry a quantity of bibulous paper. It offers the advantage
of fitting closely to thick-stemmed specimens and of rapidly drying. A
light but strong portfolio, to which pressure by means of straps can
be applied, and a few quires of this paper, if the paper be changed
night and morning, will be usually sufficient to dry all except very
succulent plants. When a specimen is too large for one sheet, and it
is necessary, in order to show its habit, &c., to dry the whole of it,
it may be divided into two or three portions, and each placed on a
separate sheet for drying. Specimens may be judged to be dry when they
no longer cause a cold sensation when applied to the cheek, or assume
a rigidity not evident in the earlier stages of preparation.

Each class of flowerless or cryptogamic plants requires special
treatment for the herbarium.

Marine algae are usually mounted on tough smooth white cartridge paper
in the following manner. Growing specimens of good colour and in fruit
are if possible selected, and cleansed as much as practicable from
adhering foreign particles, either in the sea or a rocky pool. Some
species rapidly change colour, and cause the decay of any others with
which they come in contact. This is especially the case with the
_Ectocarpi_, _Desmarestiae_, and a few others, which should therefore
be brought home in a separate vessel. In mounting, the specimen is
floated out in a flat white dish containing sea-water, so that foreign
matter may be detected, and a piece of paper of suitable size is
placed under it, supported either by the fingers of the left hand or
by a palette. It is then pruned, in order clearly to show the mode of
branching, and is spread out as naturally as possible with the right
hand. For this purpose a bone knitting-needle answers well for the
coarse species, and a camel's-hair pencil for the more delicate ones.
The paper with the specimen is then carefully removed from the water
by sliding it over the edge of the dish so as to drain it as much as
possible. If during this process part of the fronds run together, the
beauty of the specimen may be restored by dipping the edge into water,
so as to float out the part and allow it to subside naturally on the
paper. The paper, with the specimen upwards, is then laid on bibulous
paper for a few minutes to absorb as much as possible of the
superfluous moisture. When freed from excess of water it is laid on a
sheet of thick white blotting-paper, and a piece of smooth washed
calico is placed upon it (unwashed calico, on account of its "facing,"
adheres to the sea-weed). Another sheet of blotting-paper is then laid
over it; and, a number of similar specimens being formed into a pile,
the whole is submitted to pressure, the paper being changed every hour
or two at first. The pressure is increased, and the papers are changed
less frequently as the specimens become dry, which usually takes place
in thirty-six hours. Some species, especially those of a thick or
leathery texture, contract so much in drying that without strong
pressure the edges of the paper become puckered. Other species of a
gelatinous nature, like _Nemalion_ and _Dudresnaya_, may be allowed to
dry on the paper, and need not be submitted to pressure until they no
longer present a gelatinous appearance. Large coarse algae, such, for
instance, as the _Fucaceae_ and _Laminariae_, do not readily adhere to
paper, and require soaking for some time in fresh water before being
pressed. The less robust species, such as _Sphacelaria scoparia_,
which do not adhere well to paper, may be made to do so by brushing
them over either with milk carefully skimmed, or with a liquid formed
by placing isinglass (1/4 oz.) and water (1(1/2) oz.) in a wide-mouthed
bottle, and the bottle in a small glue-pot or saucepan containing cold
water, heating until solution is effected, and then adding 1 oz. of
rectified spirits of wine; the whole is next stirred together, and
when cold is kept in a stoppered bottle. For use, the mixture is
warmed to render it fluid, and applied by means of a camel's hair
brush to the under side of the specimen, which is then laid neatly on
paper. For the more delicate species, such as the _Callithamnia_ and
_Ectocarpi_, it is an excellent plan to place a small fruiting
fragment, carefully floated out in water, on a slip of mica of the
size of an ordinary microscopical slide, and allow it to dry. The
plant can then be at any time examined under the microscope without
injuring the mounted specimen. Many of the fresh-water algae which
form a mere crust, such as _Palmella cruenta_, may be placed in a
vessel of water, where after a time they float like a scum, the earthy
matter settling down to the bottom, and may then be mounted by
slipping a piece of mica under them and allowing it to dry.
_Oscillatoriae_ may be mounted by laying a portion on a silver coin
placed on a piece of paper in a plate, and pouring in water until the
edge of the coin is just covered. The alga by its own peculiar
movement will soon form a radiating circle, perfectly free from dirt,
around the coin, which may then be removed. There is considerable
difficulty in removing mounted specimens of algae from paper, and
therefore a small portion preserved on mica should accompany each
specimen, enclosed for safety in a small envelope fastened at one
corner of the sheet of paper. Filamentous diatoms may be mounted like
ordinary sea-weeds, and, as well as all parasitic algae, should
whenever possible be allowed to remain attached to a portion of the
alga on which they grow, some species being almost always found
parasitical on particular plants. Ordinary diatoms and desmids may be
mounted on mica, as above described, by putting a portion in a vessel
of water and exposing it to sunlight, when they rise to the surface,
and may be thus removed comparatively free from dirt or impurity.
Owing to their want of adhesiveness, they are, however, usually
mounted on glass as microscopic slides, either in glycerin jelly,
Canada balsam or some other suitable medium.

Lichens are generally mounted on sheets of paper of the ordinary size,
several specimens from different localities being laid upon one sheet,
each specimen having been first placed on a small square of paper
which is gummed on the sheet, and which has the locality, date, name
of collector, &c., written upon it. This mode has some disadvantages
attending it; such sheets are difficult to handle; the crustaceous
species are liable to have their surfaces rubbed; the foliaceous
species become so compressed as to lose their characteristic
appearance; and the spaces between the sheets caused by the thickness
of the specimen permit the entrance of dust. A plan which has been
found to answer well is to arrange them in cardboard boxes, either
with glass tops or in sliding covers, in drawers--the name being
placed outside each box and the specimens gummed into the boxes.
Lichens for the herbarium should, whenever possible, be sought for on
a slaty or laminated rock, so as to procure them on flat thin pieces
of the same, suitable for mounting. Specimens on the bark of trees
require pressure until the bark is dry, lest they become curled; and
those growing on sand or friable soil, such as _Coniocybe furfuracea_,
should be laid carefully on a layer of gum in the box in which they
are intended to be kept. Many lichens, such as the _Verrucariae_ and
_Collemaceae_, are found in the best condition during the winter
months. In mounting collemas it is advisable to let the specimen
become dry and hard, and then to separate a portion from adherent
mosses, earth, &c., and mount it separately so as to show the
branching of the thallus. _Pertusariae_ should be represented by both
fruiting and sorediate specimens.

The larger species of fungi, such as the _Agaricini_ and _Polyporei_,
&c., are prepared for the herbarium by cutting a slice out of the
centre of the plant so as to show the outline of the cap or pileus,
the attachment of the gills, and the character of the interior of the
stem. The remaining portions of the pileus are then lightly pressed,
as well as the central slices, between bibulous paper until dry, and
the whole is then "poisoned," and gummed on a sheet of paper in such a
manner as to show the under surface of the one and the upper surface
of the other half of the pileus on the same sheet. A "map" of the
spores should be taken by separating a pileus and placing it flat on a
piece of thin paper for a few hours when the spores will fall and
leave a nature print of the arrangement of the gills which may be
fixed by gumming the other side of the paper. As it is impossible to
preserve the natural colours of fungi, the specimens should, whenever
possible, be accompanied by a coloured drawing of the plant.
Microscopic fungi are usually preserved in envelopes, or simply
attached to sheets of paper or mounted as microscopic slides. Those
fungi which are of a dusty nature, and the _Myxomycetes_ or
_Mycetozoa_ may, like the lichens, be preserved in small boxes and
arranged in drawers. Fungi under any circumstances form the least
satisfactory portion of an herbarium.

Mosses when growing in tufts should be gathered just before the
capsules have become brown, divided into small flat portions, and
pressed lightly in drying paper. During this process the capsules
ripen, and are thus obtained in a perfect state. They are then
preserved in envelopes attached to a sheet of paper of the ordinary
size, a single perfect specimen being washed, and spread out under the
envelope so as to show the habit of the plant. For attaching it to the
paper a strong mucilage of gum tragacanth, containing an eighth of its
weight of spirit of wine, answers best. If not preserved in an
envelope the calyptra and operculum are very apt to fall off and
become lost. Scale-mosses are mounted in the same way, or may be
floated out in water like sea-weeds, and dried in white blotting paper
under strong pressure before gumming on paper, but are best mounted as
microscopic slides, care being taken to show the stipules. The
specimens should be collected when the capsules are just appearing
above or in the colesule or calyx; if kept in a damp saucer they soon
arrive at maturity, and can then be mounted in better condition, the
fruit-stalks being too fragile to bear carriage in a botanical tin
case without injury.

Of the _Characeae_ many are so exceedingly brittle that it is best to
float them out like sea-weeds, except the prickly species, which may
be carefully laid out on bibulous paper, and when dry fastened on
sheets of white paper by means of gummed strips. Care should be taken
in collecting charae to secure, in the case of dioecious species,
specimens of both forms, and also to get when possible the roots of
those species on which the small granular starchy bodies or gemmae are
found, as in _C. fragifera_. Portions of the fructification may be
preserved in small envelopes attached to the sheets.

HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-1841), German philosopher and educationist, was born at Oldenburg on the 4th of May 1776. After studying under Fichte at Jena he gave his first philosophical lectures at Gottingen in 1805, whence he removed in 1809 to occupy the chair formerly held by Kant at Konigsberg. Here he also established and conducted a seminary of pedagogy till 1833, when he returned once more to Gottingen, and remained there as professor of philosophy till his death on the 14th of August 1841.

Philosophy, according to Herbart, begins with reflection upon our
empirical conceptions, and consists in the reformation and elaboration
of these--its three primary divisions being determined by as many
distinct forms of elaboration. Logic, which stands first, has to
render our conceptions and the judgments and reasonings arising from
them clear and distinct. But some conceptions are such that the more
distinct they are made the more contradictory their elements become;
so to change and supplement these as to make them at length thinkable
is the problem of the second part of philosophy, or metaphysics. There
is still a class of conceptions requiring more than a logical
treatment, but differing from the last in not involving latent
contradictions, and in being independent of the reality of their
objects, the conceptions, viz. that embody our judgments of approval
and disapproval; the philosophic treatment of these conceptions falls
to Aesthetic.

In Herbart's writings logic receives comparatively meagre notice; he
insisted strongly on its purely formal character, and expressed
himself in the main at one with Kantians such as Fries and Krug.

As a metaphysician he starts from what he terms "the higher
scepticism" of the Hume-Kantian sphere of thought, the beginnings of
which he discerns in Locke's perplexity about the idea of substance.
By this scepticism the real validity of even the _forms_ of experience
is called in question on account of the contradictions they are found
to involve. And yet that these forms are "given" to us, as truly as
sensations are, follows beyond doubt when we consider that we are as
little able to control the one as the other. To attempt at this stage
a psychological inquiry into the origin of these conceptions would be
doubly a mistake; for we should have to use these unlegitimated
conceptions in the course of it, and the task of clearing up their
contradictions would still remain, whether we succeeded in our enquiry
or not. But how are we to set about this task? We have given to us a
conception A uniting among its constituent marks two that prove to be
contradictory, say M and N; and we can neither deny the unity nor
reject one of the contradictory members. For to do either is forbidden
by experience; and yet to do nothing is forbidden by logic. We are
thus driven to the assumption that the conception is contradictory
because incomplete; but how are we to supplement it? What we have must
point the way to what we want, or our procedure will be arbitrary.
Experience asserts that M is the same (i.e. a mark of the same
concept) as N, while logic denies it; and so--it being impossible for
one and the same M to sustain these contradictory positions--there is
but one way open to us; we must posit _several_ Ms. But even now we
cannot say one of these Ms is the same as N, another is not; for every
M must be both thinkable and valid. We may, however, take the Ms not
singly but together; and again, no other course being open to us, this
is what we must do; we must assume that N results from a combination
of Ms. This is Herbart's method of relations, the counterpart in his
system of the Hegelian dialectic.

In the _Ontology_ this method is employed to determine what in reality
corresponds to the empirical conceptions of substance and cause, or
rather of inherence and change. But first we must analyse this notion
of reality itself, to which our scepticism had already led us, for,
though we could doubt whether "the given" is what it appears, we
cannot doubt that it is something; the conception of the real thus
consists of the two conceptions of being and quality. That which we
are compelled to "posit," which cannot be sublated, is that which
_is_, and in the recognition of this lies the simple conception of
being. But when is a thing thus posited? When it is posited as we are
wont to posit the things we see and taste and handle. If we were
without sensations, i.e. were never bound against our will to endure
the persistence of a presentation, we should never know what being is.
Keeping fast hold of this idea of absolute position, Herbart leads us
next to the quality of the real. (1) This must exclude everything
negative; for non-A sublates instead of positing, and is not absolute,
but relative to A. (2) The real must be absolutely simple; for if it
contain two determinations, A and B, then either these are reducible
to one, which is the true quality, or they are not, when each is
conditioned by the other and their position is no longer absolute. (3)
All quantitative conceptions are excluded, for quantity implies parts,
and these are incompatible with simplicity. (4) But there may be a
plurality of "reals," albeit the mere conception of being can tell us
nothing as to this. The doctrine here developed is the first cardinal
point of Herbart's system, and has obtained for it the name of
"pluralistic realism."

The contradictions he finds in the common-sense conception of
inherence, or of "a thing with several attributes," will now become
obvious. Let us take some thing, say A, having n attributes, a, b,
c...: we are forced to posit each of these because each is presented
in intuition. But in conceiving A we make, not n positions, still less
n + 1 positions, but one position simply; for common sense removes the
absolute position from its original source, sensation. So when we ask,
What is the one posited? we are told--the possessor of a, b, c..., or
in other words, their seat or substance. But if so, then A, as a real,
being simple, must = a; similarly it must = b; and so on. Now this
would be possible if a, b, c ... were but "contingent aspects" of A,
as e.g. 2^3, [root]64, 4 + 3 + 1 are contingent aspects of 8. Such, of
course, is not the case, and so we have as many contradictions as
there are attributes; for we must say A is a, is not a, is b, is not
b, &c. There must then, according to the method of relations, be
several As. For a let us assume A1 + A1 + A1...; for b, A2 + A2 +
A2...; and so on for the rest. But now what relation can there be
among these several As, which will restore to us the unity of our
original A or substance? There is but one; we must assume that the
first A of every series is identical, just as the centre is the same
point in every radius. By way of concrete illustration Herbart
instances "the common observation that the properties of things exist
only under external conditions. Bodies, we say, are coloured, but
colour is nothing without light, and nothing without eyes. They sound,
but only in a vibrating medium, and for healthy ears. Colour and tone
present the appearance of inherence, but on looking closer we find
they are not really immanent in things but rather presuppose a
communion among several." The result then is briefly thus: In place of
the one absolute position, which in some unthinkable way the common
understanding substitutes for the absolute positions of the n
attributes, we have really a series of two or more positions for each
attribute, every series, however, beginning with the same (as it were,
central) real (hence the unity of substance in a group of attributes),
but each being continued by different reals (hence the plurality and
difference of attributes in unity of substance). Where there is the
appearance of inherence, therefore, there is always a plurality of
reals; no such correlative to substance as attribute or accident can
be admitted at all. Substantiality is impossible without causality,
and to this as its true correlative we now turn.

The common-sense conception of change involves at bottom the same
contradiction of opposing qualities in one real. The same A that was
a, b, c ... becomes a, b, d...; and this, which experience thrusts
upon us, proves on reflection unthinkable. The metaphysical
supplementing is also fundamentally as before. Since c depended on a
series of reals A3 + A3 + A3 ... in connexion with A, and d may be
said similarly to depend on a series A4 + A4 + A4..., then the change
from c to d means, not that the central real A or any real has
changed, but that A is now in connexion with A4, &c., and no longer in
connexion with A3, &c.

But to think a number of reals "in connexion" (_Zusammensein_) will
not suffice as an explanation of phenomena; something or other must
happen when they are in connexion; what is it? The answer to this
question is the second hinge-point of Herbart's theoretical
philosophy. What "actually happens" as distinct from all that seems to
happen, when two reals A and B are together is that, assuming them to
differ in quality, they tend to disturb each other to the extent of
that difference, at the same time that each preserves itself intact by
resisting, as it were, the other's disturbance. And so by coming into
connexion with different reals the "self-preservations" of A will vary
accordingly, A remaining the same through all; just as, by way of
illustration, hydrogen remains the same in water and in ammonia, or as
the same line may be now a normal and now a tangent. But to indicate
this opposition in the qualities of the reals A + B, we must
substitute for these symbols others, which, though only "contingent
aspects" of A and B, i.e. representing their relations, not
themselves, yet like similar devices in mathematics enable thought to
advance. Thus we may put A = [alpha] + [beta] - [gamma], B = m + n +
[gamma]; [gamma] then represents the character of the
self-preservations in this case, and [alpha] + [beta] + m + n
represents all that could be observed by a spectator who did not know
the simple qualities, but was himself involved in the relations of A
to B; and such is exactly our position.

Having thus determined what really is and what actually happens, our
philosopher proceeds next to explain synthetically the objective
semblance (_der objective Schein_) that results from these. But if
this construction is to be truly objective, i.e. valid for all
intelligences, ontology must furnish us with a clue. This we have in
the forms of Space, Time and Motion which are involved whenever we
think the reals as being in, or coming into, connexion and the
opposite. These forms then cannot be merely the products of our
psychological mechanism, though they may turn out to coincide with
these. Meanwhile let us call them "intelligible," as being valid for
all who comprehend the real and actual by thought, although no such
forms are predicable of the real and actual themselves. The elementary
spatial relation Herbart conceives to be "the contiguity
(_Aneinander_) of two points," so that every "pure and independent
line" is discrete. But an investigation of dependent lines which are
often incommensurable forces us to adopt the contradictory fiction of
partially overlapping, i.e. divisible points, or in other words, the
conception of Continuity.[1] But the contradiction here is one we
cannot eliminate by the method of relations, because it does not
involve anything real; and in fact as a necessary outcome of an
"intelligible" form, the fiction of continuity is valid for the
"objective semblance," and no more to be discarded than say
[root](-1). By its help we are enabled to comprehend what actually
happens among reals to produce the appearance of matter. When three or
more reals are together, each disturbance and self-preservation will
(in general) be imperfect, i.e. of less intensity than when only two
reals are together. But "objective semblance" corresponds with
reality; the spatial or external relations of the reals in this case
must, therefore, tally with their inner or actual states. Had the
self-preservations been perfect, the coincidence in space would have
been complete, and the group of reals would have been inextended; or
had the several reals been simply contiguous, i.e. without connexion,
then, as nothing would actually have happened, nothing would appear.
As it is we shall find a continuous molecule manifesting attractive
and repulsive forces; attraction corresponding to the tendency of the
self-preservations to become perfect, repulsion to the frustration of
this. Motion, even more evidently than space, implicates the
contradictory conception of continuity, and cannot, therefore, be a
real predicate, though valid as an intelligible form and necessary to
the comprehension of the objective semblance. For we have to think of
the reals as absolutely independent and yet as entering into
connexions. This we can only do by conceiving them as originally
moving through intelligible space in rectilinear paths and with
uniform velocities. For such motion no cause need be supposed; motion,
in fact, is no more a state of the moving real than rest is, both
alike being but relations, with which, therefore, the real has no
concern. The changes in this motion, however, for which we _should_
require a cause, would be the objective semblance of the
self-preservations that actually occur when reals meet. Further, by
means of such motion these actual occurrences, which are in themselves
timeless, fall for an observer in a definite time--a time which
becomes continuous through the partial coincidence of events.

But in all this it has been assumed that we are spectators of the
objective semblance; it remains to make good this assumption, or, in
other words, to show the possibility of knowledge; this is the problem
of what Herbart terms Eidolology, and forms the transition from
metaphysic to psychology. Here, again, a contradictory conception
blocks the way, that, viz. of the Ego as the identity of knowing and
being, and as such the stronghold of idealism. The contradiction
becomes more evident when the ego is defined to be a subject (and so a
real) that is its own object. As real and not merely formal, this
conception of the ego is amenable to the method of relations. The
solution this method furnishes is summarily that there are several
objects which mutually modify each other, and so constitute that ego
we take for the presented real. But to explain this modification is
the business of psychology; it is enough now to see that the subject
like all reals is necessarily unknown, and that, therefore, the
idealist's theory of knowledge is unsound. But though the simple
quality of the subject or soul is beyond knowledge, we know what
actually happens when it is in connexion with other's reals, for its
self-preservations then are what we call sensations. And these
sensations are the sole material of our knowledge; but they are not
given to us as a chaos but in definite groups and series, whence we
come to know the relations of those reals, which, though themselves
unknown, our sensations compel us to posit absolutely.

In his _Psychology_ Herbart rejects altogether the doctrine of mental
faculties as one refuted by his metaphysics, and tries to show that
all psychical phenomena whatever result from the action and
interaction of elementary ideas or presentations (_Vorstellungen_).
The soul being one and simple, its separate acts of self-preservation
or primary presentations must be simple too, and its several
presentations must become united together. And this they can do at
once and completely when, as is the case, for example, with the
several attributes of an object, they are not of opposite quality. But
otherwise there ensues a conflict in which the opposed presentations
comport themselves like forces and mutually suppress or obscure each
other. The act of presentation (_Vorstellen_) then becomes partly
transformed into an effort, and its product, the idea, becomes in the
same proportion less and less intense till a position of equilibrium
is reached; and then at length the remainders coalesce. We have thus a
statics and a mechanics of mind which investigate respectively the
conditions of equilibrium and of movement among presentations. In the
statics two magnitudes have to be determined: (1) the amount of the
suppression or inhibition (_Hemmungssumme_), and (2) the ratio in
which this is shared among the opposing presentations. The first must
obviously be as small as possible; thus for two totally-opposed
presentations a and b, of which a is the greater, the _inhibendum_ =
b. For a given degree of opposition this burden will be shared between
the conflicting presentations in the inverse ratio of their strength.
When its remainder after inhibition = 0, a presentation is said to be
on the threshold of consciousness, for on a small diminution of the
inhibition the "effort" will become actual presentation in the same
proportion. Such total exclusion from consciousness is, however,
manifestly impossible with only two presentations,[2] though with
three or a greater number the residual value of one may even be
negative. The first and simplest law in psychological mechanics
relates to the "sinking" of inhibited presentations. As the
presentations yield to the pressure, the pressure itself diminishes,
so that the velocity of sinking decreases, i.e. we have the equation
(S - [sigma]) dt = d[sigma], where S is the total _inhibendum_, and
[sigma] the intensity actually inhibited after the time t. Hence t =
log (S/S - [sigma]), and [sigma] = S[1 - e^(-t)]. From this law it
follows, for example, that equilibrium is never quite obtained for
those presentations which continue above the threshold of
consciousness, while the rest which cannot so continue are very
speedily driven beyond the threshold. More important is the law
according to which a presentation freed from inhibition and rising
anew into consciousness tends to raise the other presentations with
which it is combined. Suppose two presentations p and [pi] united by
the residua r and [rho]; then the amount of p's "help" to [pi] is r,
the portion of which appropriated by [pi] is given by the ratio [rho]:
[pi]; and thus the initial help is r[rho]/[pi].

But after a time t, when a portion of [rho] represented by [omega] has
been actually brought into consciousness, the help afforded in the
next instant will be found by the equation

r[rho] [rho] - [omega]
------ . --------------- dt = d[omega],
[pi] [rho]

from which by integration we have the value of [omega].

[omega] = [rho] {1 - [epsilon]^(-rt/[pi])}.

So that if there are several [pi]s connected with p by smaller and
smaller parts, there will be a definite "serial" order in which they
will be revived by p; and on this fact Herbart rests all the phenomena
of the so-called faculty of memory, the development of spatial and
temporal forms and much besides. Emotions and volitions, he holds, are
not directly self-preservations of the soul, as our presentations are,
but variable states of such presentations resulting from their
interaction when above the threshold of consciousness. Thus when some
presentations tend to force a presentation into consciousness, and
others at the same time tend to drive it out, that presentation is the
seat of painful feeling; when, on the other hand, its entrance is
favoured by all, pleasure results. Desires are presentations
struggling into consciousness against hindrances, and when accompanied
by the supposition of success become volitions. Transcendental freedom
of will in Kant's sense is an impossibility. Self-consciousness is the
result of an interaction essentially the same in kind as that which
takes place when a comparatively simple presentation finds the field
of consciousness occupied by a long-formed and well-consolidated
"mass" of presentations--as, e.g. one's business or garden, the
theatre, &c., which promptly inhibit the isolated presentation if
incongruent, and unite it to themselves if not. What we call Self is,
above all, such a central mass, and Herbart seeks to show with great
ingenuity and detail how this position is occupied at first chiefly by
the body, then by the seat of ideas and desires, and finally by that
first-personal Self which recollects the past and resolves concerning
the future. But at any stage the actual constituents of this
"complexion" are variable; the concrete presentation of Self is never
twice the same. And, therefore, finding on reflection any particular
concrete factor contingent, we abstract the position from that which
occupies it, and so reach the speculative notion of the pure Ego.