Chapter II: Part 2

HELY-HUTCHINSON, JOHN (1724-1794), Irish lawyer, statesman, and provost of Trinity College, Dublin, son of Francis Hely, a gentleman of County Cork, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1748. He took the additional name of Hutchinson on his marriage in 1751 with Christiana Nixon, heiress of her uncle, Richard Hutchinson. He was elected member of the Irish House of Commons for the borough of Lanesborough in 1759, but after 1761 he represented the city of Cork. He at first attached himself to the "patriotic" party in opposition to the government, and although he afterwards joined the administration he never abandoned his advocacy of popular measures. He was a man of brilliant and versatile ability, whom Lord Townshend, the lord lieutenant, described as "by far the most powerful man in parliament." William Gerard Hamilton said of him that "Ireland never bred a more able, nor any country a more honest man." Hely-Hutchinson was, however, an inveterate place-hunter, and there was point in Lord North's witticism that "if you were to give him the whole of Great Britain and Ireland for an estate, he would ask the Isle of Man for a potato garden." After a session or two in parliament he was made a privy councillor and prime serjeant-at-law; and from this time he gave a general, though by no means invariable, support to the government. In 1767 the ministry contemplated an increase of the army establishment in Ireland from 12,000 to 15,000 men, but the Augmentation Bill met with strenuous opposition, not only from Flood, Ponsonby and the habitual opponents of the government, but from the Undertakers, or proprietors of boroughs, on whom the government had hitherto relied to secure them a majority in the House of Commons. It therefore became necessary for Lord Townshend to turn to other methods for procuring support. Early In 1768 an English act was passed for the increase of the army, and a message from the king setting forth the necessity for the measure was laid before the House of Commons in Dublin. An address favourable to the government policy was, however, rejected; and Hely-Hutchinson, together with the speaker and the attorney-general, did their utmost both in public and private to obstruct the bill. Parliament was dissolved in May 1768, and the lord lieutenant set about the task of purchasing or otherwise securing a majority in the new parliament. Peerages, pensions and places were bestowed lavishly on those whose support could be thus secured; Hely-Hutchinson was won over by the concession that the Irish army should be established by the authority of an Irish act of parliament instead of an English one. The Augmentation Bill was carried in the session of 1769 by a large majority. Hely-Hutchinson's support had been so valuable that he received as reward an addition of L1000 a year to the salary of his sinecure of Alnagar, a major's commission in a cavalry regiment, and a promise of the secretaryship of state. He was at this time one of the most brilliant debaters in the Irish parliament, and he was enjoying an exceedingly lucrative practice at the bar. This income, however, together with his well-salaried sinecure, and his place as prime serjeant, he surrendered in 1774, to become provost of Trinity College, although the statute requiring the provost to be in holy orders had to be dispensed with in his favour.

For this great academic position Hely-Hutchinson was in no way qualified, and his appointment to it for purely political service to the government was justly criticized with much asperity. His conduct in using his position as provost to secure the parliamentary representation of the university for his eldest son brought him into conflict with Duigenan, who attacked him in _Lacrymae academicae_, and involved him in a duel with a Mr Doyle; while a similar attempt on behalf of his second son in 1790 led to his being accused before a select committee of the House of Commons of impropriety as returning officer. But although without scholarship Hely-Hutchinson was an efficient provost, during whose rule material benefits were conferred on Trinity College. He continued to occupy a prominent place in parliament, where he advocated free trade, the relief of the Catholics from penal legislation, and the reform of parliament. He was one of the very earliest politicians to recognize the soundness of Adam Smith's views on trade; and he quoted from the _Wealth of Nations_, adopting some of its principles, in his _Commercial Restraints of Ireland_, published in 1779, which Lecky pronounces "one of the best specimens of political literature produced in Ireland in the latter half of the 18th century." In the same year, the economic condition of Ireland being the cause of great anxiety, the government solicited from several leading politicians their opinion on the state of the country with suggestions for a remedy. Hely-Hutchinson's response was a remarkably able state paper (MS. in the Record Office), which also showed clear traces of the influence of Adam Smith. The _Commercial Restraints_, condemned by the authorities as seditious, went far to restore Hely-Hutchinson's popularity which had been damaged by his greed of office. Not less enlightened were his views on the Catholic question. In a speech in parliament on Catholic education in 1782 the provost declared that Catholic students were in fact to be found at Trinity College, but that he desired their presence there to be legalized on the largest scale. "My opinion," he said, "is strongly against sending Roman Catholics abroad for education, nor would I establish Popish colleges at home. The advantage of being admitted into the university of Dublin will be very great to Catholics; they need not be obliged to attend the divinity professor, they may have one of their own; and I would have a part of the public money applied to their use, to the support of a number of poor lads as sizars, and to provide premiums for persons of merit, for I would have them go into examinations and make no distinction between them and the Protestants but such as merit might claim." And after sketching a scheme for increasing the number of diocesan schools where Roman Catholics might receive free education, he went on to urge that "it is certainly a matter of importance that the education of their priests should be as perfect as possible, and that if they have any prejudices they should be prejudices in favour of their own country. The Roman Catholics should receive the best education in the established university at the public expense; but by no means should Popish colleges be allowed, for by them we should again have the press groaning with themes of controversy, and subjects of religious disputation that have long slept in oblivion would again awake, and awaken with them all the worst passions of the human mind."[1]

In 1777 Hely-Hutchinson became secretary of state. When Grattan in 1782 moved an address to the king containing a declaration of Irish legislative independence, Hely-Hutchinson supported the attorney-general's motion postponing the question; but on the 16th of April, after the Easter recess, he read a message from the lord lieutenant, the duke of Portland, giving the king's permission for the House to take the matter into consideration, and he expressed his personal sympathy with the popular cause which Grattan on the same day brought to a triumphant issue (see GRATTAN, HENRY). Hely-Hutchinson supported the opposition on the regency question in 1788, and one of his last votes in the House was in favour of parliamentary reform. In 1790 he exchanged the constituency of Cork for that of Taghmon in County Wexford, for which borough he remained member till his death at Buxton on the 4th of September 1794.

In 1785 his wife had been created Baroness Donoughmore and on her death in 1788, his eldest son Richard (1756-1825) succeeded to the title. Lord Donoughmore was an ardent advocate of Catholic emancipation. In 1797 he was created Viscount Donoughmore,[2] and in 1800 (having voted for the Union, hoping to secure Catholic emancipation from the united parliament) he was further created earl of Donoughmore of Knocklofty, being succeeded first by his brother John Hely-Hutchinson (1757-1832) and then by his nephew John, 3rd earl (1787-1851), from whom the title descended.

See W. E. H. Lecky, _Hist. of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5
vols., London, 1892); J. A. Froude, _The English in Ireland in the
Eighteenth Century_ (3 vols., London, 1872-1874); H. Grattan, _Memoirs
of the Life and Times of Henry Grattan_ (8 vols., London, 1839-1846);
_Baratariana_, by various writers (Dublin, 1773). (R. J. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Irish Parl. Debates_, i. 309, 310.

[2] It is generally supposed that the title conferred by this patent
was that of Viscount Suirdale, and such is the courtesy title by
which the heir apparent of the earls of Donoughmore is usually
styled. This, however, appears to be an error. In all the three
creations (barony 1783, viscountcy 1797, earldom 1800) the title is
"Donoughmore of Knocklofty." In 1821 the 1st earl was further created
Viscount Hutchinson of Knocklofty in the peerage of the United
Kingdom. The courtesy title of the earl's eldest son should,
therefore, apparently be either "Viscount Hutchinson" or "Viscount
Knocklofty." See G. E. C. _Complete Peerage_ (London, 1890).

HELYOT, PIERRE (1660-1716), Franciscan friar and historian, was born at Paris in January 1660, of supposed English ancestry. After spending his youth in study, he entered in his twenty-fourth year the convent of the third order of St Francis, founded at Picpus, near Paris, by his uncle Jerome Helyot, canon of St Sepulchre. There he took the name of Pere Hippolyte. Two journeys to Rome on monastic business afforded him the opportunity of travelling over most of Italy; and after his final return he saw much of France, while acting as secretary to various provincials of his order there. Both in Italy and France he was engaged in collecting materials for his great work, which occupied him about twenty-five years, _L'Histoire des ordres monastiques, religieux, et militaires, et des congregations seculieres, de l'un et de l'autre sexe, qui ont ete etablies jusqu'a present_, published in 8 volumes in 1714-1721. Helyot died on the 5th of January 1716, before the fifth volume appeared, but his friend Maximilien Bullot completed the edition. Helyot's only other noteworthy work is _Le Chretien mourant_ (1695).

The _Histoire_ is a work of first importance, being the great
repertory of information for the general history of the religious
orders up to the end of the 17th century. It is profusely illustrated
by large plates exhibiting the dress of the various orders, and in
the edition of 1792 the plates are coloured. It was translated into
Italian (1737) and into German (1753). The material has been arranged
in dictionary form in Migne's _Encyclopedie theologique_, under the
title "Dictionnaire des orders religieux" (4 vols., 1858).

HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA (1793-1835), English poet, was born in Duke Street, Liverpool, on the 25th of September 1793. Her father, George Browne, of Irish extraction, was a merchant in Liverpool, and her mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was the daughter of the Austrian and Tuscan consul at Liverpool. Felicia, the fifth of seven children, was scarcely seven years old when her father failed in business, and retired with his family to Gwrych, near Abergele, Denbighshire; and there the young poet and her brothers and sisters grew up in a romantic old house by the sea-shore, and in the very midst of the mountains and myths of Wales. Felicia's education was desultory. Books of chronicle and romance, and every kind of poetry, she read with avidity; and she also studied Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German. She played both harp and piano, and cared especially for the simple national melodies of Wales and Spain. In 1808, when she was only fourteen, a quarto volume of her _Juvenile Poems_, was published by subscription, and was harshly criticized in the _Monthly Review_. Two of her brothers were fighting in Spain under Sir John Moore; and Felicia, fired with military enthusiasm, wrote _England and Spain, or Valour and Patriotism_, a poem afterwards translated into Spanish. Her second volume, _The Domestic Affections and other Poems_, appeared in 1812, on the eve of her marriage to Captain Alfred Hemans. She lived for some time at Daventry, where her husband was adjutant of the Northamptonshire militia. About this time her father went to Quebec on business and died there; and, after the birth of her first son, she and her husband went to live with her mother at Bronwylfa, a house near St Asaph. Here during the next six years four more children--all boys--were born; but in spite of domestic cares arid failing health she still read and wrote indefatigably. Her poem entitled _The Restoration of Works of Art to Italy_ was published in 1816, her _Modern Greece_ in 1817, and in 1818 _Translations from Camoens and other Poets_.

In 1818 Captain Hemans went to Rome, leaving his wife, shortly before the birth of their fifth child, with her mother at Bronwylfa. There seems to have been a tacit agreement, perhaps on account of their limited means, that they should separate. Letters were interchanged, and Captain Hemans was often consulted about his children; but the husband and wife never met again. Many friends--among them the bishop of St Asaph and Bishop Heber--gathered round Mrs Hemans and her children. In 1819 she published _Tales and Historic Scenes in Verse_, and gained a prize of L50 offered for the best poem on _The Meeting of Wallace and Bruce on the Banks of the Carron_. In 1820 appeared _The Sceptic and Stanzas to the Memory of the late King_. In June 1821 she won the prize awarded by the Royal Society of Literature for the best poem on the subject of _Dartmoor_, and began her play, _The Vespers of Palermo_. She now applied herself to a course of German reading. Korner was her favourite German poet, and her lines on the grave of Korner were one of the first English tributes to the genius of the young soldier-poet. In the summer of 1823 a volume of her poems was published by Murray, containing "The Siege of Valencia," "The Last Constantine" and "Belshazzar's Feast." _The Vespers of Palermo_ was acted at Covent Garden, December 12, 1823, and Mrs Hemans received L200 for the copyright; but, though the leading parts were taken by Young and Charles Kemble, the play was a failure, and was withdrawn after the first performance. It was acted again in Edinburgh in the following April with greater success, when an epilogue, written for it by Sir Walter Scott at Joanna Baillie's request, was spoken by Harriet Siddons. This was the beginning of a cordial friendship between Mrs Hemans and Scott. In the same year she wrote _De Chatillon, or the Crusaders_; but the manuscript was lost, and the poem was published after her death, from a rough copy. In 1824 she began "The Forest Sanctuary," which appeared a year later with the "Lays of Many Lands" and miscellaneous pieces collected from the _New Monthly Magazine_ and other periodicals.

In the spring of 1825 Mrs Hemans removed from Bronwylfa, which had been purchased by her brother, to Rhyllon, a house on an opposite height across the river Clwyd. The contrast between the two houses suggested her _Dramatic Scene between Bronwylfa and Rhyllon_. The house itself was bare and unpicturesque, but the beauty of its surroundings has been celebrated in "The Hour of Romance," "To the River Clwyd in North Wales," "Our Lady's Well" and "To a Distant Scene." This time seems to have been the most tranquil in Mrs Hemans's life. But the death of her mother in January 1827 was a second great breaking-point in her life. Her heart was affected, and she was from this time an acknowledged invalid. In the summer of 1828 the _Records of Woman_ was published by Blackwood, and in the same year the home in Wales was finally broken up by the marriage of Mrs Hemans's sister and the departure of her two elder boys to their father in Rome. Mrs Hemans removed to Wavertree, near Liverpool. But, although she had a few intimate friends there--among them her two subsequent biographers, Henry F. Chorley and Mrs Lawrence of Wavertree Hall--she was disappointed in her new home. She thought the people of Liverpool stupid and provincial; and they, on the other hand, found her uncommunicative and eccentric. In the following summer she travelled by sea to Scotland with two of her boys, to visit the Hamiltons of Chiefswood.

Here she enjoyed "constant, almost daily, intercourse" with Sir Walter Scott, with whom she and her boys afterwards stayed some time at Abbotsford. "There are some whom we meet, and should like ever after to claim as kith and kin; and you are one of those," was Scott's compliment to her at parting. One of the results of her Edinburgh visit was an article, full of praise, judiciously tempered with criticism, by Jeffrey himself for the _Edinburgh Review_. Mrs Hemans returned to Wavertree to write her _Songs of the Affections_, which were published early in 1830. In the following June, however, she again left home, this time to visit Wordsworth and the Lake country; and in August she paid a second visit to Scotland. In 1831 she removed to Dublin. Her poetry of this date is chiefly religious. Early in 1834 her _Hymns for Childhood_, which had appeared some years before in America, were published in Dublin. At the same time appeared her collection of _National Lyrics_, and shortly afterwards _Scenes and Hymns of Life_. She was planning also a series of German studies, one of which, on Goethe's _Tasso_, was completed and published in the _New Monthly Magazine_ for January 1834. In intervals of acute suffering she wrote the lyric _Despondency and Aspiration_, and dictated a series of sonnets called _Thoughts during Sickness_, the last of which, "Recovery," was written when she fancied she was getting well. After three months spent at Redesdale, Archbishop Whately's country seat, she was again brought into Dublin, where she lingered till spring. Her last poem, the _Sabbath Sonnet_, was dedicated to her brother on Sunday April 26th, and she died in Dublin on the 16th of May 1835 at the age of forty-one.

Mrs Hemans's poetry is the production of a fine imaginative and enthusiastic temperament, but not of a commanding intellect or very complex or subtle nature. It is the outcome of a beautiful but singularly circumscribed life, a life spent in romantic seclusion, without much worldly experience, and warped and saddened by domestic unhappiness and physical suffering. An undue preponderance of the emotional is its prevailing characteristic. Scott complained that it was "too poetical," that it contained "too many flowers" and "too little fruit." Many of her short poems, such as "The Treasures of the Deep," "The Better Land," "The Homes of England," "Casabianca," "The Palm Tree," "The Graves of a Household," "The Wreck," "The Dying Improvisatore," and "The Lost Pleiad," have become standard English lyrics. It is on the strength of these that her reputation must rest.

Mrs Hemans's _Poetical Works_ were collected in 1832; her _Memorials_
&c., by H. F. Chorley (1836).

HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, a market-town and municipal borough in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England, 25 m. N.W. from London, with a station on a branch of the Midland railway from Harpenden, and near Boxmoor station on the London and North Western main line. Pop. (1891) 9678; (1901) 11,264. It is pleasantly situated in the steep-sided valley of the river Gade, immediately above its junction with the Bulbourne, near the Grand Junction canal. The church of St Mary is a very fine Norman building with Decorated additions. Industries include the manufacture of paper, iron founding, brewing and tanning. Boxmoor, within the parish, is a considerable township of modern growth. Hemel Hempstead is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 7184 acres.

Settlements in the neighbourhood of Hemel Hempstead (_Hamalamstede_, _Hemel Hampsted_) date from pre-Roman times, and a Roman villa has been discovered at Boxmoor. The manor, royal demesne in 1086, was granted by Edmund Plantagenet in 1285 to the house of Ashridge, and the town developed under monastic protection. In 1539 a charter incorporated the bailiff and inhabitants. A mayor, aldermen and councillors received governing power by a charter of 1898. The town has never had parliamentary representation. A market on Thursday and a fair on the feast of Corpus Christi were conferred in 1539. A statute fair, for long a hiring fair, originated in 1803.

HEMEROBAPTISTS, an ancient Jewish sect, so named from their observing a practice of daily ablution as an essential part of religion. Epiphanius (_Panarion_, i. 17), who mentions their doctrine as the fourth heresy among the Jews, classes the Hemerobaptists doctrinally with the Pharisees (q.v.) from whom they differed only in, like the Sadducees, denying the resurrection of the dead. The name has been sometimes given to the Mandaeans on account of their frequent ablutions; and in the _Clementine Homilies_ (ii. 23) St John the Baptist is spoken of as a Hemerobaptist. Mention of the sect is made by Hegesippus (see Euseb. _Hist. Eccl._ iv. 22) and by Justin Martyr in the _Dialogue with Trypho_, S 80. They were probably a division of the Essenes.

HEMICHORDA, or HEMICHORDATA, a zoological term introduced by W. Bateson in 1884, without special definition, as equivalent to Enteropneusta, which then included the single genus _Balanoglossus_, and now generally employed to cover a group of marine worm-like animals believed by many zoologists to be related to the lower vertebrates and so to represent the invertebrate stock from which Vertebrates have been derived. Vertebrates, or as they are sometimes termed Chordates, are distinguished from other animals by several important features. The chief of these is the presence of an elastic rod, the notochord, which forms the longitudinal axis of the body, and which persists throughout life in some of the lowest forms, but which appears only in the embryo of the higher forms, being replaced by the jointed backbone or vertebral column. A second feature is the development of outgrowths of the pharynx which unite with the skin of the neck and form a series of perforations leading to the exterior. These structures are the gill-slits, which in fishes are lined with vascular tufts, but which in terrestrial breathing animals appear only in the embryo. The third feature of importance is the position of structure of the central nervous system, which in all the Chordates lies dorsally to the alimentary canal and is formed by the sinking in of a longitudinal media dorsal groove. Of these structures the Vertebrata or Craniata possess all three in a typical form; the Cephalochordata (see Amphioxus) also possess them, but the notochord extends throughout the whole length of the body to the extreme tip of the snout; the Urochordata (see TUNICATA) possess them in a larval condition, but the notochord is present only in the tail, whilst in the adult the notochord disappears and the nervous system becomes profoundly modified; in the Hemichorda, the respiratory organs very closely resemble gill-slits, and structures comparable with the notochord and the tubular dorsal nervous system are present.

The Hemichorda include three orders, the Phoronidea (q.v.), the Pterobranchia (q.v.) and the Enteropneusta (see BALANOGLOSSUS), but the relationship to the Chordata expressed in the designation Hemichordata cannot be regarded as more than an attractive theory with certain arguments in its favour. (P. C. M.)

HEMICYCLE (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half, and [Greek: kyklos], circle), a semicircular recess of considerable size which formed one of the most conspicuous features in the Roman Thermae, where it was always covered with a hemispherical vault. A small example exists in Pompeii, in the street of tombs, with a seat round inside, where those who came to pay their respects to the departed could rest. An immense hemicycle was designed by Bramante for the Vatican, where it constitutes a fine architectural effect at the end of the great court.

HEMIMERUS, an Orthopterous or Dermapterous insect, the sole representative of the family _Hemimeridae_, which has affinities with both the _Forficulidae_ (earwigs) and the _Blattidae_ (cockroaches). Only two species have been discovered, both from West Africa. The better known of these (_H. hanseni_) lives upon a large rat-like rodent (_Cricetomys gambianus_) feeding perhaps upon its external parasites, perhaps upon scurf and other dermal products. Like many epizoic or parasitic insects, _Hemimerus_ is wingless, eyeless and has relatively short and strong legs. Correlated also with its mode of life is the curious fact that it is viviparous, the young being born in an advanced stage of growth.

HEMIMORPHITE, a mineral consisting of hydrous zinc silicate, H2Zn2SiO5, of importance as an ore of the metal, of which it contains 54.4%. It is interesting crystallographically by reason of the hemimorphic development of its orthorhombic crystals; these are prismatic in habit and are differently terminated at the two ends. In the figure, the faces at the upper end of the crystal are the basal plane k and the domes o, p, l, m, whilst at the lower end there are only the four faces of the pyramid P. Connected with this polarity of the crystals is their pyroelectric character--when a crystal is subjected to changes of temperature it becomes positively electrified at one end and negatively at the opposite end. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces (d in the figure). Crystals are usually colourless, sometimes yellowish or greenish, and transparent; they have vitreous lustre. The hardness is 5, and the specific gravity 3.45. The mineral also occurs as stalactitic or botryoidal masses with a fibrous structure, or in a massive, cellular or granular condition intermixed with calamine and clay. It is decomposed by hydrochloric acid with gelatinization; this property affords a ready means of distinguishing hemimorphite from calamine (zinc carbonate), these two minerals being, when not crystallized, very like each other in appearance. The water contained in hemimorphite is expelled only at a red heat, and the mineral must therefore be considered as a basic metasilicate, (ZnOH)2SiO3.

The name hemimorphite was given by G. A. Kenngott in 1853 because of the typical hemimorphic development of the crystals. The mineral had long been confused with _calamine_ (q.v.) and even now this name is often applied to it. On account of its pyroelectric properties, it was called _electric calamine_ by J. Smithson in 1803.

Hemimorphite occurs with other ores of zinc (calamine and blende), forming veins and beds in sedimentary limestones. British localities are Matlock, Alston, Mendip Hills and Leadhills; at Roughten Gill, Caldbeck Fells, Cumberland, it occurs as mammillated incrustations of a sky-blue colour. Well-crystallized specimens have been found in the zinc mines at Altenberg near Aachen in Rhenish Prussia, Nerchinsk mining district in Siberia, and Elkhorn in Montana. (L. J. S.)

HEMINGBURGH, WALTER OF, also commonly, but erroneously, called WALTER HEMINGFORD, a Latin chronicler of the 14th century, was a canon regular of the Austin priory of Gisburn in Yorkshire. Hence he is sometimes known as Walter of Gisburn (Walterus Gisburnensis). Bale seems to have been the first to give him the name by which he became more commonly known. His chronicle embraces the period of English history from the Conquest (1066) to the nineteenth year of Edward III., with the exception of the years 1316-1326. It ends with the title of a chapter in which it was proposed to describe the battle of Crecy (1346); but the chronicler seems to have died before the required information reached him. There is, however, some controversy as to whether the later portions which are lacking in some of the MSS. are by him. In compiling the first part, Hemingburgh apparently used the histories of Eadmer, Hoveden, Henry of Huntingdon, and William of Newburgh; but the reigns of the three Edwards are original, composed from personal observation and information. There are several manuscripts of the history extant--the best perhaps being that presented to the College of Arms by the earl of Arundel. The work is correct and judicious, and written in a pleasing style. One of its special features is the preservation in its pages of copies of the great charters, and Hemingburgh's versions have more than once supplied deficiencies and cleared up obscurities in copies from other sources.

The first three books were published by Thomas Gale in 1687, in his
_Historiae Anglicanae scriptores quinque_, and the remainder by Thomas
Hearne in 1731. The first portion was again published in 1848 by the
English Historical Society, under the title _Chronicon Walteri de
Hemingburgh, vulgo Hemingford nuncupati, de gestis regum Angliae_,
edited by H. C. Hamilton.

HEMIPTERA (Gr. [Greek: hemi-], half and [Greek: pteron], a wing), the name applied in zoological classification to that order of the class Hexapoda (q.v.) which includes bugs, cicads, aphids and scale-insects. The name was first used by Linnaeus (1735), who derived it from the half-coriaceous and half-membranous condition of the forewing in many members of the order. But the wings vary considerably in different families, and the most distinctive feature is the structure of the jaws, which form a beak-like organ with stylets adapted for piercing and sucking. Hence the name _Rhyngota_ (or _Rhynchota_), proposed by J. C. Fabricius (1775), is used by many writers in preference to Hemiptera.

FIG. 1.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad from side.

I., Frons.
II., Base of mandible.
III., Base of first maxillae.
IV., Second maxillae forming rostrum.
V., Pronotum.]

_Structure._--The head varies greatly in shape, and the feelers have usually but few segments--often only four or five. The arrangement of the jaws is remarkably constant throughout the order, if we exclude from it the lice (_Anoplura_). Taking as our type the head of a cicad, we find a jointed rostrum or beak (figs. 1 and 2, IV. b, c) with a deep groove on its anterior face; this organ is formed by the second pair of maxillae and corresponds therefore to the labium or "lower lip" of biting insects. Within the groove of the rostrum two pairs of slender piercers--often barbed at the tip--work to and fro. One of these pairs (fig. 2, II. a, b, c) represents the mandibles, the other (fig. 2, III. a, b, c) the first maxillae. The piercing portions of the latter--representing their inner lobes or laciniae--lie median to the mandibular piercers in the natural position of the organs. These homologies of the hemipterous jaws were determined by J. C. Savigny in 1816, and though disputed by various subsequent writers, they have been lately confirmed by the embryological researches of R. Heymons (1899). Vestigial palps have been described in various species of Hemiptera, but the true nature of these structures is doubtful. In front of the rostrum and the piercers lies the pointed flexible labrum and within its base a small hypopharynx (fig. 2, IV. d) consisting of paired conical processes which lie dorsal to the "syringe" of the salivary glands. This latter organ injects a secretion into the plant or animal tissue from which the insect is sucking. The point of the rostrum is pressed against the surface to be pierced; then the stylets come into play and the fluid food is believed to pass into the mouth by capillary attraction.

FIG. 2.--Head and Prothorax of Cicad, parts separated.

I., a, frons; b, clypeus; c, labrum; d, epipharynx.
I'., Same from behind.
II., Mandible.
III., 1st maxillae, a, base; b, sheath; c, stylet; c', muscle.
IV., 2nd maxillae, a, sub-mentum; b, mentum; c, ligula, forming beak;
d, hypopharynx (shown also from front d', and behind d").
V., Prothorax, b, haunch; a, trochanter.]

The prothorax (figs. 1 and 2, V.) in Hemiptera is large and free, and the mesothoracic scutellum is usually extensive. The number of tarsal segments is reduced; often three, two or only one may be present instead of the typical insectan number five. The wings will be described in connexion with the various sub-orders, but an interesting peculiarity of the Hemiptera is the occasional presence of winged and wingless races of the same species. Eleven abdominal segments can be recognized, at least in the early stages; as the adult condition is reached, the hinder segments become reduced or modified in connexion with the external reproductive organs, and show, in some male Hemiptera, a marked asymmetry. The typical insectan ovipositor with its three pairs of processes, one pair belonging to the eighth and two pairs to the ninth abdominal segment, can be distinguished in the female.

FIG. 3.--a, Cast-off nymphal skin of Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_); b, Second instar after emergence from a; c, The same after a meal.]

In the nervous system the concentration of the trunk ganglia into a single nerve-centre situated in the thorax is remarkable. The digestive system has a slender gullet, a large crop and no gizzard; in some Hemiptera the hinder region of the mid-gut forms a twisted loop with the gullet. Usually there are four excretory (Malpighian) tubes; but there are only two in the _Coccidae_ and none in the _Aphidae_. "Stink glands," which secrete a nauseous fluid with a defensive function, are present in many Hemiptera. In the adult there is a pair of such glands opening ventrally on the hindmost thoracic segment, or at the base of the abdomen; but in the young insect the glands are situated dorsally and open to the exterior on a variable number of the abdominal terga.

_Development._--In most Hemiptera the young insect (fig. 3) resembles its parents except for the absence of wings, and is active through all stages of its growth. In all Hemiptera the wing-rudiments develop externally on the nymphal cuticle, but in some families--the cicads for example--the young insect (fig. 10) is a larva differing markedly in form from its parent, and adapted for a different mode of life, while the nymph before the final moult is sluggish and inactive. In the male _Coccidae_ (Scale-insects) the nymph (fig. 4) remains passive and takes no food. The order of the Hemiptera affords, therefore, some interesting transition stages towards the complete metamorphosis of the higher insects.

FIG. 4.--Passive Nymph or "Pupa" of male scale-insect (_Icerya_).]

_Distribution and Habits._--Hemiptera are widely distributed, and are plentiful in most quarters of the globe, though they probably have not penetrated as far into remote and inhospitable regions as have the Coleoptera, Diptera and Aptera. They feed entirely by suction, and the majority of the species pierce plant tissues and suck sap. The leaves of plants are for the most part the objects of attack, but many aphids and scale-insects pierce stems, and some go underground and feed on roots. The enormous rate at which aphids multiply under favourable conditions makes them of the greatest economic importance, since the growth of immense numbers of the same kind of plant in close proximity--as in ordinary farm-crops--is especially advantageous to the insects that feed on them. Several families of bugs are predaceous in habit, attacking other insects--often members of their own order--and sucking their juices. Others are scavengers feeding on decaying organic matter; the pond skaters, for example, live mostly on the juices of dead floating insects. And some, like the bed-bugs, are parasites of vertebrate animals, on whose bodies they live temporarily or permanently, and whose blood they suck.

The Hemiptera are especially interesting as an order from the variety of aquatic insects included therein. Some of these--the _Hydrometridae_ or pond-skaters, for example--move over the surface-film, on which they are supported by their elongated, slender legs, the body of the insect being raised clear of the water. They are covered with short hairs which form a velvet-like pile, so dense that water cannot penetrate. Consequently when the insect dives, an air-bubble forms around it, a supply of oxygen is thus secured for breathing and the water is kept away from the spiracles. In many of these insects, while most individuals of the species are wingless, winged specimens are now and then met with. The occasional development of wings is probably of service to the species in enabling the insects to reach new fresh-water breeding-grounds. This family of Hemiptera (the _Hydrometridae_) and the _Saldidae_ contain several insects that are marine, haunting the tidal margin. One genus of _Hydrometridae_ (_Halobates_) is even oceanic in its habit, the species being met with skimming over the surface of the sea hundreds of miles from land. Probably they dive when the surface becomes ruffled. In these marine genera the abdomen often undergoes excessive reduction (fig. 5).

Other families of Hemiptera--such as the "Boatmen" (_Notonectidae_) and the "Water-scorpions" (fig. 6) and their allies (_Nepidae_) dive and swim through the water. They obtain their supply of air from the surface. The _Nepidae_ breathe by means of a pair of long, grooved tail processes (really outgrowths of the abdominal pleura) which when pressed together form a tube whose point can pierce the surface film and convey air to the hindmost spiracles which are alone functional in the adult. The _Notonectidae_ breathe mostly through the thoracic spiracles; the air is conveyed to these from the tail-end, which is brought to the surface, along a kind of tunnel formed by overlapping hairs.

FIG. 5.--A reef-haunting hemipteron (_Hermatobates haddonii_) with excessively reduced abdomen. Magnified.]

FIG. 7.

a, Body of male Cicad from below, showing cover-plates of musical
organs;
b, From above showing drums, natural size;
c, Section showing muscles which vibrate drum (magnified);
d, A drum at rest;
e, Thrown into vibration, more highly magnified.]

_Sound-producing Organs._--The Hemiptera are remarkable for the variety of their stridulating organs. In many genera of the _Pentatomidae_, bristle-bearing tubercles on the legs are scraped across a set of fine striations on the abdominal sterna. In _Halobates_ a comb-like series of sharp spines on the fore-shin can be drawn across a set of blunt processes on the shin of the opposite leg. Males of the little water-bugs of the genus _Corixa_ make a shrill chirping note by drawing a row of teeth on the flattened fore-foot across a group of spines on the haunch of the opposite leg. But the loudest and most remarkable vocal organs of all insects are those of the male cicads, which "sing" by the rapid vibration of a pair of "drums" or membranes within the metathorax. These drums are worked by special muscles, and the cavities in which they lie are protected by conspicuous plates visible beneath the base of the abdomen (see fig. 7).

_Fossil History._--The Heteroptera can be traced back farther than any other winged insects if the fossil _Protocimex silurica_ Moberg, from the Ordovician slates of Sweden is rightly regarded as the wing of a bug. But according to the recent researches of A. Handlirsch it is not insectan at all. Both Heteropterous and Homopterous genera have been described from the Carboniferous, but the true nature of some of these is doubtful. _Eugereon_ is a remarkable Permian fossil, with jaws that are typically hemipterous except that the second maxillae are not fused and with cockroach-like wings. In the Jurassic period many of the existing families, such as the _Cicadidae_, _Fulgoridae_, _Aphidae_, _Nepidae_, _Reduviidae_, _Hydrometridae_, _Lygaeidae_ and _Coreidae_, had already become differentiated.

_Classification._--The number of described species of Hemiptera must
now be nearly 20,000. The order is divided into two sub-orders, the
Heteroptera and the Homoptera. The Anoplura or lice should not be
included among the Hemiptera, but it has been thought convenient to
refer briefly to them at the close of this article.

HETEROPTERA

In this sub-order are included the various families of bugs and their
aquatic relations. The front of the head is not in contact with the
haunches of the fore-legs. There is usually a marked difference
between the wings of the two pairs. The fore-wing is generally divided
into a firm coriaceous basal region, occupying most of the area, and a
membranous terminal portion, while the hind-wing is delicate and
entirely membranous (see fig. 6). In the firm portion of the fore-wing
two distinct regions can usually be distinguished; most of the area is
formed by the _corium_ (fig. 6, co), which is separated by a
longitudinal suture from the _clavus_ (fig. 6, cl) on its hinder edge,
and in some families there is also a _cuneus_ (fig. 9 cu) external to
and an _embolium_ in front of the _corium_.

FIG. 8.--Bed-bug (_Cimex lectularius_, Linn.).

a, Female from above;
b, From beneath;
c, Vestigial wing;
d, Jaws, very highly magnified (tips of mandibles and 1st maxillae
still more highly magnified).]

Most Heteroptera are flattened in form, and the wings lie flat, or
nearly so, when closed. The young Heteropteron is hatched from the egg
in a form not markedly different from that of its parent; it is active
and takes food through all the stages of its growth. It is usual to
divide the Heteroptera into two tribes--the Gymnocerata and the
Cryptocerata.

_Gymnocerata._--This tribe includes some eighteen families of
terrestrial, arboreal and marsh-haunting bugs, as well as those
aquatic Heteroptera that live on the surface-film of water. The
feelers are elongate and conspicuous. The _Pentatomidae_
(shield-bugs), some of which are metallic or otherwise brightly
coloured, are easily recognized by the great development of the
scutellum, which reaches at least half-way back towards the tip of the
abdomen, and in some genera covers the whole of the hind body, and
also the wings when these are closed. The _Coreidae_ have a smaller
scutellum, and the feelers are inserted high on the head, while in the
_Lygaeidae_ they are inserted lower down. These three families have
the foot with three segments. In the curious little _Tingidae_, whose
integuments exhibit a pattern of network-like ridges, the feet are
two-segmented and the scutellum is hidden by the pronotum. The
_Aradidae_ have two segmented feet, and a large visible scutellum. The
_Hydrometridae_ are a large family including the pond-skaters and
other dwellers on the surface-film of fresh water, as well as the
remarkable oceanic genus _Halobates_ already referred to. The
_Reduviidae_ are a family of predaceous bugs that attack other
insects and suck their juices; the beak is short, and carried under
the head in a hook-like curve, not--as in the preceding
families--lying close against the breast. The _Cimicidae_ have the
feet three-segmented and the forewings greatly reduced; most of the
species are parasites on birds and bats, but one--_Cimex lectidarius_
(figs. 3, 8)--is the well-known "bed-bug" which abounds in unclean
dwellings and sucks human blood (see BUG). The _Anthocoridae_ are
nearly related to the _Cimicidae_, but the wings are usually well
developed and the forewing possesses cuneus and embolium as well as
corium and clavus. The _Capsidae_ are a large family of rather
soft-skinned bugs mostly elongate in form with the two basal segments
of the feelers stouter than the two terminal. The forewing in this
family has a cuneus (fig. 9 cu), but not an embolium. These insects
are often found in large numbers on plants whose juices they suck.

FIG. 9.--Capsid Leaf-bug (_Poecilocapsus lineatus_) N. America.
Magnified--, cu cuneus.]

FIG. 10.--a, Nymph (4th stage) of Cicad, magnified; c, d, inner and
outer faces of front leg, magnified--; b, teeth on thigh, more highly
magnified.]

_Cryptocerata._--In this tribe are included five or six families of
aquatic Heteroptera which spend the greater part of their lives
submerged, diving and swimming through the water. The feelers are very
small and are often hidden in cavities beneath the head. The
_Naucoridae_ and _Belostomatidae_ are flattened insects, with
four-segmented feelers and fore-legs inserted at the front of the
prosternum. Two species of the former family inhabit our islands, but
the _Belostomatidae_ are found only in the warmer regions of the
globe; some of them, attaining a length of 4 to 5 in., are giants
among insects. The _Nepidae_ (fig. 6) or water-scorpions (q.v.)--two
British species--are distinguished by their three-segmented feelers,
their raptorial fore-legs (in which the shin and foot, fused together,
work like a sharp knife-blade on the grooved thigh), and their
elongate tail-processes formed of the abdominal pleura and used for
respiration. The _Notonectidae_, or "water-boatmen" (q.v.) have convex
ovoid bodies admirably adapted for aquatic life. By means of the
oar-like hind-legs they swim actively through the water with the
ventral surface upwards; the fore-legs are inserted at the hinder edge
of the prosternum. The _Corixidae_ are small flattened water-bugs,
with very short unjointed beak, the labrum being enclosed within the
second maxillae, and the foot in the fore and intermediate leg having
but a single segment. The hinder abdominal segments in the male show a
curious asymmetrical arrangement, the sixth segment bearing on its
upper side a small stalked plate (_strigil_) of unknown function,
furnished with rows of teeth. On account of the reduction and
modification of the jaws in the _Corixidae_, C. Borner has lately
suggested that they should form a special sub-order of Hemiptera--the
Sandaliorrhyncha.

HOMOPTERA

This sub-order includes the cicads, lantern-flies, frog-hoppers,
aphids and scale-insects. The face has such a marked backward slope
(see fig. 1) as to bring the beak into close contact with the haunches
of the fore-legs. The feelers have one or more thickened basal
segments, while the remaining segments are slender and thread-like.
The fore-wings are sometimes membranous like the hind-wings, usually
they are firmer in texture, but they never show the distinct areas
that characterize the wings of Heteroptera. When at rest the wings of
Homoptera slope roofwise across the back of the insect. In their
life-history the Homoptera are more specialized than the Heteroptera;
the young insect often differs markedly from its parent and does not
live in the same situations; while in some families there is a passive
stage before the last moult.

FIG. 11.--Cabbage Aphid (_Aphisbrassicae_). a, Male; c, female
(wingless). Magnified. b and d, Head and feelers of male and female,
more highly magnified.]

FIG. 12.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Male; e,
female; c, larva magnified--; b, foot of male; d, feeler of larva,
more highly magnified.]

The _Cicadidae_ are for the most part large insects with ample wings;
they are distinguished from other Homoptera by the front thighs being
thickened and toothed beneath. The broad head carries, in addition to
the prominent compound eyes, three simple eyes (ocelli) on the crown,
while the feeler consists of a stout basal segment, followed by five
slender segments. The female, by means of her serrated ovipositor,
lays her eggs in slits cut in the twigs of plants. The young have
simple feelers and stout fore-legs (fig. 10) adapted for digging; they
live underground and feed on the roots of plants. In the case of a
North American species it is known that this larval life lasts for
seventeen years. The "song" of the male cicads is notorious and the
structures by which it is produced have already been described (see
also CICADA). There are about 900 known species, but the family is
mostly confined to warm countries; only a single cicad is found in
England, and that is restricted to the south.

The _Fulgoridae_ and _Membracidae_ are two allied families most of
whose members are also natives of hot regions. The _Fulgoridae_ have
the head with two ocelli and three-segmented feelers; frequently as in
the tropical "lantern-flies" (q.v.) the head is prolonged into a
conspicuous bladder, or trunk-like process. The _Membracidae_ are
remarkable on account of the backward prolongation of the pronotum
into a process or hood-like structure which may extend far behind the
tail-end of the abdomen. Two other allied families, the _Cercopidae_
and _Jassidae_, are more numerously represented in our islands. The
young of many of these insects are green and soft-skinned, protecting
themselves by the well-known frothy secretion that is called
"cuckoo-spit."

FIG. 13.--Apple Scale Insect (_Mytilaspis pomorum_). a, Scale from
beneath showing female and eggs; b, from above, magnified--; c and e,
female and male scales on twigs, natural size; d, male scale
magnified.]

FIG. 14.--Louse (_Pediculus vestimenti_). Magnified.]

FIG. 15.--Proboscis of Pediculus. Highly magnified.]

In all the above-mentioned families of Homoptera there are three
segments in each foot. The remaining four families have feet with only
two segments. They are of very great zoological interest on account of
the peculiarities of their life-history--parthenogenesis being of
normal occurrence among most of them. The families _Psyllidae_ (or
"jumpers") with eight or ten segments in the feeler and the
_Aleyrodidae_ (or "snowy-flies") distinguished by their white mealy
wings, are of comparatively slight importance. The two families to
which special attention has been paid are the _Aphidae_ or plant-lice
("green fly") and the _Coccidae_ or scale-insects. The aphids (fig.
11) have feelers with seven or fewer distinct segments, and the fifth
abdominal segment usually carries a pair of tubular processes through
which a waxy secretion is discharged. The sweet "honey-dew," often
sought as a food by ants, is secreted from the intestines of aphids.
The peculiar life-cycle in which successive generations are produced
through the summer months by virgin females--the egg developing within
the body of the mother--is described at length in the articles APHIDES
and PHYLLOXERA. The _Coccidae_ have only a single claw to the foot;
the males (fig. 12 _a_) have the fore-wings developed and the
hind-wings greatly reduced, while in the female wings are totally
absent and the body undergoes marked degradation (figs. 12, _e_, 13,
_a_, _b_). In the Coccids the formation of a protective waxy
secretion--present in many genera of Homoptera--reaches its most
extreme development. In some coccids--the "mealy-bugs" (_Dactylopius_,
&c.) for example--the secretion forms a white thread-like or
plate-like covering which the insect carries about. But in most
members of the family, the secretion, united with cast cuticles and
excrement, forms a firm "scale," closely attached by its edges to the
surface of the plant on which the insect lives, and serving as a
shield beneath which the female coccid, with her eggs (fig. 13 _a_)
and brood, finds shelter. The male coccid passes through a passive
stage (fig. 4) before attaining the perfect condition. Many
scale-insects are among the most serious of pests, but various species
have been utilized by man for the production of wax (lac) and red dye
(cochineal). See ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY, SCALE-INSECT.

ANOPLURA

The Anoplura or lice (see LOUSE) are wingless parasitic insects (fig.
14) forming an order distinct from the Hemiptera, their sucking and
piercing mouth-organs being apparently formed on quite a different
plan from those of the Heteroptera and Homoptera. In front of the head
is a short tube armed with strong recurved hooks which can be fixed
into the skin of the host, and from the tube an elongate more slender
sucking-trunk can be protruded (fig. 15). Each foot is provided with a
single strong claw which, opposed to a process on the shin, serves to
grasp a hair of the host, all the lice being parasites on different
mammals. Although G. Enderlein has recently shown that the jaws of the
Hemiptera can be recognized in a reduced condition in connexion with
the louse's proboscis, the modification is so excessive that the group
certainly deserves ordinal separation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A recent standard work on the morphology of the
Hemiptera by R. Heymons (_Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol._ lxxiv. 3,
1899) contains numerous references to older literature. An excellent
survey of the order is given by D. Sharp (_Cambridge Nat. Hist._ vol.
vi., 1898). For internal structure of Heteroptera see R. Dufour, _Mem.
savans etrangers_ (Paris, iv., 1833); of Homoptera, E. Witlaczil
(_Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien_, iv., 1882, _Zeits. f. wiss. Zool._ xliii.,
1885). The development of Aphids has been dealt with by T. H. Huxley
(_Trans. Linn. Soc._ xxii., 1858) and E. Witlaczil (_Zeits. f. wiss.
Zool._ xl., 1884). Fossil Hemiptera are described by S. H. Scudder in
K. Zittel's _Paleontologie_ (French translation, vol. ii. Paris, 1887,
and English edition, vol. i., London, 1900), and by A. Handlirsch
(_Verh. zool. bot. Gesell. Wien_, lii., 1902). Among general
systematic works on Heteroptera may be mentioned J. C. Schiodte (_Ann.
Mag. Nat. Hist._ (4) vi., 1870); C. Stal's _Enumeratio Hemipterorum_
(_K. Svensk. Vet. Akad. Handl._ ix.-xiv., 1870-1876); L. Lethierry and
G. Severin's _Catalogue generale des hemipteres_ (Brussels 1893, &c.);
G. C. Champion's volumes in the _Biologia Centrali-Americana_; W. L.
Distant's Oriental Cicadidae (London, 1889-1892), and many other
papers; M. E. Fernald's _Catalogue of the Coccidae_ (Amherst, U.S.A.,
1903). European Hemiptera have been dealt with in numerous papers by
A. Puton. For British species we have E. Saunders's
_Hemiptera-Heteroptera of the British Isles_ (London, 1892); J.
Edwards's Hemiptera-Homoptera of the British Isles (London, 1896); J.
B. Buckton's _British Aphidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1875-1882); and
R. Newstead's _British Coccidae_ (London, Ray Society, 1901-1903).
Aquatic Hemiptera are described by L. C. Miall (_Nat. History Aquatic
Insects_; London, 1895), and by G. W. Kirkaldy in numerous recent
papers (_Entomologist_, &c.). For marine Hemiptera (_Halobates_) see
F. B. White (_Challenger Reports_, vii., 1883); J. J. Walker (_Ent.
Mo. Mag._, 1893); N. Nassonov (Warsaw, 1893), and G. H. Carpenter
(_Knowledge_, 1901, and _Report, Pearl Oyster Fisheries, Royal
Society_, 1906). Sound-producing organs of Heteroptera are described
by A. Handlirsch (_Ann. Hofmus. Wien_, xv. 1900), and G. W. Kirkaldy
(_Journ. Quekett Club_ (2) viii. 1901); of Cicads by G. Carlet (_Ann.
Sci. Nat. Zool._ (6) v. 1877). For the Anoplura see E. Piaget's
_Pediculines_ (Leiden, 1880-1905), and G. Enderlein (_Zool. Anz._
xxviii., 1904). (G. H. C.)