Chapter XV: Part 15

_Aesthetics_ elaborates the "ideas" involved in the expression of
taste called forth by those relations of object which acquire for them
the attribution of beauty or the reverse. The beautiful ([Greek:
kalon]) is to be carefully distinguished from the allied conceptions
of the useful and the pleasant, which vary with time, place and
person; whereas beauty is predicated absolutely and involuntarily by
all who have attained the right standpoint. Ethics, which is but one
branch of aesthetics, although the chief, deals with such relations
among volitions (_Willensverhaltnisse_) as thus unconditionally please
or displease. These relations Herbart finds to be reducible to five,
which do not admit of further simplification; and corresponding to
them are as many moral ideas (_Musterbegriffe_), viz.: (1) _Internal
Freedom_, the underlying relation being that of the individual's will
to his judgment of it; (2) _Perfection_, the relation being that of
his several volitions to each other in respect of intensity, variety
and concentration; (3) _Benevolence_, the relation being that between
his own will and the thought of another's; (4) _Right_, in case of
actual conflict with another; and (5) _Retribution_ or _Equity_, for
intended good or evil done. The ideas of a final society, a system of
rewards and punishments, a system of administration, a system of
culture and a "unanimated society," corresponding to the ideas of law,
equity, benevolence, perfection and internal freedom respectively,
result when we take account of a number of individuals. Virtue is the
perfect conformity of the will with the moral ideas; of this the
single virtues are but special expressions. The conception of duty
arises from the existence of hindrances to the attainment of virtue. A
general scheme of principles of conduct is possible, but the
subsumption of special cases under these must remain matter of tact.
The application of ethics to things as they are with a view to the
realization of the moral ideas is moral technology (_Tugendlehre_), of
which the chief divisions are Paedagogy and Politics.

In _Theology_ Herbart held the argument from design to be as valid for
divine activity as for human, and to justify the belief in a
super-sensible real, concerning which, however, exact knowledge is
neither attainable nor on practical grounds desirable.

Among the post-Kantian philosophers Herbart doubtless ranks next to
Hegel in importance, and this without taking into account his very
great contributions to the science of education. His disciples speak
of theirs as the "exact philosophy," and the term well expresses their
master's chief excellence and the character of the chief influence he
has exerted upon succeeding thinkers of his own and other schools. His
criticisms are worth more than his constructions; indeed for exactness
and penetration of thought he is quite on a level with Hume and Kant.
His merits in this respect, however, can only be appraised by the
study of his works at first hand. But we are most of all indebted to
Herbart for the enormous advance psychology has been enabled to make,
thanks to his fruitful treatment of it, albeit as yet but few among
the many who have appropriated and improved his materials have
ventured to adopt his metaphysical and mathematical foundations.
(J. W.*)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Herbart's works were collected and published by his
disciple G. Hartenstein (Leipzig, 1850-1852; reprinted at Hamburg,
with supplementary volume, 1883-1893); another edition by K. Kehrbach
(Leipzig, 1882, and Langensalza, 1887). The following are the most
important: _Allgemeine Padagogik_ (1806; new ed., 1894); _Hauptpunkte
der Metaphysik_ (1808); _Allgemeine praktische Philosophie_ (1808);
_Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie_ (1813; new ed. by
Hartenstein, 1883); _Lehrbuch der Psychologie_ (1816; new ed. by
Hartenstein, 1887); _Psychologie als Wissenschaft_ (1824-1825);
_Allgemeine Metaphysik_ (1828-1829); _Encyklopadie der Philosophie_
(2nd ed., 1841); _Umriss padagogischer Vorlesungen_ (2nd ed., 1841);
_Psychologische Untersuchungen_ (1839-1840).

Some of his works have been translated into English under the
following titles: _Textbook in Psychology_, by M. K. Smith (1891);
_The Science of Education and the Aesthetic Revelation of the World_
(1892), and _Letters and Lectures on Education_ (1898), by H. M. and
E. Felkin; _A B C of Sense Perception and minor pedagogical works_
(New York, 1896), by W. J. Eckhoff and others; _Application of
Psychology to the Science of Education_ (1898), by B. C. Mulliner;
_Outlines of Educational Doctrine_, by A. F. Lange (1901).

There is a life of Herbart in Hartenstein's introduction to his
_Kleinere philosophische Schriften und Abhandlungen_ (1842-1843) and
by F. H. T. Allihn in _Zeitschrift fur exacte Philosophie_ (Leipzig,
1861), the organ of Herbart and his school, which ceased to appear in
1873. In America the National Society for the Scientific Study of
Education was originally founded as the National Herbart Society.

Of the large number of writings dealing with Herbart's works and
theories, the following may be mentioned: H. A. Fechner, _Zur Kritik
der Grundlagen von Herbart's Metaphysik_ (Leipzig, 1853); J. Kaftan,
_Sollen und Sein in ihrem Verhaltniss zu einander: eine Studie zur
Kritik Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1872); M. W. Drobisch, _Uber die
Fortbildung der Philosophie durch Herbart_ (Leipzig, 1876); K. S.
Just, _Die Fortbildung der Kant'schen Ethik durch Herbart_ (Eisenach,
1876); C. Ufer, _Vorschule der Padagogik Herbarts_ (1883; Eng. tr. by
J. C. Zinser, 1895); G. Kozle, _Die padagogische Schule Herbarts und
ihre Lehre_ (Gutersloh, 1889); L. Strumpell, _Das System der Padagogik
Herbarts_ (Leipzig, 1894); J. Christinger, _Herbarts Erziehungslehre
und ihre Fortbildner_ (Zurich, 1895); O. H. Lang, _Outline of
Herbart's Pedagogics_ (1894); H. M. and E. Felkin, _Introduction to
Herbart's Science and Practice of Education_ (1895); C. de Garmo,
_Herbart and the Herbartians_ (New York, 1895); E. Wagner, _Die Praxis
der Herbartianer_ (Langensalza, 1897) and _Vollstandige Darstellung
der Lehre Herbarts_ (ib., 1899); J. Adams, _The Herbartian Psychology
applied to Education_ (1897); F. H. Hayward, _The Student's Herbart_
(1902), _The Critics of Herbartianism_ (1903), _Three Historical
Educators: Pestalozzi, Frobel, Herbart_ (1905), _The Secret of
Herbart_ (1907), _The Meaning of Education as interpreted by Herbart_
(1907); W. Kinkel, _J. F. Herbart: sein Leben und seine Philosophie_
(1903); A. Darroch, _Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of Education_
(1903); C. J. Dodd, _Introduction to the Herbartian Principles of
Teaching_ (1904); J. Davidson, _A new Interpretation of Herbart's
Psychology and Educational Theory through the Philosophy of Leibnitz_
(1906); see also J. M. Baldwin, _Dictionary of Psychology and
Philosophy_ (1901-1905).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Hence Herbart gave the name Synechology to this branch of
metaphysics, instead of the usual one, Cosmology.

[2] Thus, taking the case above supposed, the share of the inhibendum
falling to the smaller presentation b is the fourth term of the
proportion a + b : a :: b : ab/(a + b); and so b's remainder is b
- ab/(a + b) = b^2/(a + b), which only = 0 when a = [infinity].

HERBELOT DE MOLAINVILLE, BARTHELEMY D' (1625-1695), French orientalist, was born on the 14th of December 1625 at Paris. He was educated at the university of Paris, and devoted himself to the study of oriental languages, going to Italy to perfect himself in them by converse with the orientals who frequented its sea-ports. There he also made the acquaintance of Holstenius, the Dutch humanist (1596-1661), and Leo Allatius, the Greek scholar (1586-1669). On his return to France after a year and a half, he was received into the house of Fouquet, superintendent of finance, who gave him a pension of 1500 livres. Losing this on the disgrace of Fouquet in 1661, he was appointed secretary and interpreter of Eastern languages to the king. A few years later he again visited Italy, when the grand-duke Ferdinand II. of Tuscany presented him with a large number of valuable Oriental MSS., and tried to attach him to his court. Herbelot, however, was recalled to France by Colbert, and received from the king a pension equal to the one he had lost. In 1692 he succeeded D'Auvergne in the chair of Syriac, in the College de France. He died in Paris on the 8th of December 1695. His great work is the _Bibliotheque orientale, ou dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui regarde la connaissance des peuples de l'Orient_, which occupied him nearly all his life, and was completed in 1697 by A. Galland. It is based on the immense Arabic dictionary of Hadji Khalfa, of which indeed it is largely an abridged translation, but it also contains the substance of a vast number of other Arabic and Turkish compilations and manuscripts.

The _Bibliotheque_ was reprinted at Maestricht (fol. 1776), and at the
Hague (4 vols. 4to, 1777-1799). The latter edition is enriched with
the contributions of the Dutch orientalist Schultens, Johann Jakob
Reiske (1716-1774), and by a supplement provided by Visdelow and
Galland. Herbelot's other works, none of which have been published,
comprise an _Oriental Anthology_, and an _Arabic, Persian, Turkish and
Latin Dictionary_.

HERBERAY DES ESSARTS, NICOLAS DE (d. about 1557), French translator, was born in Picardy. He served in the artillery, and at the expressed desire of Francis I. he translated into French the first eight books of _Amadis de Gaul_ (1540-1548). The remaining books were translated by other authors. His other translations from the Spanish include _L'Amant maltraite de sa mye_ (1539); _Le Premier Livre de la chronique de dom Flores de Grece_ (1552); and _L'Horloge des princes_ (1555) from Guevara. He also translated the works of Josephus (1557). He died about 1557. The _Amadis de Gaul_ was translated into English by Anthony Munday in 1619.

HERBERT (FAMILY). The sudden rising of this English family to great wealth and high place is the more remarkable in that its elevation belongs to the 15th century and not to that age of the Tudors when many new men made their way upwards into the ranks of the nobility. Earlier generations of a pedigree which carries the origin of the Herberts to Herbert the Chamberlain, a Domesday tenant, being disregarded, their patriarch may be taken to be one Jenkin ap Adam (temp. Edward III.), who had a small Monmouthshire estate at Llanvapley and the office of master sergeant of the lordship of Abergavenny, a place which gave him precedence after the steward of that lordship. Jenkin's son, Gwilim ap Jenkin, who followed his father as master sergeant, is given six sons by the border genealogists, no less than six score pedigrees finding their origin in these six brothers. Their order is uncertain, although the Progers of Werndee, the last of whom sold his ancestral estate in 1780, are reckoned as the senior line of Gwilim's descendants. But Thomas ap Gwilim Jenkin, called the fourth son, is ancestor of all those who bore the surname of Herbert.

Thomas's fifth son, William or Gwilim ap Thomas, who died in 1446, was the first man of the family to make any figure in history. This Gwilim ap Thomas was steward of the lordships of Usk and Caerleon under Richard, duke of York. Legend makes him a knight on the field of Agincourt, but his knighthood belongs to the year 1426. He appears to have married twice, his first wife being Elizabeth Bluet of Raglan, widow of Sir James Berkeley, and his second a daughter of David Gam, a valiant Welsh squire slain at Agincourt. Royal favour enriched Sir William, and he was able to buy Raglan Castle from the Lord Berkeley, his first wife's son, the deed, which remains among the Beaufort muniments, refuting the pedigree-maker's statement that he inherited the castle as heir of his mother "Maude, daughter of Sir John Morley." His sons William and Richard, both partisans of the White Rose, took the surname of Herbert in or before 1461. Playing a part in English affairs remote from the Welsh Marches, their lack of a surname may well have inconvenienced them, and their choice of the name Herbert can only be explained by the suggestion that their long pedigree from Herbert the Chamberlain, absurdly represented as a bastard son of Henry I., must already have been discovered for them. Copies exist of an alleged commission issued by Edward IV. to a committee of Welsh bards for the ascertaining of the true ancestry of William Herbert, earl of Pembroke, whom "the chiefest men of skill" in the province of South Wales declare to be the descendant of "Herbert, a noble lord, natural son to King Henry the first," and it is recited that King Edward, after the creation of the earldom, commanded the earl and Sir Richard his brother to "take their surnames after their first progenitor Herbert fitz Roy and to forego the British order and manner." But this commission, whose date anticipates by some years the true date of the creation of the earldom, is the work of one of the many genealogical forgers who flourished under the Tudors.

Sir William Herbert, called by the Welsh Gwilim Ddu or Black William, was a baron in 1461 and a Knight of the Garter in the following year. With many manors and castles on the Marches he had the castle, town and lordship of Pembroke, and after the attainder of Jasper Tudor in 1468 was created earl of Pembroke. When in July 1469 he was taken by Sir John Conyers and the northern Lancastrians on Hedgecote, he was beheaded with his brother Sir Richard Herbert of Coldbrook. The second earl while still a minor exchanged at the king's desire in 1479 his earldom of Pembroke for that of Huntingdon. In 1484 this son of one whom Hall not unjustly describes as born "a mean gentleman" contracted to marry Katharine the daughter of King Richard III., but her death annulled the contract and the earl married Mary, daughter of the Earl Rivers, by whom he had a daughter Elizabeth, whose descendants, the Somersets, lived in the Herbert's castle of Raglan until the cannon of the parliament broke it in ruins. With the second earl's death in 1491 the first Herbert earldom became extinct. No claim being set up among the other descendants of the first earl, it may be taken that their lines were illegitimate. One of the chief difficulties which beset the genealogist of the Herberts lies in their Cambrian disregard of the marriage tie, bastards and legitimate issue growing up, it would seem, side by side in their patriarchal households. Thus the ancestor of the present earls of Pembroke and Carnarvon and of the Herbert who was created marquess of Powis was a natural son of the first earl, one Richard Herbert, whom the restored inscription on his tomb at Abergavenny incorrectly describes as a knight. He was constable and porter of Abergavenny Castle, and his son William, "a mad fighting fellow" in his youth, married a sister of Catherine Parr and thus in 1543 became nearly allied to the king, who made him one of the executors of his will. The earldom of Pembroke was revived for him in 1551. It is worthy of note that all traces of illegitimacy have long since been removed from the arms of the noble descendants of Richard Herbert.

The honours and titles of this clan of marchmen make a long list. They include the marquessate of Powis, two earldoms with the title of Pembroke, two with that of Powis, and the earldoms of Huntingdon and Montgomery, Torrington and Carnarvon, the viscountcies of Montgomery and Ludlow, fourteen baronies and seven baronetcies. Seven Herberts have worn the Garter. The knights and rich squires of the stock can hardly be reckoned, more especially as they must be sought among Raglans, Morgans, Parrys, Vaughans, Progers, Hugheses, Thomases, Philips, Powels, Gwyns, Evanses and Joneses, as well as among those who have borne the surname of Herbert, a surname which in the 19th century was adopted by the Joneses of Llanarth and Clytha, although they claim no descent from those sons of Sir William ap Thomas for whom it was devised. (O. Ba.)

HERBERT, GEORGE (1593-1633), English poet, was born at Montgomery Castle on the 3rd of April 1593. He was the fifth son of Sir Richard Herbert and a brother of Lord Herbert of Cherbury. His mother, Lady Magdalen Herbert, a woman of great good sense and sweetness of character, and a friend of John Donne, exercised great influence over her son. Educated privately until 1605, he was then sent to Westminster School, and in 1609 he became a scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was made B.A. in 1613, M.A. and major fellow of the college in 1616. In 1618 he became Reader in Rhetoric, and in 1619 orator for the university. In this capacity he was several times brought into contact with King James. From Cambridge he wrote some Latin satiric verses[1] in defence of the universities and the English Church against Andrew Melville, a Scottish Presbyterian minister. He numbered among his friends Dr Donne, Sir Henry Wotton, Izaak Walton, Bishop Andrewes and Francis Bacon, who dedicated to him his translation of the Psalms. Walton tells us that "the love of a court conversation, mixed with a laudable ambition to be something more than he was, drew him often from Cambridge to attend the king wheresoever the court was," and James I. gave him in 1623 the sinecure lay rectory of Whitford, Flintshire, worth L120 a year. The death of his patrons, the duke of Richmond and the marquess of Hamilton, and of King James put an end to his hopes of political preferment; moreover he probably distrusted the conduct of affairs under the new reign. Largely influenced by his mother, he decided to take holy orders, and in July 1626 he was appointed prebendary of Layton Ecclesia (Leighton Bromswold), Huntingdon. Here he was within two miles of Little Gidding, and came under the influence of Nicholas Ferrar. It was at Ferrar's suggestion that he undertook to rebuild the church at Layton, an undertaking carried through by his own gifts and the generosity of his friends. There is little doubt that the close friendship with Ferrar had a large share in Herbert's adoption of the religious life. In 1630 Charles I., at the instance of the earl of Pembroke, whose kinsman Herbert was, presented him to the living of Fugglestone with Bemerton, near Salisbury, and he was ordained priest in September. A year before, after three days' acquaintance, he had married Jane Danvers, whose father had been set on the marriage for a long time. He had often spoken of his daughter Jane to Herbert, and "so much commended Mr Herbert to her, that Jane became so much a Platonic as to fall in love with Mr Herbert unseen." The story of the poet's life at Bemerton, as told by Walton, is one of the most exquisite pictures in literary biography. He devoted much time to explaining the meaning of the various parts of the Prayer-Book, and held services twice every day, at which many of the parishioners attended, and some "let their plough rest when Mr Herbert's saints-bell rung to prayers, that they might also offer their devotions to God with him." Next to Christianity itself he loved the English Church. He was passionately fond of music, and his own hymns were written to the accompaniment of his lute or viol. He usually walked twice a week to attend the cathedral at Salisbury, and before returning home, would "sing and play his part" at a meeting of music lovers. Walton illustrates Herbert's kindness to the poor by many touching anecdotes, but he had not been three years in Bemerton when he succumbed to consumption. He was buried beneath the altar of his church on the 3rd of March 1633.

None of Herbert's English poems was published during his lifetime. On his death-bed he gave to Nicholas Ferrar a manuscript with the title _The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations_. This was published at Cambridge, apparently for private circulation, almost immediately after Herbert's death, and a second imprint followed in the same year. On the title-page of both is the quotation "In his Temple doth every man speak of his honour." _The Temple_ is a collection of religious poems connected by unity of sentiment and inspiration. Herbert tried to interpret his own devout meditations by applying images of all kinds to the ritual and beliefs of the Church. Nothing in his own church at Bemerton was too commonplace to serve as a starting-point for the epigrammatic expression of his piety. The church key reminds him that "it is my sin that locks his handes," and the stones of the floor are patience and humility, while the cement that binds them together is love and charity. The chief faults of the book are obscurity, verbal conceits and a forced ingenuity which shows itself in grotesque puns, odd metres and occasional want of taste. But the quaint beauty of Herbert's style and its musical quality give _The Temple_ a high place. "The Church Porch," "The Agony," "Sin," "Sunday," "Virtue," "Man," "The British Church," "The Quip," "The Collar," "The Pulley," "The Flower," "Aaron" and "The Elixir" are among the best known of these poems. Herbert and Keble are the poets of Anglican theology. No book is fuller of devotion to the Church of England than _The Temple_, and no poems in our language exhibit more of the spirit of true Christianity. Every page is marked by transparent sincerity, and reflects the beautiful character of "holy George Herbert."

Nicholas Ferrar's translation (Oxford, 1638) of the _Hundred and Ten
Considerations ..._ of Juan de Valdes contained a letter and notes by
Herbert. In 1652 appeared _Herbert's Remains; or, Sundry Pieces of
that Sweet Singer of the Temple, Mr George Herbert_. This included _A
Priest to the Temple; or, The Country Parson, his Character, and Rule
of Holy Life_, in prose; _Jacula prudentum_, a collection of proverbs
with a separate title-page dated 1651, which had appeared in a shorter
form as _Outlandish Proverbs_ in 1640; and some miscellaneous matter.
The completest edition of his works is that by Dr A. B. Grosart in
1874, this edition of the Poetical works being reproduced in the
"Aldine edition" in 1876. _The English Works of George Herbert ..._ (3
vols., 1905) were edited in much detail by G. H. Palmer. A
contemporary account of Herbert's life by Barnabas Oley was prefixed
to the _Remains_ of 1652, but the classic authority is Izaak Walton's
_Life of Mr George Herbert_, published in 1670, with some letters from
Herbert to his mother. See also A. G. Hyde, _George Herbert and his
Times_ (1907), and the "Oxford" edition of his poems by A. Waugh
(1908).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Printed in 1662 as an appendix to J. Vivian's _Ecclesiastes
Solomonis_.

HERBERT, HENRY WILLIAM ["Frank Forester"] (1807-1858), English novelist and writer on sport, son of the Hon. and Rev. William Herbert, dean of Manchester, a son of the first earl of Carnarvon, was born in London on the 3rd of April 1807. He was educated at Eton and at Caius College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1830. Having become involved in debt, he emigrated to America, and from 1831 to 1839 was teacher of Greek in a private school in New York. In 1833 he started the _American Monthly Magazine_, which he edited, in conjunction with A. D. Patterson, till 1835. In 1834 he published his first novel, _The Brothers: a Tale of the Fronde_, which was followed by a number of others which obtained a certain degree of popularity. He also wrote a series of historical studies, including _The Cavaliers of England_ (1852), _The Knights of England, France and Scotland_ (1852), _The Chevaliers of France_ (1853), and _The Captains of the Old World_ (1851); but he is best known for his works on sport, published under the pseudonym of "Frank Forester." These include _The Field Sports of the United States and British Provinces_ (1849), _Frank Forester and his Friends_ (1849), _The Fish and Fishing of the United States_ (1850), _The Young Sportsman's Complete Manual_ (1852), and _The Horse and Horsemanship in the United States and British Provinces of North America_ (1858). He also translated many of the novels of Eugene Sue and Alexandre Dumas. Herbert was a man of varied accomplishments, but of somewhat dissipated habits. He died by his own hand in New York on the 17th of May 1858.

HERBERT, SIR THOMAS (1606-1682), English traveller and author, was born at York in 1606. Several of his ancestors were aldermen and merchants in that city--e.g. his grandfather and benefactor, Alderman Herbert (d. 1614)--and they traced a connexion with the earls of Pembroke. Thomas became a commoner of Jesus College, Oxford, in 1621, but afterwards removed to Cambridge, through the influence of his uncle Dr Ambrose Akroyd. In 1627 the earl of Pembroke procured his appointment in the suite of Sir Dodmore Cotton, then starting as ambassador for Persia with Sir Robert Shirley. Sailing in March they visited the Cape, Madagascar, Goa and Surat; landing at Gambrun (10th of January 1627-1628), they travelled inland to Ashraf and thence to Kazvin, where both Cotton and Shirley died, and whence Herbert made extensive travels in the Persian _Hinterland_, visiting Kashan, Bagdad, &c. On his return voyage he touched at Ceylon, the Coromandel coast, Mauritius and St Helena. He reached England in 1629, travelled in Europe in 1630-1631, married in 1632 and retired from court in 1634 (his prospects perhaps blighted by Pembroke's death in 1630); after this he resided on his Tintern estate and elsewhere till the Civil War, siding with the parliament till his appointment to attend on the king in 1646. Becoming a devoted royalist, he was rewarded with a baronetcy at the Restoration (1660). He resided mainly in York Street, Westminster, till the Great Plague (1666), when he retired to York, where he died (at Petergate House) on the 1st of March 1682.

Herbert's chief work is the _Description of the Persian Monarchy now
beinge: the Orientall Indyes, Iles and other parts of the Greater Asia
and Africk_ (1634), reissued with additions, &c., in 1638 as _Some
Yeares Travels into Africa and Asia the Great_ (al. _into divers parts
of Asia and Afrique_); a third edition followed in 1664, and a fourth
in 1677. This is one of the best records of 17th-century travel. Among
its illustrations are remarkable sketches of the dodo, cuneiform
inscriptions and Persepolis. Herbert's _Threnodia Carolina; or,
Memoirs of the two last years of the reign of that unparallell'd
prince of ever blessed memory King Charles I._, was in great part
printed at the author's request in Wood's _Athenae Oxonienses_; in
full by Dr C. Goodall in his _Collection of Tracts_ (1702, repr. G. &
W. Nicol, 1813). Sir William Dugdale is understood to have received
assistance from Herbert in the _Monasticon Anglicanum_, vol. iv.; see
two of Herbert's papers on St John's, Beverley and Ripon collegiate
church, now cathedral, in Drake's _Eboracum_ (appendix). Cf. also
Robert Davies' account of Herbert in _The Yorkshire Archaeological and
Topographical Journal_, part iii., pp. 182-214 (1870), containing a
facsimile of the inscription on Herbert's tomb; Wood's _Athenae_, iv.
15-41; and _Fasti_, ii. 26, 131, 138, 143-144, 150.

HERBERT OF CHERBURY, EDWARD HERBERT, BARON (1583-1648), English soldier, diplomatist, historian and religious philosopher, eldest son of Richard Herbert of Montgomery Castle (a member of a collateral branch of the family of the earls of Pembroke) and of Magdalen, daughter of Sir Richard Newport, was born at Eyton-on-Severn near Wroxeter on the 3rd of March 1583. After careful private tuition he matriculated at University College, Oxford, as a gentleman commoner, in May 1596. On the 28th of February 1599 he married his cousin Mary, daughter and heiress of Sir William Herbert (d. 1593). He returned to Oxford with his wife and mother, continued his studies, and obtained proficiency in modern languages as well as in music, riding and fencing. On the accession of James I. he presented himself at court and was created a knight of the Bath on the 24th of July 1603. In 1608 he went to Paris, enjoying the friendship and hospitality of the old constable de Montmorency, and being entertained by Henry IV. On his return, as he says himself with naive vanity, he was "in great esteem both in court and city, many of the greatest desiring my company." In 1610 he served as a volunteer in the Low Countries under the prince of Orange, whose intimate friend he became, and distinguished himself at the capture of Juliers from the emperor. He offered to decide the war by engaging in single combat with a champion chosen from among the enemy, but his challenge was declined. During an interval in the fighting he paid a visit to Spinola, in the Spanish camp near Wezel, and afterwards to the elector palatine at Heidelberg, subsequently travelling in Italy. At the instance of the duke of Savoy he led an expedition of 4000 Huguenots from Languedoc into Piedmont to help the Savoyards against Spain, but after nearly losing his life in the journey to Lyons he was imprisoned on his arrival there, and the enterprise came to nothing. Thence he returned to the Netherlands and the prince of Orange, arriving in England in 1617. In 1619 he was made by Buckingham ambassador at Paris, but a quarrel with de Luynes and a challenge sent by him to the latter occasioned his recall in 1621. After the death of de Luynes Herbert resumed his post in February 1622. He was very popular at the French court and showed considerable diplomatic ability, his chief objects being to accomplish the union between Charles and Henrietta Maria and secure the assistance of Louis XIII. for the unfortunate elector palatine. This latter advantage he could not obtain, and he was dismissed in April 1624. He returned home greatly in debt and received little reward for his services beyond the Irish peerage of Castle island in 1624 and the English barony of Cherbury, or Chirbury, on the 7th of May 1629. In 1632 he was appointed a member of the council of war. He attended the king at York in 1639, and in May 1642 was imprisoned by the parliament for urging the addition of the words "without cause" to the resolution that the king violated his oath by making war on parliament. He determined after this to take no further part in the struggle, retired to Montgomery Castle, and declined the king's summons. On the 5th of September 1644 he surrendered the castle to the parliamentary forces, returned to London, submitted, and was granted a pension of L20 a week. In 1647 he paid a visit to Gassendi at Paris, and died in London on the 20th of August, 1648, being buried in the church of St Giles's in the Fields.

Lord Herbert left two sons, Richard (c. 1600-1655), who succeeded him as 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury, and Edward, the title becoming extinct in the person of Henry Herbert, the 4th baron, grandson of the 1st Lord Herbert in 1691. In 1694, however, it was revived in favour of Henry Herbert (1654-1709), son of Sir Henry Herbert (1595-1673), brother of the 1st Lord Herbert of Cherbury. Sir Henry was master of the revels to Charles I. and Charles II., being busily employed in reading and licensing plays and in supervising all kinds of public entertainments. He died in April 1673; his son Henry died in January 1709, when the latter's son Henry became 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the second creation. He died without issue in April 1738, and again the barony became extinct. In 1743 it was revived for Henry Arthur Herbert (c. 1703-1772), who five years later was created earl of Powis. This nobleman was a great-grandson of the 2nd Lord Herbert of Cherbury of the first creation, and since his time the barony has been held by the earls of Powis.

Lord Herbert's cousin, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657), was a member of parliament under James I. and Charles I. Having become attorney-general he was instructed by Charles to take proceedings against some members of parliament who had been concerned in the passing of the Grand Remonstrance; the only result, however, was Herbert's own impeachment by the House of Commons and his imprisonment. Later in life he was with the exiled royal family in Holland and in France, becoming lord keeper of the great seal to Charles II., an office which he had refused in 1645. He died in Paris in December 1657. One of Herbert's son was Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, and another was Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1648-1698), titular earl of Portland, who was made chief justice of the king's bench in 1685 in succession to Lord Jeffreys. It was Sir Edward who declared for the royal prerogative in the case of _Godden_ v. _Hales_, asserting that the kings of England, being sovereign princes, could dispense with particular laws in particular cases. After the escape of James II. to France this king made Herbert his lord chancellor and created him earl of Portland, although he was a Protestant and had exhibited a certain amount of independence during 1687.

The first Lord Herbert's real claim to fame and remembrance is derived
from his writings. Herbert's first and most important work is the _De
veritate prout distinguitur a revelatione, a verisimili, a possibili,
et a falso_ (Paris, 1624; London, 1633; translated into French 1639,
but never into English; a MS. in add. MSS. 7081. Another, Sloane MSS.
3957, has the author's dedication to his brother George in his own
hand, dated 1622). It combines a theory of knowledge with a partial
psychology, a methodology for the investigation of truth, and a scheme
of natural religion. The author's method is prolix and often far from
clear; the book is no compact system, but it contains the skeleton and
much of the soul of a complete philosophy. Giving up all past theories
as useless, Herbert professedly endeavours to constitute a new and
true system. Truth, which he defines as a just conformation of the
faculties with one another and with their objects, he distributed into
four classes or stages: (1) truth in the thing or the truth of the
object; (2) truth of the appearance; (3) truth of the apprehension
(_conceptus_); (4) truth of the intellect. The faculties of the mind
are as numerous as the differences of their objects, and are
accordingly innumerable; but they may be arranged in four groups. The
first and fundamental and most certain group is the _Natural
Instinct_, to which belong the [Greek: koinai ennoiai], the _notitiae
communes_, which are innate, of divine origin and indisputable. The
second group, the next in certainty, is the _sensus internus_ (under
which head Herbert discusses amongst others love, hate, fear,
conscience with its _communis notitia_, and free will); the third is
the _sensus externus_; and the fourth is _discursus_, reasoning, to
which, as being the least certain, we have recourse when the other
faculties fail. The ratiocinative faculties proceed by division and
analysis, by questioning, and are slow and gradual in their movement;
they take aid from the other faculties, those of the _instinctus
naturalis_ being always the final test. Herbert's categories or
questions to be used in investigation are ten in number whether (a
thing is), what, of what sort, how much, in what relation, how, when,
where, whence, wherefore. No faculty, rightly used, can err "even in
dreams"; badly exercised, reasoning becomes the source of almost all
our errors. The discussion of the _notitiae communes_ is the most
characteristic part of the book. The exposition of them, though highly
dogmatic, is at times strikingly Kantian in substance. "So far are
these elements or sacred principles from being derived from experience
or observation that without some of them, or at least some one of
them, we can neither experience nor even observe." Unless we felt
driven by them to explore the nature of things, "it would never occur
to us to distinguish one thing from another." It cannot be said that
Herbert proves the existence of the common notions; he does not deduce
them or even give any list of them. But each faculty has its common
notion; and they may be distinguished by six marks, their _priority_,
_independence_, _universality_, _certainty_, _necessity_ (for the
well-being of man), and _immediacy_. Law is based on certain _common
notions_; so is religion. Though Herbert expressly defines the scope
of his book as dealing with the intellect, not faith, it is the common
notions of religion he has illustrated most fully; and it is plain
that it is in this part of his system that he is chiefly interested.
The common notions of religion are the famous five articles, which
became the charter of the English deists (see DEISM). There is little
polemic against the received form of Christianity, but Herbert's
attitude towards the Church's doctrine is distinctly negative, and he
denies revelation except to the individual soul. In the _De religione
gentilium_ (completed 1645, published Amsterdam, 1663, translated into
English by W. Lewis, London, 1705) he gives what may be called, in
Hume's words, "a natural history of religion." By examining the
heathen religions Herbert finds, to his great delight, the
universality of his five great articles, and that these are clearly
recognizable under their absurdities as they are under the rites,
ceremonies and polytheism invented by sacerdotal superstition. The
same vein is maintained in the tracts _De causis errorum_, an
unfinished work on logical fallacies, _Religio laici_, and _Ad
sacerdotes de religione laici_ (1645). In the _De veritate_ Herbert
produced the first purely metaphysical treatise written by an
Englishman, and in the _De religione gentilium_ one of the earliest
studies extant in comparative theology; while both his metaphysical
speculations and his religious views are throughout distinguished by
the highest originality and provoked considerable controversy. His
achievements in historical writing are vastly inferior, and vitiated
by personal aims and his preoccupation to gain the royal favour.
Herbert's first historical work is the _Expeditio Buckinghami ducis_
(published in a Latin translation in 1656 and in the original English
by the earl of Powis for the Philobiblon Society in 1860), a defence
of Buckingham's conduct of the ill-fated expedition of 1627. _The Life
and Raigne of King Henry VIII._ (1649) derives its chief value from
its composition from original documents, but is ill-proportioned, and
the author judges the character and statesmanship of Henry with too
obvious a partiality.

His poems, published in 1665 (reprinted and edited by J. Churton
Collins in 1881), show him in general a faithful disciple of Donne,
obscure and uncouth. His satires are miserable compositions, but a few
of his lyrical verses show power of reflection and true inspiration,
while his use of the metre afterwards employed by Tennyson in his "In
Memoriam" is particularly happy and effective. His Latin poems are
evidence of his scholarship. Three of these had appeared together with
the _De causis errorum_ in 1645. To these works must be added _A
Dialogue between a Tutor and a Pupil_ (1768; a treatise on education,
MS. in the Bodleian Library); a treatise on the king's supremacy in
the Church (MS. in the Record Office and at Queen's College, Oxford),
and his well-known autobiography, first published by Horace Walpole in
1764, a naive and amusing narrative, too much occupied, however, with
his duels and amorous adventures, to the exclusion of more creditable
incidents in his career, such as his contributions to philosophy and
history, his intimacy with Donne, Ben Jonson, Selden and Carew,
Casaubon, Gassendi and Grotius, or his embassy in France, in relation
to which he only described the splendour of his retinue and his social
triumphs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The autobiography edited by Sidney Lee with
correspondence from add. MSS. 7082 (1886); article in the _Dict. of
Nat. Biog._ by the same writer and the list of authorities there
collated; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Rep._ x. app. iv., 378; _Lord Herbert de
Cherbury_, by Charles de Remusat (1874); _Eduard, Lord Herbert von
Cherbury_, by C. Guttler (a criticism of his philosophy; 1897);
_Collections Historical and Archaeological_ relating to
Montgomeryshire, vols. vii., xi., xx.; R. Warner's _Epistolary
Curiosities_, i. ser.; Reid's works, edited by Sir William Hamilton;
_National Review_, xxxv. 661 (Leslie Stephen); Locke's _Essay on Human
Understanding_; Wood, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss), iii. 239; _Gentleman's
Magazine_ (1816), i. 201 (print of remains of his birthplace); _Lord
Herbert's Poems_, ed. by J. Churton Collins (1881); Aubrey's _Lives of
Eminent Men_; also works quoted under DEISM.

HERBERT OF LEA, SIDNEY HERBERT, 1ST BARON (1810-1861), English statesman, was the younger son of the 11th earl of Pembroke. Educated at Harrow and Oriel, Oxford, he made a reputation at the Oxford Union as a speaker, and entered the House of Commons as Conservative member for a division of Wiltshire in 1832. Under Peel he held minor offices, and in 1845 was included in the cabinet as secretary at war, and again held this office in 1852-1855, being responsible for the War Office during the Crimean difficulties, and in 1859. It was Sidney Herbert who sent Florence Nightingale out to the Crimea, and he led the movement for War Office reform after the war, the hard work entailed causing his breakdown in health, so that in July 1861, having been created a baron, he had to resign office, and died on the 2nd of August 1861. His statue was placed in front of the War Office in Pall Mall. He was succeeded in the title by his eldest son, who later became 13th earl of Pembroke, and the barony is now merged in that earldom; his second son became 14th earl. Another son, the Hon. Michael Herbert (1857-1904), was British Ambassador at Washington in succession to Lord Pauncefote.

A life of Lord Herbert by Lord Stanmore was published in 1906.

HERBERTON, a mining town of Cardwell county, Queensland, Australia, 55 m. S.W. of Cairns. Pop. (1901) 2806. Tin was discovered in the locality in 1879, and to this mineral the town chiefly owes its prosperity, though copper, bismuth and some silver and gold are also found. Atherton, 12 m. from the town, is served by rail from Cairns, which is the port for the Herberton district.

HERCULANEUM, an ancient city of Italy, situated about two-thirds of a mile from the Portici station of the railway from Naples to Pompeii. The ruins are less frequently visited than those of Pompeii, not only because they are smaller in extent and of less obvious interest, but also because they are more difficult of access. The history of their discovery and exploration, and the artistic and literary relics which they have yielded, are worthy, however, of particular notice. The small part of the city, which was investigated at the spot called _Gli scavi nuovi_ (the new excavations) was discovered in the 19th century. But the more important works were executed in the 18th century; and of the buildings then explored at a great depth, by means of tunnels, none is visible except the theatre, the orchestra of which lies 85 ft. below the surface.

The brief notices of the classical writers inform us that Herculaneum[1] was a small city of Campania between Neapolis and Pompeii, that it was situated between two streams at the foot of Vesuvius on a hill overlooking the sea, and that its harbour was at all seasons safe. With regard to its earlier history nothing is known. The account given by Dionysius repeats a tradition which was most natural for a city bearing the name of Hercules. Strabo follows up the topographical data with a few brief historical statements--[Greek: Oskoi eichon kai tauten kai ten ephexes Pompeian ... eita Turrhenoi kai Pelasgoi, meta tauta Saunitai]. But leaving the questions suggested by these names (see ETRURIA, &c.),[2] as well as those which relate to the origin of Pompeii (q.v.), it is sufficient here to say that the first historical record about Herculaneum has been handed down by Livy (viii. 25), where he relates how the city fell under the power of Rome during the Samnite wars. It remained faithful to Rome for a long time, but it joined the Italian allies in the Social War. Having submitted anew in June of the year 665 (88 B.C.), it appears to have been less severely treated than Pompeii, and to have escaped the imposition of a colony of Sulla's veterans, although Zumpt has suspected the contrary (_Comm. epigr._ i. 259). It afterwards became a municipium, and enjoyed great prosperity towards the close of the republic and in the earlier times of the empire, since many noble families of Rome selected this pleasant spot for the construction of splendid villas, one of which indeed belonged to the imperial house (Seneca, _De ira_, iii.), and another to the family of Calpurnius Piso. By means of the Via Campana it had easy communication north-westward with Neapolis, Puteoli and Capua, and thence by the Via Appia with Rome; and southwards with Pompeii and Nuceria, and thence with Lucania and the Bruttii. In the year A.D. 63 it suffered terribly from the earthquake which, according to Seneca, "Campaniam nunquam securam huius mali, indemnem tamen, et toties defunctam metu magna strage vastavit. Nam et Herculanensis oppidi pars ruit dubieque stant etiam quae relicta sunt" (_Nat. quaest._ vi. 1). Hardly had Herculaneum completed the restoration of some of its principal buildings (cf. Mommsen, I.N. n. 2384; _Catalogo del Museo Nazionale di Napoli_, n. 1151) when it fell beneath the great eruption of the year 79, described by Pliny the younger (_Ep._ vi. 16, 20), in which Pompeii also was destroyed, with other flourishing cities of Campania. According to the commonest account, on the 23rd of August of that year Pliny the elder, who had command of the Roman fleet at Misenum, set out to render assistance to a young lady of noble family named Rectina and others dwelling on that coast, but, as there was no escape by sea, the little harbour having been on a sudden filled up so as to be inaccessible, he was obliged to abandon to their fate those people of Herculaneum who had managed to flee from their houses, overwhelmed in a moment by the material poured forth by Vesuvius. But the text of Pliny the younger, where this account is given, has been subjected to various interpretations; and from the comparison of other classical testimonies and the study of the excavations it has been concluded that it is impossible to determine the date of the catastrophe, though there are satisfactory arguments to justify the statement that the event took place in the autumn. The opinion that immediately after the first outbreak of Vesuvius a torrent of lava was ejected over Herculaneum was refuted by the scholars of the 18th century, and their refutation is confirmed by Beule (_Le Drame du Vesuve_, p. 240 seq.). And the last recensions of the passage quoted from Pliny, aided by an inscription,[3] prove that Rectina cannot have been the name of the harbour described by Beule (ib. pp. 122, 247), but the name of a lady who had implored succour, the wife of Caesius Bassus, or rather Tascius (cf. Pliny, ed. Keil, Leipzig, 1870; Aulus Persius, ed. Jahn, _Sat._ vi.). The shore, moreover, according to the accurate studies of the engineer Michele Ruggiero, director of the excavations, was not altered by the causes adduced by Beule (p. 125), but by a simpler event. "It is certain," he says (_Pompei e la regione sotterrata dal Vesuvio l'anno 79_, Naples, 1879, p. 21 seq.), "that the districts between the south and west, and those between the south and east, were overwhelmed in two quite different ways. From Torre Annunziata (which is believed to be the site of the ancient Oplontii) to San Giovanni a Teduccio, for a distance of about 9 m., there flowed a muddy eruption which in Herculaneum and the neighbouring places, where it was most abundant, raised the level of the country more than 65 ft. The matter transported consisted of soil of various kinds--sand, ashes, fragments of lava, pozzolana and whitish pumice, enclosing grains of uncalcined lime, similar in every respect to those of Pompeii. In the part of Herculaneum already excavated the corridors in the upper portions of the theatre are compactly filled, up to the head of the arches, with pozzolana and pumice transformed into tufa (which proves that the formation of this stone may take place in a comparatively short time). Tufa is also found in the lowest part of the city towards the sea in front of the few houses that have been discovered; and in the very high banks that surround them, as also in the lowest part of the theatre, there are plainly to be seen earth, sand, ashes, fragments of lava and pumice, with little distinction of strata, almost always confused and mingled together, and varying from spot to spot in degree of compactness. It is clear that this immense congeries of earth and stones could not flow in a dry state over those 5 m. of country (in the beginning very steep, and at intervals almost level), where certainly it would have been arrested and all accumulated in a mound; but it must have been borne along by a great quantity of water, the effects of which may be distinctly recognized, not only in the filling and choking up even of the most narrow, intricate and remote parts of the buildings, but also in the formation of the tufa, in which water has so great a share; for it cannot be supposed that enough of it has filtered through so great a depth of earth. The torrent ran in a few hours to the sea, and formed that shallow or lagoon called by Pliny _Subitum Vadum_, which prevented the ships approaching the shores." Hence it is that, while many made their escape from Pompeii (which was overwhelmed by the fall of the small stones and afterwards by the rain of ashes), comparatively few can have managed to escape from Herculaneum, and these, according to the interpretation given to the inscription preserved in the National Museum (Mommsen, _I.N._ n. 2455), found shelter in the neighbouring city of Neapolis, where they inhabited a quarter called that of the buried city (Suetonius, _Titus_, 8; _C.I.L._ x. No. 1492, in Naples: "Regio primaria splendidissima Herculanensium"). The name of Herculaneum, which for some time remained attached to the site of the disaster, is mentioned in the later itineraries; but in the course of the middle ages all recollection of it perished.