Chapter VIII: Part 8

The opening on the 25th of March 1609 of the question of the succession of John William the Good, duke of Cleves, of Julich and of Berg, led Henry, in spite of his own hesitations and those of his German allies, to declare war on the emperor Rudolph II. But he was assassinated by Ravaillac (q.v.) on the 14th of May 1610, upon the eve of his great enterprise, leaving his policy to be followed up later by Richelieu. Sully in his _Economies royales_ attributes to his master the "great design" of constituting, after having defeated Austria, a vast European confederation of fifteen states--a "Christian Republic"--directed by a general council of sixty deputies reappointed every three years. But this "design" has been attributed rather to the imagination of Sully himself than to the more practical policy of the king.

No figure in France has been more popular than that of "Henry the Great." He was affable to the point of familiarity, quick-witted like a true Gascon, good-hearted, indulgent, yet skilled in reading the character of those around him, and he could at times show himself severe and unyielding. His courage amounted almost to recklessness. He was a better soldier than strategist. Although at bottom authoritative he surrounded himself with admirable advisers (Sully, Sillery, Villeroy, Jeannin) and profited from their co-operation. His love affairs, undoubtedly too numerous (notably with Gabrielle d'Estrees and Henriette d'Entragues), if they injure his personal reputation, had no bad effect on his policy as king, in which he was guided only by an exalted ideal of his royal office, and by a sympathy for the common people, his reputation for which has perhaps been exaggerated somewhat in popular tradition by the circumstances of his reign.

Henry IV. had no children by his first wife, Margaret of Valois. By Marie de' Medici he had Louis, later Louis XIII.; Gaston, duke of Orleans; Elizabeth, who married Philip IV. of Spain; Christine, duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta, wife of Charles I. of England. Among his bastards the most famous were the children of Gabrielle d'Estrees--Caesar, duke of Vendome, Alexander of Vendome, and Catherine Henriette, duchess of Elbeuf.

Several portraits of Henry are preserved at Paris, in the Bibliotheque Nationale (cf. Bouchot, _Portraits au crayon_, p. 189), at the Louvre (by Probus, bust by Barthelemy Prieur) at Versailles, Geneva (Henry at the age of fifteen), at Hampton Court, at Munich and at Florence.

The works dealing with Henry IV. and his reign are too numerous to be
enumerated here. For sources, see the _Recueil des lettres missives de
Henri IV_, published from 1839 to 1853 by B. de Xivrey, in the
_Collection de documents inedits relatifs a l'histoire de France_, and
the various researches of Galitzin, Bautiot, Halphen, Dussieux and
others. Besides their historic interest, the letters written
personally by Henry, whether love notes or letters of state, reveal a
charming writer. Mention should be made of Auguste Poirson's _Histoire
du regne de Henri IV_ (2nd ed., 4 vols., Paris, 1862-1867) and of J.
H. Mariejol's volume (vi.) in the _Histoire de France_, edited by
Ernest Lavisse (Paris, 1905), where main sources and literature are
given with each chapter. A _Revue Henri IV_ has been founded at Paris
(1905). Finally, a complete survey of the sources for the period
1494-1610 is given by Henri Hauser in vol. vii. of _Sources de
l'histoire de France_ (Paris, 1906) in continuation of A. Molinier's
collection of the sources for French history during the middle ages.

HENRY I. (c. 1210-1274), surnamed _le Gros_, king of Navarre and count of Champagne, was the youngest son of Theobald I. king of Navarre by Margaret of Foix, and succeeded his eldest brother Theobald III. as king of Navarre and count of Champagne in December 1270. His proclamation at Pamplona, however, did not take place till March of the following year, and his coronation was delayed until May 1273. After a brief reign, characterized, it is said, by dignity and talent, he died in July 1274, suffocated, according to the generally received accounts, by his own fat. In him the male line of the counts of Champagne and kings of Navarre, became extinct. He married in 1269 Blanche, daughter of Robert, count of Artois, and niece of King Louis IX. and was succeeded by his only legitimate child, Jeanne or Joanna, by whose marriage to Philip IV. afterwards king of France in 1284, the crown of Navarre became united to that of France.

HENRY II. (1503-1555), titular king of Navarre, was the eldest son of Jean d'Albret (d. 1516) by his wife Catherine de Foix, sister and heiress of Francis Phoebus, king of Navarre, and was born at Sanquesa in April 1503. When Catherine died in exile in 1517 Henry succeeded her in her claim on Navarre, which was disputed by Ferdinand I. king of Spain; and under the protection of Francis I. of France he assumed the title of king. After ineffectual conferences at Noyon in 1516 and at Montpellier in 1518, an active effort was made in 1521 to establish him in the _de facto_ sovereignty; but the French troops which had seized the country were ultimately expelled by the Spaniards. In 1525 Henry was taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, but he contrived to escape, and in 1526 married Margaret, the sister of Francis I. and widow of Charles, duke of Alencon. By her he was the father of Jeanne d'Albret (d. 1572), and was consequently the grandfather of Henry IV. of France. Henry, who had some sympathy with the Huguenots, died at Pau on the 25th of May 1555.

HENRY I. (1512-1580), king of Portugal, third son of Emanuel the Fortunate, was born in Lisbon, on the 31st of January 1512. He was destined for the church, and in 1532 was raised to the archiepiscopal see of Braga. In 1542 he received the cardinal's hat, and in 1578 when he was called to succeed his grandnephew Sebastian on the throne, he held the archbishoprics of Lisbon and Coimbra as well as that of Braga, in addition to the wealthy abbacy of Alcobazar. As an ecclesiastic he was pious, pure, simple in his mode of life, charitable, and a learned and liberal patron of letters; but as a sovereign he proved weak, timid and incapable. On his death in 1580, after a brief reign of seventeen months, the male line of the royal family which traced its descent from Henry, first count of Portugal (c. 1100), came to an end; and all attempts to fix the succession during his lifetime having ignominiously failed, Portugal became an easy prey to Philip II. of Spain.

HENRY II. (1489-1568), duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel, was a son of Duke Henry I., and was born on the 10th of November 1489. He began to reign in 1514, but his brother William objected to the indivisibility of the duchy which had been decreed by the elder Henry, and it was only in 1535, after an imprisonment of eleven years, that William recognized his brother's title. Sharing in an attack on John, bishop of Hildesheim, Henry was defeated at the battle of Soltau in June 1519, but afterwards he was more successful, and when peace was made received some lands from the bishop. In 1525 he assisted Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to crush the rising of the peasants in north Germany, and in 1528 took help to Charles V. in Italy, where he narrowly escaped capture. As a pronounced opponent of the reformed doctrines, he joined the Catholic princes in concerting measures for defence at Dessau and elsewhere, but on the other hand promised Philip of Hesse to aid him in restoring his own brother-in-law Ulrich, duke of Wurttemberg, to his duchy. However he gave no assistance when this enterprise was undertaken in 1534, and subsequently the hostility between Philip and himself was very marked. Henry was attacked by Luther with unmeasured violence in a writing _Wider Hans Worst_; but more serious was his isolation in north Germany. The duke soon came into collision with the Protestant towns of Goslar and Brunswick, against the former of which a sentence of restitution had been pronounced by the imperial court of justice (_Reichskammergericht_). To conciliate the Protestants Charles V. had suspended the execution of this sentence, a proceeding which Henry declared was _ultra vires_. The league of Schmalkalden, led by Philip of Hesse and John Frederick, elector of Saxony, then took up arms to defend the towns; and in 1542 Brunswick was overrun and the duke forced to flee. In September 1545 he made an attempt to regain his duchy, but was taken prisoner by Philip, and only released after the victory of Charles V. at Muhlberg in April 1547. Returning to Brunswick, where he was very unpopular, he soon quarrelled with his subjects both on political and religious questions, while his duchy was ravaged by Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth. Henry was among the princes who banded themselves together to crush Albert, and after the death of Maurice, elector of Saxony, at Sievershausen in July 1553, he took command of the allied troops and defeated Albert in two engagements. In his later years he became more tolerant, and was reconciled with his Protestant subjects. He died at Wolfenbuttel on the 11th of June 1568. The duke was twice married, firstly in 1515 to Maria (d. 1541), sister of Ulrich of Wurttemberg, and secondly in 1556 to Sophia (d. 1575) daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He attained some notoriety through his romantic attachment to Eva von Trott, whom he represented as dead and afterwards kept concealed at Staufenburg. Henry was succeeded by his only surviving son, Julius (1528-1589).

See F. Koldewey, _Heinz von Wolfenbuttel_ (Halle, 1883); and F. Bruns,
_Die Vertreibung Herzog Heinrichs von Braunschweig durch den
Schmalkaldischen Bund_ (Marburg, 1889).

HENRY (c. 1108-1139), surnamed the "Proud," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, second son of Henry the Black, duke of Bavaria, and Wulfhild, daughter of Magnus Billung, duke of Saxony, was a member of the Welf family. His father and mother both died in 1126, and as his elder brother Conrad had entered the church, Henry became duke of Bavaria and shared the family possessions in Saxony, Bavaria and Swabia with his younger brother, Welf. At Whitsuntide 1127 he was married to Gertrude, the only child of the German king, Lothair the Saxon, and at once took part in the warfare between the king and the Hohenstaufen brothers, Frederick II., duke of Swabia, and Conrad, afterwards the German king Conrad III. While engaged in this struggle Henry was also occupied in suppressing a rising in Bavaria, led by Frederick, count of Bogen, during which both duke and count sought to establish their own candidates in the bishopric of Regensburg. After a war of devastation, Frederick submitted in 1133, and two years later the Hohenstaufen brothers made their peace with Lothair. In 1136 Henry accompanied his father-in-law to Italy, and taking command of one division of the German army marched into southern Italy, devastating the land as he went. It was probably about this time that he was invested with the margraviate of Tuscany and the lands of Matilda, the late margravine. Having distinguished himself by his military genius during this campaign Henry left Italy with the German troops, and was appointed by the emperor as his successor in the dukedom of Saxony. When Lothair died in December 1137 Henry's wealth and position made him a formidable candidate for the German throne; but the same qualities which earned for him the surname of "Proud," aroused the jealousy of the princes, and so prevented his election. The new king, Conrad III., demanded the imperial _insignia_ which were in Henry's possession, and the duke in return asked for his investiture with the Saxon duchy. But Conrad, who feared his power, refused to assent to this on the pretext that it was unlawful for two duchies to be in one hand. Attempts at a settlement failed, and in July 1138 the duke was placed under the ban, and Saxony was given to Albert the Bear, afterwards margrave of Brandenburg. War broke out in Saxony and Bavaria, but was cut short by Henry's sudden death at Quedlinburg on the 20th of October 1139. He was buried at Konigslutter. Henry was a man of great ability, and his early death alone prevented him from playing an important part in German history. Conrad the Priest, the author of the _Rolandslied_, was in Henry's service, and probably wrote this poem at the request of the duchess, Gertrude.

See S. Riezler, _Geschichte Bayerns_, Band i. (Gotha, 1878); W.
Bernhardi, _Lothar von Supplinburg_ (Leipzig, 1879); W. von
Giesebrecht, _Geschichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit_, Band iv.
(Brunswick, 1877).

HENRY (1129-1195), surnamed the "Lion," duke of Saxony and Bavaria, only son of Henry the Proud, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, and Gertrude, daughter of the emperor Lothair the Saxon, was born at Ravensburg, and was a member of the family of Welf. In 1138 the German king Conrad III. had sought to deprive Henry the Proud of his duchies, and when the duke died in the following year the interests of his young son were maintained in Saxony by his mother, and his grandmother Richenza, widow of Lothair, and in Bavaria by his uncle, Count Welf VI. This struggle ended in May 1142 when Henry was invested as duke of Saxony at Frankfort, and Bavaria was given to Henry II., Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, who married his mother Gertrude. In 1147 he married Clementia, daughter of Conrad, duke of Zahringen (d. 1152), and began to take an active part in administering his dukedom and extending its area. He engaged in a successful expedition against the Abotrites, or Obotrites, in 1147, and won a considerable tract of land beyond the Elbe, in which were re-established the bishoprics of Mecklenburg,[1] Oldenburg[2] and Ratzeburg. Hartwig, archbishop of Bremen, wished these sees to be under his authority, but Henry contested this claim, and won the right to invest these bishops himself, a privilege afterwards confirmed by the emperor Frederick I. Henry, meanwhile, had not forgotten Bavaria. In 1147 he made a formal claim on this duchy, and in 1151 sought to take possession, but failing to obtain the aid of his uncle Welf, did not effect his purpose. The situation was changed in his favour when Frederick I., who was anxious to count the duke among his supporters, succeeded Conrad as German king in February 1152. Frederick was unable at first to persuade Henry Jasomirgott to abandon Bavaria, but in June 1154 he recognized the claim of Henry the Lion, who accompanied him on his first Italian campaign and distinguished himself in suppressing a rising at Rome, Henry's formal investiture as duke of Bavaria taking place in September 1156 on the emperor's return to Germany. Henry soon returned to Saxony, where he found full scope for his untiring energy. Adolph II., count of Holstein, was compelled to cede Lubeck to him in 1158; campaigns in 1163 and 1164 beat down further resistance of the Abotrites; and Saxon garrisons were established in the conquered lands. The duke was aided in this work by the alliance of Valdemar I., king of Denmark, and, it is said, by engines of war brought from Italy. During these years he had also helped Frederick I. in his expedition of 1157 against the Poles, and in July 1159 had gone to his assistance in Italy, where he remained for about two years.

The vigorous measures taken by Henry to increase his power aroused considerable opposition. In 1166 a coalition was formed against him at Merseburg under the leadership of Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, and Archbishop Hartwig. Neither side met with much success in the desultory warfare that ensued, and Frederick made peace between the combatants at Wurzburg in June 1168. Having obtained a divorce from his first wife in 1162, Henry was married at Minden in February 1168 to Matilda (1156-1189), daughter of Henry II., king of England, and was soon afterwards sent by the emperor Frederick I. on an embassy to the kings of England and France. A war with Valdemar of Denmark, caused by a quarrel over the booty obtained from the conquest of Rugen, engaged Henry's activity until June 1171, when, in pursuance of a treaty which restored peace, Henry's daughter, Gertrude, married the Danish prince, Canute. Henry, whose position was now very strong, made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1172, was received with great respect by the eastern emperor Manuel Comnenus at Constantinople, and returned to Saxony in 1173.

A variety of reasons were leading to a rupture in the harmonious relations between Frederick and Henry, whose increasing power could not escape the emperor's notice, and who showed little inclination to sacrifice his interests in Germany in order to help the imperial cause in Italy. He was not pleased when he heard that his uncle, Welf, had bequeathed his Italian and Swabian lands to the emperor, and the crisis came after Frederick's check before Alessandria in 1175. The emperor appealed personally to Henry for help in February, or March 1176, but Henry made no move in response, and his defection contributed in some measure to the emperor's defeat at Legnano. The peace of Venice provided for the restoration of Ulalrich to his see of Halberstadt. Henry, however, refused to give up the lands which he had seized belonging to the bishopric, and this conduct provoked a war in which Ulalrich was soon joined by Philip, archbishop of Cologne. No attack on Henry appears to have been contemplated by Frederick to whom both parties carried their complaints, and a day was fixed for the settlement of the dispute at Worms. But neither then, nor on two further occasions, did Henry appear to answer the charges preferred against him; accordingly in January 1180 he was placed under the imperial ban at Wurzburg, and was declared deprived of all his lands.

Meanwhile the war with Ulalrich continued, but after his victory at Weissensee Henry's allies began to fall away, and his cause to decline. When Frederick took the field in June 1181 the struggle was soon over. Henry sought for peace, and the conditions were settled at Erfurt in November 1181, when he was granted the counties of Luneburg and Brunswick, but was banished under oath not to return without the emperor's permission. In July 1182 he went to his father-in-law's court in Normandy, and afterwards to England, returning to Germany with Frederick's permission in 1185. He was soon regarded once more as a menace to the peace of Germany, and of the three alternatives presented to him by the emperor in 1188 he rejected the idea of making a formal renunciation of his claim, or of participating in the crusade, and chose exile, going again to England in 1189. In October of the same year, however, he returned to Saxony, excusing himself by asserting that his lands had not been defended according to the emperor's promise. He found many allies, took Lubeck, and soon almost the whole of Saxony was in his power. King Henry VI. was obliged to take the field against him, after which the duke's cause declined, and in July 1190 a peace was arranged at Fulda, by which he retained Brunswick and Luneburg, received half the revenues of Lubeck, and gave two of his sons as hostages. Still hoping to regain his former position, he took advantage of a league against Henry VI. in 1193 to engage in a further revolt; but the captivity of his brother-in-law Richard I., king of England, led to a reconciliation. Henry passed his later years mainly at his castle of Brunswick, where he died on the 6th of August 1195, and was buried in the church of St Blasius which he had founded in the town. He had by his first wife a son and a daughter, and by his second wife five sons and a daughter. One of his sons was Otto, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., and another was Henry (d. 1227) count palatine of the Rhine.

Henry was a man of great ambition, and won his surname of "Lion" by his personal bravery. His influence on the fortunes of Saxony and northern Germany was very considerable. He planted Flemish and Dutch settlers in the land between the Elbe and the Oder, fostered the growth and trade of Lubeck, and in other ways encouraged trade and agriculture. He sought to spread Christianity by introducing the Cistercians, founding bishoprics, and building churches and monasteries. In 1874 a colossal statue was erected to his memory at Brunswick.

The authorities for the life of Henry the Lion are those dealing with
the reign of the emperor Frederick I., and the early years of his son
King Henry VI. The chief modern works are H. Prutz, _Heinrich der
Lowe_ (Leipzig, 1865); M. Philippson, _Geschichte Heinrichs des Lowen_
(Leipzig, 1867); and L. Weiland, _Das sachsische Herzogthum unter
Lothar und Heinrich dem Lowen_ (Greifswald, 1866).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The see was transferred to Schwerin by Henry in 1167.

[2] Transferred to Lubeck in 1163.

HENRY, PRINCE OF BATTENBERG (1858-1896), was the third son of Prince Alexander of Hesse and his morganatic wife, the beautiful Countess Julia von Hauke, to whom was granted in 1858 the title of princess of Battenberg, which her children inherited. He was born at Milan on the 5th of October 1858, was educated with a special view to military service, and in due time became a lieutenant in the first regiment of Rhenish hussars. By their relationship to the grand dukes of Hesse the princes of Battenberg were brought into close contact with the English court, and Prince Henry paid several visits to England, where he soon became popular both in public and in private circles. It therefore created but little surprise when, towards the close of 1884, it was announced that Queen Victoria had sanctioned his engagement to the Princess Beatrice. The wedding took place at Whippingham on the 23rd of July 1885, and after the honeymoon the prince and princess settled down to a quiet home life with the queen, being seldom absent from the court, and accompanying her majesty in her annual visits to the continent. Three sons and a daughter were the issue of the marriage. On the 31st of July 1885 a bill to naturalize Prince Henry was passed by the House of Lords, and he received the title of royal highness. He was made a Knight of the Garter and a member of the Privy Council, and also appointed a colonel in the army, and afterwards captain-general and governor of the Isle of Wight and governor of Carisbrooke Castle. He adapted himself very readily to English country life, for he was an excellent shot and an enthusiastic yachtsman. Coming of a martial race, the prince would gladly have embraced an active military career, and when the Ashanti expedition was organized in November 1895 he volunteered to join it. But when the expedition reached Prahsu, about 30 m. from Kumasi, he was struck down by fever, and being promptly conveyed back to the coast, was placed on board H.M.S. "Blonde." On the 17th of January he seemed to recover slightly, but a relapse occurred on the 19th, and he died on the evening of the 20th off the coast of Sierra Leone.

HENRY FITZ HENRY (1155-1183), second son of Henry II., king of England, by Eleanor of Aquitaine, became heir to the throne on the death of his brother William (1156), and at the age of five was married to Marguerite, the infant daughter of Louis VII. In 1170 he was crowned at Westminster by Roger of York. The protests of Becket against this usurpation of the rights of Canterbury were the ultimate cause of the primate's murder. The young king soon quarrelled with his father, who allowed him no power and a wholly inadequate revenue, and headed the great baronial revolt of 1173. He was assisted by his father-in-law, to whose court he had repaired; but, failing to shake the old king's power either in Normandy or England, made peace in 1174. Despite the generous terms which he received, he continued to intrigue with Louis VII., and was in consequence jealously watched by his father. In 1182 he and his younger brother Geoffrey took up arms, on the side of the Poitevin rebels, against Richard Coeur de Lion; apparently from resentment at the favour which Henry II. had shown to Richard in giving him the government of Poitou while they were virtually landless. Henry II. took the field in aid of Richard; but the young king and Geoffrey had no scruples about withstanding their father, and continued to aid the Aquitanian rising until the young king fell ill of a fever which proved fatal to him (June 11, 1183). His death was bitterly regretted by his father and by all who had known him. Though of a fickle and treacherous nature, he had all the personal fascination of his family, and is extolled by his contemporaries as a mirror of chivalry. His train was full of knights who served him without pay for the honour of being associated with his exploits in the tilting-lists and in war.

The original authorities for Henry's life are Robert de Torigni,
_Chronica_; Giraldus Cambrensis, _De instructione principum, Guillaume
le Marechal_ (ed. P. Meyer, Paris, 1891, &c.); Benedict, _Gesta
Henrici_, William of Newburgh. See also Kate Norgate, _England under
the Angevin Kings_ (1887); Sir James Ramsay, _Angevin Empire_ (1903);
and C. E. Hodgson, _Jung Heinrich, Konig von England_ (Jena, 1906).

HENRY, or in full, HENRY BENEDICT MARIA CLEMENT STUART (1725-1807), usually known as Cardinal York, the last prince of the royal house of Stuart, was the younger son of James Stuart, and was born in the Palazzo Muti at Rome on the 6th of March 1725. He was created duke of York by his father soon after his birth, and by this title he was always alluded to by Jacobite adherents of his house. British visitors to Rome speak of him as a merry high-spirited boy with martial instincts; nevertheless, he grew up studious, peace-loving and serious. In order to be of assistance to his brother Charles, who was then campaigning in Scotland, Henry was despatched in the summer of 1745 to France, where he was placed in nominal command of French troops at Dunkirk, with which the marquis d'Argenson had some vague idea of invading England. Seven months after Charles's return from Scotland Henry secretly departed to Rome and, with the full approval of his father, but to the intense disgust of his brother, was created a cardinal deacon under the title of the cardinal of York by Pope Benedict XIV. on the 3rd of July 1747. In the following year he was ordained priest, and nominated arch-priest of the Vatican Basilica. In 1759 he was consecrated archbishop of Corinth _in partibus_, and in 1761 bishop of Frascati (the ancient Tusculum) in the Alban Hills near Rome. Six years later he was appointed vice-chancellor of the Holy See. Henry Stuart likewise held sinecure benefices in France, Spain and Spanish America, so that he became one of the wealthiest churchmen of the period, his annual revenue being said to amount to L30,000 sterling. On the death of his father, James Stuart (whose affairs he had managed during the last five years of his life), Henry made persistent attempts to induce Pope Clement XIII. to acknowledge his brother Charles as legitimate king of Great Britain, but his efforts were defeated, chiefly through the adverse influence of Cardinal Alessandro Albani, who was bitterly opposed to the Stuart cause. On Charles's death in 1788 Henry issued a manifesto asserting his hereditary right to the British crown, and likewise struck a medal, commemorative of the event, with the legend "Hen. IX. Mag. Brit. Fr. et Hib. Rex. Fid. Def. Card. Ep. Tusc:" (Henry the Ninth of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, Cardinal, Bishop of Frascati). In February 1798, at the approach of the invading French forces, Henry was forced to fly from Frascati to Naples, whence at the close of the same year he sailed to Messina. From Messina he proceeded by sea in order to be present at the expected conclave at Venice, where he arrived in the spring of 1799, aged, ill and almost penniless. His sad plight was now made known by Cardinal Stefano Borgia to Sir John Coxe Hippisley (d. 1825), who had formerly acted semi-officially on behalf of the British government at the court of Pius VI. Sir John Hippisley appealed to George III., who on the warm recommendation of Prince Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, gave orders for the annual payment of a pension of L4000 to the last of the Royal Stuarts. Henry received the proffered assistance gratefully, and in return for the king's kindness subsequently left by his will certain British crown jewels in his possession to the prince regent. In 1800 Henry was able to return to Rome, and in 1803, being now senior cardinal bishop, he became _ipso facto_ dean of the Sacred College and bishop of Ostia and Velletri. He died at Frascati on the 13th of July 1807, and was buried in the _Grotte Vaticane_ of St Peter's in an urn bearing the title of "Henry IX."; he is also commemorated in Canova's well-known monument to the Royal Stuarts (see JAMES). The Stuart archives, once the property of Cardinal York, were subsequently presented by Pope Pius VII. to the prince regent, who placed them in the royal library at Windsor Castle.

See B. W. Kelly, _Life of Cardinal York_; H. M. Vaughan, _Last of the
Royal Stuarts_; and A. Shield, _Henry Stuart, Cardinal of York, and
his Times_ (1908). (H. M. V.)

HENRY OF PORTUGAL, surnamed the "Navigator" (1394-1460), duke of Viseu, governor of the Algarve, was born at Oporto on the 4th of March 1394. He was the third (or, counting children who died in infancy, the fifth) son of John (Joao) I., the founder of the Aviz dynasty, under whom Portugal, victorious against Castile and against the Moors of Morocco, began to take a prominent place among European nations; his mother was Philippa, daughter of John of Gaunt. When Ceuta, the "African Gibraltar," was taken in 1415, Prince Henry performed the most distinguished service of any Portuguese leader, and received knighthood; he was now created duke of Viseu and lord of Covilham, and about the same time began his explorations, which, however, limited in their original conception, certainly developed into a search for a better knowledge of the western ocean and for a sea-way along the unknown coast of Africa to the supposed western Nile (our Senegal), to the rich negro lands beyond the Sahara desert, to the half-true, half-fabled realm of Prester John, and so ultimately to the Indies.

Disregarding the traditions which assign 1412 or even 1410 as the commencement of these explorations, it appears that in 1415, the year of Ceuta, the prince sent out one John de Trasto on a voyage which brought the Portuguese to Grand Canary. There was no discovery here, for the whole Canarian archipelago was now pretty well known to French and Spanish mariners, especially since the conquest of 1402-06 by French adventurers under Castillan overlordship; but in 1418 Henry's captain, Joao Goncalvez Zarco rediscovered Porto Santo, and in 1420 Madeira, the chief members of an island group which had originally been discovered (probably by Genoese pioneers) before 1351 or perhaps even before 1339, but had rather faded from Christian knowledge since. The story of the rediscovery of Madeira by the Englishman Robert Machim or Machin, eloping from Bristol with his lady-love, Anne d'Arfet, in the reign of Edward III. (about 1370), has been the subject of much controversy; in any case it does not affect the original Italian discovery, nor the first sighting of Porto Santo by Zarco, who, while exploring the west African mainland coast, was driven by storms to this island. In 1424-1425 Prince Henry attempted to purchase the Canaries, and began the colonization of the Madeira group, both in Madeira itself and in Porto Santo; to aid this latter movement he procured the famous charters of 1430 and 1433 from the Portuguese crown. In 1427, again, with the co-operation of his father King John, he seems to have sent out the royal pilot Diogo de Sevill, followed in 1431 by Goncalo Velho Cabral, to explore the Azores, first mentioned and depicted in a Spanish treatise of 1345 (the _Conoscimiento de todos los Reynos_) and in an Italian map of 1351 (the _Laurentian Portolano_, also the first cartographical work to give us the Madeiras with modern names), but probably almost unvisited from that time to the advent of Sevill. This rediscovery of the far western archipelago, and the expeditions which, even within Prince Henry's life (as in 1452) pushed still deeper into the Atlantic, seem to show that the infante was not entirely forgetful of the possibility of such a western route to Asia as Columbus attempted in 1492, only to find America across his path. Meantime, in 1418, Henry had gone in person to relieve Ceuta from an attack of Morocco and Granada Mussulmans; had accomplished his task, and had planned, though he did not carry out, a seizure of Gibraltar. About this time, moreover, it is probable that he had begun to gather information from the Moors with regard to the coast of "Guinea" and the interior of Africa. In 1419, after his return to Portugal, he was created governor of the "kingdom" of Algarve, the southernmost province of Portugal; and his connexion now appears to have begun with what afterwards became known as the "Infante's Town" (_Villa do Iffante_) at Sagres, close to Cape St Vincent; where, before 1438, a _Tercena Nabal_ or naval arsenal grew up; where, from 1438, after the Tangier expedition, the prince certainly resided for a great part of his later life; and where he died in 1460.

In 1433 died King John, exhorting his son not to abandon those schemes which were now, in the long-continued failure to round Cape Bojador, ridiculed by many as costly absurdities; and in 1434 one of the prince's ships, commanded by Gil Eannes, at length doubled the cape. In 1435 Affonso Goncalvez Baldaya, the prince's cup-bearer, passed fifty leagues beyond; and before the close of 1436 the Portuguese had almost reached Cape Blanco. Plans of further conquest in Morocco, resulting in 1437 in the disastrous attack upon Tangier, and followed in 1438 by the death of King Edward (Duarte) and the domestic troubles of the earlier minority of Affonso V., now interrupted Atlantic and African exploration down to 1441, except only in the Azores. Here rediscovery and colonization both progressed, as is shown by the royal licence of the 2nd of July 1439, to people "the seven islands" of the group then known. In 1441 exploration began again in earnest with the venture of Antam Goncalvez, who brought to Portugal the first slaves and gold-dust from the Guinea coasts beyond Bojador; while Nuno Tristam in the same year pushed on to Cape Blanco. These successes produced a great effect; the cause of discovery, now connected with boundless hopes of profit, became popular; and many volunteers, especially merchants and seamen from Lisbon and Lagos, came forward. In 1442 Nuno Tristam reached the Bay or Bight of Arguim, where the infante erected a fort in 1448, and where for years the Portuguese carried on vigorous slave-raiding. Meantime the prince, who had now, in 1443, been created by Henry VI. a knight of the Garter of England, proceeded with his Sagres buildings, especially the palace, church and observatory (the first in Portugal) which formed the nucleus of the "Infante's Town," and which were certainly commenced soon after the Tangier fiasco (1437), if not earlier. In 1444-1446 there was an immense burst of maritime and exploring activity; more than 30 ships sailed with Henry's licence to Guinea; and several of their commanders achieved notable success. Thus Diniz Diaz, Nuno Tristam, and others reached the Senegal in 1445; Diaz rounded Cape Verde in the same year; and in 1446 Alvaro Fernandez pushed on almost to our Sierra Leone, to a point 110 leagues beyond Cape Verde. This was perhaps the most distant point reached before 1461. In 1444, moreover, the island of St Michael in the Azores was sighted (May 8), and in 1445 its colonization was begun. During this latter year also John Fernandez (q.v.) spent seven months among the natives of the Arguim coast, and brought back the first trustworthy first-hand European account of the Sahara hinterland. Slave-raiding continued ceaselessly; by 1446 the Portuguese had carried off nearly a thousand captives from the newly surveyed coasts; but between this time and the voyages of Cadamosto (q.v.) in 1455-1456, the prince altered his policy, forbade the kidnapping of the natives (which had brought about fierce reprisals, causing the death of Nuno Tristam in 1446, and of other pioneers in 1445, 1448, &c.), and endeavoured to promote their peaceful intercourse with his men. In 1445-1446, again, Dom Henry renewed his earlier attempts (which had failed in 1424-1425) to purchase or seize the Canaries for Portugal; by these he brought his country to the verge of war with Castile; but the home government refused to support him, and the project was again abandoned. After 1446 our most voluminous authority, Azurara, records but little; his narrative ceases altogether in 1448; one of the latest expeditions noticed by him is that of a foreigner in the prince's service, "Vallarte the Dane," which ended in utter destruction near the Gambia, after passing Cape Verde in 1448. After this the chief matters worth notice in Dom Henry's life are, first, the progress of discovery and colonization in the Azores--where Terceira was discovered before 1450, perhaps in 1445, and apparently by a Fleming, called "Jacques de Bruges" in the prince's charter of the 2nd of March 1450 (by this charter Jacques receives the captaincy of this isle as its intending colonizer); secondly, the rapid progress of civilization in Madeira, evidenced by its timber trade to Portugal, by its sugar, corn and honey, and above all by its wine, produced from the Malvoisie or Malmsey grape, introduced from Crete; and thirdly, the explorations of Cadamosto and Diogo Gomez (q.v.). Of these the former, in his two voyages of 1455 and 1456, explored part of the courses of the Senegal and the Gambia, discovered the Cape Verde Islands (1456), named and mapped more carefully than before a considerable section of the African littoral beyond Cape Verde, and gave much new information on the trade-routes of north-west Africa and on the native races; while Gomez, in his first important venture (after 1448 and before 1458), though not accomplishing the full Indian purpose of his voyage (he took a native interpreter with him for use "in the event of reaching India"), explored and observed in the Gambia valley and along the adjacent coasts with fully as much care and profit. As a result of these expeditions the infante seems to have sent out in 1458 a mission to convert the Gambia negroes. Gomez' second voyage, resulting in another "discovery" of the Cape Verde Islands, was probably in 1462, after the death of Prince Henry; it is likely that among the infante's last occupations were the necessary measures for the equipment and despatch of this venture, as well as of Pedro de Sintra's important expedition of 1461.

The infante's share in home politics was considerable, especially in the years of Affonso V.'s minority (1438, &c.) when he helped to make his elder brother Pedro regent, reconciled him with the queen-mother, and worked together with them both in a council of regency. But when Dom Pedro rose in revolt (1447), Henry stood by the king and allowed his brother to be crushed. In the Morocco campaigns of his last years, especially at the capture of Alcazar the Little (1458), he restored the military fame which he had founded at Ceuta and compromised at Tangier, and which brought him invitations from the pope, the emperor and the kings of Castile and England, to take command of their armies. The prince was also grand master of the Order of Christ, the successor of the Templars in Portugal; and most of his Atlantic and African expeditions sailed under the flag of his order, whose revenues were at the service of his explorations, in whose name he asked and obtained the official recognition of Pope Eugenius IV. for his work, and on which he bestowed many privileges in the new-won lands--the tithes of St Michael in the Azores and one-half of its sugar revenues, the tithe of all merchandise from Guinea, the ecclesiastical dues of Madeira, &c. As "protector of Portuguese studies," Dom Henry is credited with having founded a professorship of theology, and perhaps also chairs of mathematics and medicine, in Lisbon--where also, in 1431, he is said to have provided house-room for the university teachers and students. To instruct his captains, pilots and other pioneers more fully in the art of navigation and the making of maps and instruments he procured, says Barros, the aid of one Master Jacome from Majorca, together with that of certain Arab and Jewish mathematicians. We hear also of one Master Peter, who inscribed and illuminated maps for the infante; the mathematician Pedro Nunes declares that the prince's mariners were well taught and provided with instruments and rules of astronomy and geometry "which all map-makers should know"; Cadamosto tells us that the Portuguese caravels in his day were the best sailing ships afloat; while, from several matters recorded by Henry's biographers, it is clear that he devoted great attention to the study of earlier charts and of any available information he could gain upon the trade-routes of north-west Africa. Thus we find an Oran merchant corresponding with him about events happening in the negro-world of the Gambia basin in 1458. Even if there were never a formal "geographical school" at Sagres, or elsewhere in Portugal, founded by Prince Henry, it appears certain that his court was the centre of active and useful geographical study, as well as the source of the best practical exploration of the time.

The prince died on the 13th of November 1460, in his town near Cape St Vincent, and was buried in the church of St Mary in Lagos, but a year later his body was removed to the superb monastery of Batalha. His great-nephew, King Dom Manuel, had a statue of him placed over the centre column of the side gate of the church of Belem. On the 24th of July 1840, a monument was erected to him at Sagres at the instance of the marquis de Sa da Bandeira.

The glory attaching to the name of Prince Henry does not rest merely on the achievements effected during his own lifetime, but on the subsequent results to which his genius and perseverance had lent the primary inspiration. To him the human race is indebted, in large measure, for the maritime exploration, within one century (1420-1522), of more than half the globe, and especially of the great waterways from Europe to Asia both by east and by west. His own life only sufficed for the accomplishment of a small portion of his task. The complete opening out of the African or south-east route to the Indies needed nearly forty years of somewhat intermittent labour after his death (1460-1498), and the prince's share has often been forgotten in that of pioneers who were really his executors--Diogo Cam, Bartholomew Diaz or Vasco da Gama. Less directly, other sides of his activity may be considered as fulfilled by the Portuguese penetration of inland Africa, especially of Abyssinia, the land of the "Prester John" for whom Dom Henry sought, and even by the finding of a western route to Asia through the discoveries of Columbus, Balboa and Magellan.

See _Alguns documentos do archivo nacional da Torre do Tombo acerca
das navegacoes ... portuguezas_ (Lisbon, 1892); Alves, _Dom Henrique o
Infante_ (Oporto, 1894); _Archivo dos Acores_ (Ponta Delgada,
1878-1894); Gomes Eannes de Azurara, _Chronica do descobrimento e
conquista de Guine_, ed. Carreira and Santarem (Paris, 1841; Eng.
trans. by Raymond Beazley and Edgar Prestage, Hakluyt Society, London,
1896-1899); Joao de Barros, _Decadas da Asia_ (Lisbon, 1652); Raymond
Beazley, _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (London, 1895), and introduction
to Azurara, vol. ii., in Hakluyt Soc. trans. (see above); Antonio
Cordeiro, _Historia Insultana_ (Lisbon, 1717); Freire (Candido
Lusitano), _Vida do Infante D. Henrique_ (Lisbon, 1858); "Diogo
Gomez," in Dr Schmeller's _Uber Valentim Fernandez Alemao_, vol. iv.
pt. iii., in the publications of the 1st class of the Royal Bavarian
Academy of Sciences (Munich, 1845); R. H. Major, _The Life of Henry of
Portugal, surnamed the Navigator_ (London, 1868); Jules Mees, _Henri
le Navigateur et l'academie ... de Sagres_ (Brussels, 1901), and
_Histoire de la decouverte des iles Acores_ (Ghent, 1901); Duarte
Pacheco Pereira, _Esmeraldo de situ orbis_ (Lisbon, 1892); Sophus
Ruge, "Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer," in vol. 65 of _Globus_, p. 153
(Brunswick, 1894); Gustav de Veer, _Prinz Heinrich der Seefahrer_
(Danzig, 1863); H. E. Wauwerman, _Henri le Navigateur et l'academie
portugaise de Sagres_ (Antwerp and Brussels, 1890). (C. R. B.)

HENRY OF ALMAIN (1235-1271), so called from his father's German connexions, was the son of Richard, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans. As a nephew of both Henry III. and Simon de Montfort he wavered between the two at the beginning of the Barons' War, but finally took the royalist side and was among the prisoners taken by Montfort at Lewes (1264). In 1268 he took the cross with his cousin Edward, who, however, sent him back from Sicily to pacify the unruly province of Gascony. Henry took the land route with the kings of France and Sicily. While attending mass at Viterbo (13 March 1271) he was attacked by Guy and Simon de Montfort, sons of Earl Simon, and foully murdered. This revenge was the more outrageous since Henry had personally exerted himself on behalf of the Montforts after Evesham. The deed is mentioned by Dante, who put Guy de Montfort in the seventh circle of hell.

See W. H. Blaauw's _The Barons' War_ (ed. 1871); Ch. Bemont's _Simon
de Montfort_ (1884).

HENRY OF BLOIS, bishop of Winchester (1101-1171), was the son of Stephen, count of Blois, by Adela, daughter of William I., and brother of King Stephen. He was educated at Cluny, and consistently exerted himself for the principles of Cluniac reform. If these involved high claims of independence and power for the Church, they also asserted a high standard of devotion and discipline. Henry was brought to England by Henry I. and made abbot of Glastonbury. In 1129 he was given the bishopric of Winchester and allowed to hold his abbey in conjunction with it. His hopes of the see of Canterbury were disappointed, but he obtained in 1139 a legatine commission which gave him a higher rank than the primate. In fact as well as in theory he became the master of the Church in England. He even contemplated the erection of a new province, with Winchester as its centre, which was to be independent of Canterbury. Owing both to local and to general causes the power of the Church in England has never been higher than in the reign of Stephen (1135-1154), Henry as its leader and a legate of the pope was the real "lord of England," as the chronicles call him. Indeed, one of the ecclesiastical councils over which he presided formally declared that the election of the king in England was the special privilege of the clergy. Stephen owed his crown to Henry (1135), but they quarrelled when Stephen refused to give Henry the primacy; and the bishop took up the cause of Roger of Salisbury (1139). After the battle of Lincoln (1141) Henry declared for Matilda; but finding his advice treated with contempt, rejoined his brother's side, and his successful defence of Winchester against the empress (Aug.-Sept. 1141) was the turning-point of the civil war. The expiration of his legatine commission of 1144 deprived him of much of his power. He spent the rest of Stephen's reign in trying to procure its renewal. But his efforts were unsuccessful, though he made a personal visit to Rome. At the accession of Henry II. (1154) he retired from the world and spent the rest of his life in works of charity and penitence. He died in 1171. Henry seems to have been a man of high character, great courage, resolution and ability. Like most great bishops of his age he had a passion for architecture. He built, among other castles, that of Farnham; and he began the hospital of St Cross at Winchester.

AUTHORITIES.--Original: William of Malmesbury, _De gestis regum_; the
_Gesta Stephani_. Modern: Sir James Ramsay, _Foundations of England_,
vol. ii.; Kate Norgate's _Angevin Kings_; Kitchin's _Winchester_.

HENRY OF GHENT [Henricus a Gandavo] (c. 1217-1293), scholastic philosopher, known as "Doctor Solennis," was born in the district of Mude, near Ghent, and died at Tournai (or Paris). He is said to have belonged to an Italian family named Bonicolli, in Flemish Goethals, but the question of his name has been much discussed (see authorities below). He studied at Ghent and then at Cologne under Albertus Magnus. After obtaining the degree of doctor he returned to Ghent, and is said to have been the first to lecture there publicly on philosophy and theology. Attracted to Paris by the fame of the university, he took part in the many disputes between the orders and the secular priests, and warmly defended the latter. A contemporary of Aquinas, he opposed several of the dominant theories of the time, and united with the current Aristotelian doctrines a strong infusion of Platonism. He distinguished between knowledge of actual objects and the divine inspiration by which we cognize the being and existence of God. The first throws no light upon the second. Individuals are constituted not by the material element but by their independent existence, i.e. ultimately by the fact that they are created as separate entities. Universals must be distinguished according as they have reference to our minds or to the divine mind. In the divine intelligence exist exemplars or types of the genera and species of natural objects. On this subject Henry is far from clear; but he defends Plato against the current Aristotelian criticism, and endeavours to show that the two views are in harmony. In psychology, his view of the intimate union of soul and body is remarkable. The body he regards as forming part of the substance of the soul, which through this union is more perfect and complete.

WORKS.--_Quodlibeta theologica_ (Paris, 1518; Venice, 1608 and 1613);
_Summa theologiae_ (Paris, 1520; Ferrara, 1646); _De scriptoribus
ecclesiasticis_ (Cologne, 1580).

AUTHORITIES.--F. Huet's _Recherches hist. et crit. ... de H. de G._
(Paris, 1838) has been superseded by F. Ehrle's monograph in _Archiv
fur Lit. u. Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters_, i. (1885); see also
A. Wauters and N. de Pauw in the _Bull. de la Com. royale d'histoire
de Belgique_ (4th series, xiv., xv., xvi., 1887-1889); H. Delehaye,
_Nouvelles Recherches sur Henri de Gand_ (1886); C. Werner, _Heinrich
von Gent als Reprasentant des christlichen Platonismus im 13ten
Jahrh._ (Vienna, 1878); A. Stockl, _Phil. d. Mittelalters_, ii.
738-758; C. Brechillet Jourdain, _La Philosophie de St Thomas d'Aquin_
(1858), ii. 29-46; Alphonse le Roy in _Biographie nationale de
Belgique_, vii. (Brussels, 1880); and article SCHOLASTICISM.

HENRY OF HUNTINGDON, English chronicler of the 12th century, was born, apparently, between the years 1080 and 1090. His father, by name Nicholas, was a clerk, who became archdeacon of Cambridge, Hertford and Huntingdon, in the time of Remigius, bishop of Lincoln (d. 1092). The celibacy of the clergy was not strictly enforced in England before 1102. Hence the chronicler makes no secret of his antecedents, nor did they interfere with his career. At an early age Henry entered the household of Bishop Robert Bloet, who appointed him, immediately after the death of Nicholas (1110), archdeacon of Hertford and Huntingdon. Henry was on familiar terms with his patron; and also, it would seem, with Bloet's successor, by whom he was encouraged to undertake the writing of an English history from the time of Julius Caesar. This work, undertaken before 1130, was first published in that year; the author subsequently published in succession four more editions, of which the last ends in 1154 with the accession of Henry II. The only recorded fact of the chronicler's later life is that he went with Archbishop Theobald to Rome in 1139. On the way Henry halted at Bec, and there made the acquaintance of Robert de Torigni, who mentions their encounter in the preface to his Chronicle.