Chapter XIII: Act 1881: , the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County (9)

Apart from these two works Hickes was a voluminous and laborious
author. His earliest writings, which were anonymous, were suggested by
contemporary events in Scotland that gave him great satisfaction--the
execution of James Mitchell on a charge of having attempted to murder
Archbishop Sharp, and that of John Kid and John King, Presbyterian
ministers, "for high treason and rebellion" (_Ravillac Redivivus_,
1678; _The Spirit of Popery speaking out of the Mouths of Phanatical
Protestant_s, 1680). In his _Jovian_ (an answer to S. Johnson's
_Julian the Apostate_, 1683), he endeavoured to show that the Roman
empire was not hereditary, and that the Christians under Julian had
recognized the duty of passive obedience. His two treatises, one _Of
the Christian Priesthood_ and the other _Of the Dignity of the
Episcopal Order_, originally published in 1707, have been more than
once reprinted, and form three volumes of the _Library of
Anglo-Catholic Theology_ (1847). In 1705 and 1710 were published
_Collections of Controversial Letters_, in 1711 a collection of
_Sermons_, and in 1726 a volume of _Posthumous Discourses_. Other
treatises, such as the _Apologetical Vindication of the Church of
England_, are to be met with in Edmund Gibson's _Preservative against
Popery_. There is a manuscript in the Bodleian Library which sketches
his life to the year 1689, and many of his letters are extant in
various collections. A posthumous publication of his _The Constitution
of the Catholick Church and the Nature and Consequences of Schism_
(1716) gave rise to the celebrated Bangorian controversy.

See the article by the Rev. W. D. Macray in the _Dictionary of
National Biography_, vol. xxvi. (1891); and J. H. Overton, _The
Nonjurors_ (1902).

HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1798-1888), American philosopher and divine, was born at Bethel, Connecticut, on the 29th of December 1798. He took his degree at Union College in 1820. Until 1836 he was occupied in active pastoral work, and was then appointed professor of theology at the Western Reserve College, Ohio, and later (1844-1852) at the Auburn (N.Y.) Theological Seminary. From this post he was elected vice-president of Union College and professor of mental and moral science. In 1866 he succeeded Dr E. Nott as president, but in July 1868 retired to Amherst, Massachusetts, where he devoted himself to writing and study. A collected edition of his principal works was published at Boston in 1875. He died at Amherst on the 7th of May 1888. He wrote _Rational Psychology_ (1848), _System of Moral Science_ (1853), _Empirical Psychology_ (1854), _Rational Cosmology_ (1858), _Creator and Creation, or the Knowledge in the Reason of God and His Work_ (1872), _Humanity Immortal_ (1872), _Logic of Reason_ (1874).

HICKORY, a shortened form of the American Indian name _pohickery_. Hickory trees are natives of North America, and belong to the genus _Carya_. They are closely allied to the walnuts (_Juglans_), the chief or at least one very obvious difference being that, whilst in _Carya_ the husk which covers the shell of the nut separates into four valves, in _Juglans_ it consists of but one piece, which bursts irregularly. The timber is both strong and heavy, and remarkable for its extreme elasticity, but it decays rapidly when exposed to heat and moisture, and is peculiarly subject to the attacks of worms. It is very extensively employed in manufacturing musket stocks, axle-trees, screws, rake teeth, the bows of yokes, the wooden rings used on the rigging of vessels, chair-backs, axe-handles, whip-handles and other purposes requiring great strength and elasticity. Its principal use in America is for hoop-making; and it is the only American wood found perfectly fit for that purpose.

The wood of the hickory is of great value as fuel, on account of the brilliancy with which it burns and the ardent heat which it gives out, the charcoal being heavy, compact and long-lived. The species which furnish the best wood are _Carya alba_ (shell-bark hickory), _C. tomentosa_ (mockernut), _C. olivaeformis_ (pecan or pacane nut), and _C. porcina_ (pig-nut), that of the last named, on account of its extreme tenacity, being preferred for axle-trees and axle-handles. The wood of _C. alba_ splits very easily and is very elastic, so that it is much used for making whip-handles and baskets. The wood of this species is also used in the neighbourhood of New York and Philadelphia for making the back bows of Windsor chairs. The timber of _C. amara_ and _C. aquatica_ is considered of inferior quality.

Most of the hickories form fine-looking noble trees of from 60 to 90 ft. in height, with straight, symmetrical trunks, well-balanced ample heads, and bold, handsome, pinnated foliage. When confined in the forest they shoot up 50 to 60 ft. without branches, but when standing alone they expand into a fine head, and produce a lofty round-headed pyramid of foliage. They have all the qualities necessary to constitute fine graceful park trees. The most ornamental of the species are _C. olivaeformis_, _C. alba_ and _C. porcina_, the last two also producing delicious nuts, and being worthy of cultivation for their fruit alone.

The husk of the hickory nut, as already stated, breaks up into four equal valves or separates into four equal portions in the upper part, while the nut itself is tolerably even on the surface, but has four or more blunt angles in its transverse outline. The hickory nuts of the American markets are the produce of _C. alba_, called the shell-bark hickory because of the roughness of its bark, which becomes loosened from the trunk in long scales bending outwards at the extremities and adhering only by the middle. The nuts are much esteemed in all parts of the States, and are exported in considerable quantities to Europe. The pecan-nuts, which come from the Western States, are from 1 in. to 1(1/2) in. long, smooth, cylindrical, pointed at the ends and thin-shelled, with the kernels full, not like those of most of the hickories divided by partitions, and of delicate and agreeable flavour. The thick-shelled fruits of the pig-nut are generally left on the ground for swine, squirrels, &c., to devour. In _C. amara_ the kernel is so bitter that even squirrels refuse to eat it.

HICKS, ELIAS (1748-1830), American Quaker, was born in Hempstead township, Long Island, on the 19th of March 1748. His parents were Friends, but he took little interest in religion until he was about twenty; soon after that time he gave up the carpenter's trade, to which he had been apprenticed when seventeen, and became a farmer. By 1775 he had "openings leading to the ministry" and was "deeply engaged for the right administration of discipline and order in the church," and in 1779 he first set out on his itinerant preaching tours between Vermont and Maryland. He attacked slavery, even when preaching in Maryland; wrote _Observations on the Slavery of the Africans and their Descendants_ (1811); and was influential in procuring the passage (in 1817) of the act declaring free after 1827 all negroes born in New York and not freed by the Act of 1799. He died at Jericho, Long Island, on the 27th of February 1830. His preaching was practical rather than doctrinal and he was heartily opposed to any set creed; hence his successful opposition at the Baltimore yearly meeting of 1817 to the proposed creed which would make the Society in America approach the position of the English Friends by definite doctrinal statements. His _Doctrinal Epistle_ (1824) stated his position, and a break ensued in 1827-1828, Hicks's followers, who call themselves the "Liberal Branch," being called "Hicksites" by the "Orthodox" party, which they for a time outnumbered. The village of Hicksville, in Nassau County, New York, 15 m. E. of Jamaica, lies in the centre of the Quaker district of Long Island and was named in honour of Elias Hicks.

See _A Series of Extemporaneous Discourses ... by Elias Hicks_
(Philadelphia, 1825); _The Journal of the Life and Labors of Elias
Hicks_ (Philadelphia, 1828), and his _Letters_ (Philadelphia, 1834).

HICKS, HENRY (1837-1899), British physician and geologist, was born on the 26th of May 1837 at St David's, in Pembrokeshire, where his father, Thomas Hicks, was a surgeon. He studied medicine at Guy's Hospital, London, qualifying as M.R.C.S. in 1862. Returning to his native place he commenced a practice which he continued until 1871, when he removed to Hendon. He then devoted special attention to mental diseases, took the degree of M.D. at St Andrews in 1878, and continued his medical work until the close of his life. In Wales he had been attracted to geology by J. W. Salter (then palaeontologist to the Geological Survey), and his leisure time was given to the study of the older rocks and fossils of South Wales. In conjunction with Salter, he established in 1865 the Menevian group (Middle Cambrian) characterized by the trilobite _Paradoxides_. Subsequently Hicks contributed a series of important papers on the Cambrian and Lower Silurian rocks, and figured and described many new species of fossils. Later he worked at the Pre-Cambrian rocks of St David's, describing the Dimetian (granitoid rock) and the Pebidian (volcanic series), and his views, though contested, have been generally accepted. At Hendon Dr Hicks gave much attention to the local geology and also to the Pleistocene deposits of the Denbighshire caves. For a few years before his death he had laboured at the Devonian rocks. With his keen eye for fossils he detected organic remains in the Morte slates, previously regarded as unfossiliferous, and these he regarded as including representatives of Lower Devonian and Silurian. His papers were mostly published in the _Geol. Mag._ and _Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc._ He was elected F.R.S. in 1885, and president of the Geological Society of London 1896-1898. He died at Hendon on the 18th of November 1899.

HICKS, WILLIAM (1830-1883), British soldier, entered the Bombay army in 1849, and served through the Indian mutiny, being mentioned in despatches for good conduct at the action of Sitka Ghaut in 1859. In 1861 he became captain, and in the Abyssinian expedition of 1867-68 was a brigade major, being again mentioned in despatches and given a brevet majority. He retired with the honorary rank of colonel in 1880. After the close of the Egyptian war of 1882, he entered the khedive's service and was made a pasha. Early in 1883 he went to Khartum as chief of the staff of the army there, then commanded by Suliman Niazi Pasha. Camp was formed at Omdurman and a new force of some 8000 fighting men collected--mostly recruited from the fellahin of Arabi's disbanded troops, sent in chains from Egypt. After a month's vigorous drilling Hicks led 5000 of his men against an equal force of dervishes in Sennar, whom he defeated, and cleared the country between the towns of Sennar and Khartum of rebels. Relieved of the fear of an immediate attack by the mahdists the Egyptian officials at Khartum intrigued against Hicks, who in July tendered his resignation. This resulted in the dismissal of Suliman Niazi and the appointment of Hicks as commander-in-chief of an expeditionary force to Kordofan with orders to crush the mahdi, who in January 1883 had captured El Obeid, the capital of that province. Hicks, aware of the worthlessness of his force for the purpose contemplated, stated his opinion that it would be best to "wait for Kordofan to settle itself" (telegram of the 5th of August). The Egyptian ministry, however, did not then believe in the power of the mahdi, and the expedition started from Khartum on the 9th of September. It was made up of 7000 infantry, 1000 cavalry and 2000 camp followers and included thirteen Europeans. On the 20th the force left the Nile at Duem and struck inland across the almost waterless wastes of Kordofan for Obeid. On the 5th of November the army, misled by treacherous guides and thirst-stricken, was ambuscaded in dense forest at Kashgil, 30 m. south of Obeid. With the exception of some 300 men the whole force was killed. According to the story of Hicks's cook, one of the survivors, the general was the last officer to fall, pierced by the spear of the khalifa Mahommed Sherif. After emptying his revolver, the pasha kept his assailants at bay for some time with his sword, a body of Baggara who fled before him being known afterwards as "Baggar Hicks" (the cows driven by Hicks), a play on the words _baggara_ and _baggar_, the former being the herdsmen and the latter the cows. Hicks's head was cut off and taken to the mahdi.

See _Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan_, book iv., by Sir F. R. Wingate
(London, 1891), and _With Hicks Pasha in the Soudan_, by J. Colborne
(London, 1884), Also EGYPT: _Military Operations_.

HIDALGO, an inland state of Mexico, bounded N. by San Luis Potosi and Vera Cruz, E. by Vera Cruz and Puebla, S. by Tlaxcala and Mexico (state), and W. by Queretaro. Pop. (1895) 551,817, (1900) 605,051. Area, 8917 sq. m. The northern and eastern parts are elevated and mountainous, culminating in the Cerro de Navajas (10,528 ft.). A considerable area of this region on the eastern side of the state is arid and semi-barren, being part of the elevated tableland of Apam where the _maguey_ (American aloe) has been grown for centuries. The southern and western parts of the state consist of rolling plains, in the midst of which is the large lake of Metztitlan. Hidalgo produces cereals in the more elevated districts, sugar, maguey, coffee, beans, cotton and tobacco. Maguey is cultivated for the production of _pulque_, the national drink. The chief industry, however, is mining, the mineral districts of Pachuca, El Chico, Real del Monte, San Jose del Oro, and Zimapan being among the richest in Mexico. The mineral products include silver, gold, mercury, copper, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, manganese and plumbago. Coal, marble and opals are also found. Railway facilities are afforded by a branch of the Vera Cruz and Mexico line, which runs from Ometusco to Pachuca, the capital of the state, and by the Mexican Central. Among the principal towns are Tulancingo (pop. 9037), a rich mining centre 24 m. E. of Pachuca, Ixmiquilpan (about 9000) with silver mines 80 m. N. by W. of the Federal Capital, and Actopan (2666), the chief town of the district N.N.W. of Pachuca, inhabited principally by Indians of the Othomies nation.

HIDALGO (a Spanish word, contracted from _hijo d'algo_ or _hijo de algo_, son of something, or somewhat), originally a Spanish title of the lower nobility; the hidalgo being the lowest grade of nobility which was entitled to use the prefix "don." The term is now used generally to denote one of gentle birth. The Portuguese _fidalgo_ has a similar history and meaning.

HIDALGO Y COSTILLA, MIGUEL (1753-1811), Mexican patriot, was born on the 8th of May 1753, on a farm at Corralejos, near Guanajuato. His mother's maiden name was Gallaga, but contrary to the usual custom of the Spaniards he used only the surname of his father, Cristobal Hidalgo y Costilla. He was educated at Valladolid in Mexico, and was ordained priest in 1779. Until 1809 he was known only as a man of pious life who exerted himself to introduce various forms of industry, including the cultivation of silk, among his parishioners at Dolores. But Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 caused a widespread commotion. The colonists were indisposed to accept a French ruler and showed great zeal in proclaiming Ferdinand VII. as king. The societies they formed for their professedly loyal purpose were regarded, however, by the Spanish authorities with suspicion as being designed to prepare the independence of Mexico. Hidalgo and several of his friends, among whom was Miguel Dominguez, mayor of Queretaro, engaged in consultation and preparations which the authorities considered treasonable. Dominguez was arrested, but Hidalgo was warned in time. He collected some hundred of his parishioners, and on the 16th of September 1810 they seized the prison at Dolores. This action began what was in fact a revolt against the Spanish and Creole elements of the population. With what is known as the "_grito_" or cry of Dolores as their rallying shout, a multitude gathered round Hidalgo, who took for his banner a wonder-working picture of the Virgin belonging to a popular shrine. At first he met with some success. A regiment of dragoons of the militia joined him, and some small posts were stormed. The whole tumultuous host moved on the city of Mexico. But here the Spaniards and Creoles were concentrated. Hidalgo lost heart and retreated. Many of his followers deserted, and on the march to Queretaro he was attacked at Aculco by General Felix Calleja on the 7th of November 1810, and routed. He endeavoured to continue the struggle, and did succeed in collecting a mob estimated at 100,000 about Guadalajara. With this ill-armed and undisciplined crowd he took up a position on the bridge of Calderon on the river Santiago. On the 17th of January 1811 he was completely beaten by Calleja and a small force of soldiers. Hidalgo was deposed by the other leaders, and soon afterwards all of them were betrayed to the Spaniards. They were tried at Chihuahua, and condemned. Hidalgo was first degraded from the priesthood and then shot as a rebel, on the 31st of July or the 1st of August 1811.

See H. H. Bancroft, _The Pacific States_, vol. vii., which contains a
copious bibliography.

HIDDENITE, a green transparent variety of spodumene, (q.v.) used as a gem-stone. It was discovered by William E. Hidden (b. 1853) about 1879 at Stonypoint, Alexander county, North Carolina, and was at first taken for diopside. In 1881 J. Lawrence Smith proved it to be spodumene, and named it. Hiddenite occurs in small slender monoclinic crystals of prismatic habit, often pitted on the surface. A well-marked prismatic cleavage renders the mineral rather difficult to cut. Its colour passes from an emerald green to a greenish-yellow, and is often unevenly distributed through the stone. The mineral is dichroic in a marked degree, and shows much "fire" when properly cut. The composition of the mineral is represented by the formula LiAl(SiO3)2, the green colour being probably due to the presence of a small proportion of chromium. The presence of lithia in this green mineral suggested the inappropriate name of lithia emerald, by which it is sometimes known. Hiddenite was originally found as loose crystals in the soil, but was afterwards worked in a veinstone, where it occurred in association with beryl, quartz, garnet, mica, rutile, &c.

HIDE[1] (Lat. _hida_, A.-S. _higid_, _hid_ or _hiwisc_, members of a household), a measure of land. The word was in general use in England in Anglo-Saxon and early English times, although its meaning seems to have varied somewhat from time to time. Among its Latin equivalents are _terra unius familiae_, _terra unius cassati_ and _mansio_; the first of these forms is used by Bede, who, like all early writers, gives to it no definite area. In its earliest form the hide was the typical holding of the typical family. Gradually, this typical holding came to be regarded as containing 120 "acres" (not 120 acres of 4840 sq. yds. each, but 120 times the amount of land which a ploughteam of eight oxen could plough in a single day). This definition appears to have been very general in England before the Norman Conquest, and in Domesday Book 30, 40, 50 and 80 acres are repeatedly mentioned as fractions of a hide. Some historians, however, have thought that the hide only contained 30 acres or thereabouts.

"The question about the hide," says Professor Maitland in _Domesday
Book and Beyond_, "is 'pre-judicial' to all the great questions of
early English history." The main argument employed by J. M. Kemble
(_The Saxons in England_) in favour of the "small" hide is that the
number of hides stated to have existed in the various parts of England
gives an acreage far in excess of the total acreage of these parts,
making due allowance for pasture and for woodland, an allowance
necessary because the hide was only that part of the land which came
under the plough, and each hide must have carried with it a certain
amount of pasture. Two illustrations in support of Kemble's theory
must suffice. Bede says the Isle of Wight contained 1200 hides. Now
1200 hides of 120 acres each gives a total acreage of 144,000 acres,
while the total acreage of the island to-day is only 93,000 acres.
Again a document called _The Tribal Hidage_ puts the number of hides
in the whole of England at nearly a quarter of a million. This gives
in acres a figure about equal to the total acreage of England at the
present time, but it leaves no room for pasture and for the great
proportion of land which was still woodland. On these grounds Kemble
regarded the hide as containing 30 or 33, certainly not more than 40
acres, and thought that each acre contained about 4000 sq. yds., i.e.
that it was roughly equal to the modern acre. Another argument brought
forward is that 30 or 40 acres was enough land for the support of the
average family, in other words that it was the _terra unius familiae_
of Bede. Another Domesday student, R. W. Eyton, puts down the hide at
48 acres.

But formidable arguments have been advanced against the "small" hide.
There is no doubt that at the time of Domesday the hide was equated
with 120 and not with 30 acres. Then, taking the word _familia_ in its
proper sense, a household with many dependent members, and making an
allowance for primitive methods of agriculture, it is questionable
whether 30 or 40 acres were sufficient for its support; and again if
the equation 1 hide = 120 acres is rejected there is no serious
evidence in favour of any other. A possible explanation is that,
although in early Anglo-Saxon times the hide consisted of 30 acres or
thereabouts, it had come before the time of Domesday to contain 120
acres. But no trace of such change can be found; there is no break in
the continuity of the land-charters which refer to hides and manses.
Reviewing the whole question Professor Maitland accepts the view that
the hide contained 120 acres. The difficulties are serious but they
are not insuperable. Bede, writing in a primitive age and speaking for
the most part of lands far away from Northumbria, uses figures in a
vague and general fashion; then the hide of 120 acres does not mean
120 times 4840 yds., it means much less; and lastly at the time of
Domesday the hide was not a unit of measurement, it was a unit for
purposes of taxation. On the other hand, Mr. H. M. Chadwick (_Studies
on Anglo-Saxon Institutions_) says there is no evidence that the hide
contained 120 acres before the 10th century. He suggests that possibly
the size of the hide in Mercia may have been fixed at 40 acres, while
in Wessex it was regarded as containing 120 acres. Dr Stubbs (_Const.
Hist._ i.) suggests that the confusion may have arisen because the
word was used "to express the whole share of one man in all the fields
of the village." Thus it might refer to 30 acres, his share in one
field, or to 120 acres, his share in the four fields. He adds,
however, that this explanation is not adequate for all cases. But
these differences about the size of the hide are not peculiar to
modern times. Henry of Huntingdon says, _Hida Anglice vocatur terra
unius aratri culturae sufficiens per annum_, while the _Dialogus de
scaccario puts its size at 100 acres, though this may be the long
hundred, or_ 120. Perhaps, therefore, Selden is wisest when he says,
"hides were of an incertain quantity." Certainly he gives a very good
description of the early hide when he says (_Titles of Honour_): "Now
a hide of land regularly is and was (as I think) as much land as might
be well manured with one plough, together with pasture, meadow and
wood competent for the maintenance of that plough, and the servants of
the family." The view that the size of the hide varied from district
to district is borne out by Professor Vinogradoff's more recent
researches. In his _English Society in the Eleventh Century_ he
mentions that there was a hide of 48 acres in Wiltshire and one of 40
acres in Dorset. In addition some authorities distinguish between
English hides and Welsh hides, and in Sussex the hide often contained
8 virgates. Sometimes again in the 11th century hides were not merely
fiscal units; they were shares in the land itself.

The fact that the hide was a unit of assessment, has been established by Mr J. H. Round in his _Feudal England_, and is regarded as throwing a most valuable light upon the many problems which present themselves to the student of Domesday. The process which converted the hide from a unit of measurement to a unit for assessment purposes is probably as follows. Being in general use to denote a large piece of land, and such pieces of land being roughly equal all over England, the hide was a useful unit on which to levy taxation, a use which dates doubtless from the time of the Danegeld. For some time the two meanings were used side by side, but before the Norman Conquest the hide, a unit for taxation, had quite supplanted the hide, a measure of land, and this was the state of affairs when in 1086 William I. ordered his great inquest to be made. The formula used in Domesday varies from county to county, but a single illustration may be given. _Huntedun Burg defendebat se ad geldum regis pro quarta parte de Hyrstingestan hundred pro L. hidis_. This does not mean that the town of Huntingdon contained a certain fixed number of square yards multiplied by 50, but that for purposes of taxation Huntingdon was regarded as worth 50 times a certain fiscal unit.

This view of the nature of the hide was hinted at by R. W. Eyton in _A
Key to Domesday_ and was accepted by Maitland. Its proof rests
primarily upon the prevalence of the five-hide unit. By collating
various documents which formed part of the Domesday inquest Mr Round
has brought together for certain parts of England, especially for
Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire, the holdings of the various lords in
the different vills, and vill after vill shows a total of 5 hides or
10 hides or only a slight discrepancy therefrom. A similar result is
shown for the hundreds where multiples of 5 are almost universal, and
the total hidage for the county of Worcester is very near the round
figure of 1200. This arrangement is obviously artificial; it must have
been imposed upon the counties or the hundreds by the central
authority and then divided among the vills. Another proof is found in
what is called "beneficial hidation." It is shown that in certain
cases the number of hides in a hundred has been reduced since the time
of Edward the Confessor, and that this reduction had been transferred
_pro rata_ to the vills in the hundred. Thus Mr Round concludes that
the hide was fixed "independently of area or value." Some slight
criticism has been directed against the idea of "artificial hidation,"
but the most that can be said against it is that its proof rests upon
isolated cases, a reproach which further research will doubtless
remove. However, Professor Vinogradoff accepts the hide primarily as a
fiscal unit "which corresponds only in a very rough way to the
agrarian reality," and Maitland says the fiscal hide is "at its best a
lame compromise between a unit of area and a unit of value."

What is the origin of the five-hide unit? Various conjectures have been hazarded, and the unit is undoubtedly older than the Danegeld. Rejecting the idea that it is of Roman or of British origin, and pointing to the serious difference in the rates at which the various counties were assessed, Mr Round thinks that it dates from the time when the various Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were independent. Possibly it was the unit of assessment for military service, possibly it was the recognized endowment of a Saxon thegn. In Anglo-Saxon times a man's standing in society was dependent to a great extent upon the number of hides which he possessed; this statement is fully proved from the laws. Moreover, in the laws of the Wessex king, Ine, the value of a man's oath is expressed in hides, the oath for a king's thegn being probably worth 60 hides and that of a ceorl 5 hides.

The usual division of the hide was into virgates, a virgate being, after the Conquest at least, the normal holding of the villein with two oxen. Mr Round holds that in Domesday at all events the hide always consisted of four virgates; Mr F. Seebohm in _The English Village Community_, although thinking that the normal hide "consisted as a rule of four virgates of 30 acres each," says that the Hundred Rolls for Huntingdonshire show that "the hide did not always contain the same number of virgates." The virgate, it may be noted, consisted of a strip of land in _each_ acre of the hide, and there is undoubtedly a strong case in favour of the equation 1 hide = 4 virgates.

Mr Seebohm, propounding his theory that English institutions are rooted in those of Rome, argues for some resemblance between the methods of taxation of land in Rome and in England; he sees some connexion between the Roman _centuria_ and the hide, and between the Roman system of taxation called _jugatio_ and the English hidage. Professor Vinogradoff (_Villainage in England_) summarizes the views of those who hold a contrary opinion thus: "The curious fact that the normal holding, the hide, was equal all over England can be explained only by its origin; it came full-formed from Germany and remained unchanged in spite of all diversities of geographical and economical conditions."

In the Danish parts of England, or rather in the district of the "Five
Boroughs," the carucate takes the place of the hide as the unit of
value, and six supplants five, six carucates being the unit of
assessment. In Leicestershire and in part of Lancashire the hide is
quite different from what it is elsewhere in England. According to Mr
Round the Leicestershire hide consisted of 18 carucates; Mr W. H.
Stevenson (_English Historical Review_, vol. v.) argues that it
contained only 12 and that it was a hundred and not a hide. Mr Seebohm
thinks there was a _solanda_ or double hide of 240 acres in Essex and
other southern counties, but Mr Round does not think that this word
refers to a measure or unit of assessment at all. For Kent, however,
the word _sullung_ or solin, is used in _Domesday Book_ and in the
charters instead of hide and carucate as elsewhere, and Vinogradoff
thinks that this contained from 180 to 200 acres.

Under the Norman and early Plantagenet kings a levy of two or more shillings on each hide of land was a usual and recognized method of raising money, royal and some other estates, however, as is seen from Domesday, not being hidated and not paying the tax. This geld, or tax, received several names, one of the most general being _hidage_ (Lat. _hidagium_). "Hidage," says Vinogradoff, "is historically connected with the old English Danegeld system," and as Danegeld and then hidage it was levied long after its original purpose was forgotten, and was during the 11th century "the most sweeping and the heaviest of all the taxes." Henry of Huntingdon says its usual rate was 2s. on each hide of land, and this was evidently the rate at the time of the famous dispute between Henry II. and Becket at Woodstock in 1163, but it was not always kept at this figure, as in 1084 William I. had levied a tax of 6s. on each hide, an unusual extortion. The feudal aids were levied on the hide. Thus in 1109 Henry I. raised one at the rate of 3s. per hide for the marriage of his daughter Matilda with the emperor Henry V., and in 1194, when money was collected for the ransom of Richard I., some of the taxation for this purpose seems to have been assessed according to the hidage given in Domesday Book.

By this time the word hidage as the designation of the tax was disappearing, its place being taken by the word _carucage_. The carucate (Lat. _caruca_, a plough) was a measure of land which prevailed in the north of England, the district inhabited by people of Danish descent. Some authorities regard it as equivalent to the hide, others deny this identity. In 1198, however, when Richard I. imposed a tax of 5s. on each _carucata terrae sive hyda_, the two words were obviously interchangeable, and about the same time the size of the carucate was fixed at 100 acres. The word carucage remained in use for some time longer, and then other names were given to the various taxes on land.

One or two other questions with regard to the hide still remain
unsolved. What is the connexion, if any, between the hundred and a
hundred hides? Again, was the size of the hide fixed at 120 acres to
make the work of reckoning the amount of Danegeld, or hidage, a simple
process? 120 acres to the hide, 240 pence to the pound, makes
calculations easy. Lastly, is the English hide derived from the German
_hufe_ or _huba_? (A. W. H.*)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The homonym "hide," meaning to conceal, is in O. Eng. _hydan_;
the word appears in various forms in Old Teutonic languages. The root
is probably seen in Gr. [Greek: keuthein] to hide, or may be the same
as in "hide," skin, O. Eng. _hyd_, which is also seen in Ger. _Haut_,
Dutch _huid_; the root appears in Lat. _cutis_, Gr. [Greek: kytos].
The Indo-European root _ku_-, weakened form of _sku_-, seen in "sky,"
and meaning "to cover," may be the ultimate source of both words. The
slang use of "to hide," to flog or whip, means "to take the skin off,
to flay."

HIEL, EMMANUEL (1834-1899), Belgian-Dutch poet and prose writer, was born at Dendermonde, in Flanders, in May 1834. He acted in various functions, from teacher and government official to journalist and bookseller, busily writing all the time both for the theatre and the magazines of North and South Netherlands. His last posts were those of librarian at the Industrial Museum and professor of declamation at the Conservatoire in Brussels. Among his better-known poetic works may be cited _Looverkens_ ("Leaflets," 1857); _Nieuwe Liedekens_ ("New Poesies," 1861); _Gedichten_ ("Poems," 1863); _Psalmen, Zangen, en Oratorios_ ("Psalms, Songs, and Oratorios," 1869); _De Wind_ (1869), an inspiriting cantata, which had a large measure of success and was crowned; _De Liefde in 't Leven_ ("Love in Life," 1870); _Elle_ and _Isa_ (two musical dramas, 1874); _Liederen voor Groote en Kleine Kinderen_ ("Songs for Big and Small Folk," 1879); _Jakoba van Beieren_ ("Jacqueline of Bavaria," a poetic drama, 1880); _Mathilda van Denemarken_ (a lyrical drama, 1890). His collected poetical works were published in three volumes at Rousselaere in 1885. Hiel took an active and prominent part in the so-called "Flemish movement" in Belgium, and his name is constantly associated with those of Jan van Beers, the Willems and Peter Benoit. The last wrote some of his compositions to Hiel's verses, notably to his oratorios _Lucifer_ (performed in London at the Royal Albert Hall and elsewhere) and _De Schelde_ ("The Scheldt"); whilst the Dutch composer, Richard Hol (of Utrecht), composed the music to Hiel's "Ode to Liberty," and van Gheluwe to the poet's "Songs for Big and Small Folk" (second edition, much enlarged, 1879), which has greatly contributed to their popularity in schools and among Belgian choral societies. Hiel also translated several foreign lyrics. His rendering of Tennyson's _Dora_ appeared at Antwerp in 1871. For the national festival of 1880 at Brussels, to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of Belgian independence, Hiel composed two cantatas, _Belgenland_ ("The Land of the Belgians") and _Eer Belgenland_ ("Honour to Belgium"), which, set to music, were much appreciated. He died at Schaerbeek, near Brussels, on the 27th of August 1899. Hiel's efforts to counteract Walloon influences and bring about a _rapprochement_ between the Netherlanders in the north and the Teutonic racial sympathizers across the Rhine made him very popular with both, and a volume of his best poems was in 1874 the first in a collection of Dutch authors published at Leipzig.

HIEMPSAL, the name of the two kings of Numidia. For Hiempsal I. see under JUGURTHA. Hiempsal II. was the son of Gauda, the half-brother of Jugurtha. In 88 B.C., after the triumph of Sulla, when the younger Marius fled from Rome to Africa, Hiempsal received him with apparent friendliness, his real intention being to detain him as a prisoner. Marius discovered this intention in time and made good his escape with the assistance of the king's daughter. In 81 Hiempsal was driven from his throne by the Numidians themselves, or by Hiarbas, ruler of part of the kingdom, supported by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa. Soon afterwards Pompey was sent to Africa by Sulla to reinstate Hiempsal, whose territory was subsequently increased by the addition of some land on the coast in accordance with a treaty concluded with L. Aurelius Cotta. When the tribune P. Servilius Rullus introduced his agrarian law (63), these lands, which had been originally assigned to the Roman people by Scipio Africanus, were expressly exempted from sale, which roused the indignation of Cicero (_De lege agraria_, i. 4, ii. 22). From Suetonius (_Caesar_, 71) it is evident that Hiempsal was alive in 62. According to Sallust (_Jugurtha_, 17), he was the author of an historical work in the Punic language.

Plutarch, _Marius_, 40, _Pompey_, 12; Appian, _Bell. civ._, i. 62. 80;
Dio Cassius xli. 41.

HIERAPOLIS. 1. (Arabic _Manbij_ or _Mumbij_) an ancient Syrian town occupying one of the finest sites in Northern Syria, in a fertile district about 16 m. S.W. of the confluence of the Sajur and Euphrates. There is abundant water supply from large springs. In 1879, after the Russo-Turkish war, a colony of Circassians from Vidin (Widdin) was planted in the ruins, and the result has been the constant discovery of antiquities, which find their way into the bazaars of Aleppo and Aintab. The place first appears in Greek as _Bambyce_, but Pliny (v. 23) tells us its Syrian name was _Mabog_. It was doubtless an ancient Commagenian sanctuary; but history knows it first under the Seleucids, who made it the chief station on their main road between Antioch and Seleucia-on-Tigris; and as a centre of the worship of the Syrian Nature Goddess, Atargatis (q.v.), it became known to the Greeks as the city of the sanctuary [Greek: Hieropolis], and finally as the Holy City [Greek: Hierapolis]. Lucian, a native of Commagene (or some anonymous writer) has immortalized this worship in the tract _De Dea Syria_, wherein are described the orgiastic luxury of the shrine and the tank of sacred fish, of which Aelian also relates marvels. According to the _De Dea Syria_, the worship was of a phallic character, votaries offering little male figures of wood and bronze. There were also huge _phalli_ set up like obelisks before the temple, which were climbed once a year with certain ceremonies, and decorated. For the rest the temple was of Ionic character with golden plated doors and roof and much gilt decoration. Inside was a holy chamber into which priests only were allowed to enter. Here were statues of a goddess and a god in gold, but the first seems to have been the more richly decorated with gems and other ornaments. Between them stood a gilt _xoanon_, which seems to have been carried outside in sacred processions. Other rich furniture is described, and a mode of divination by movements of a _xoanon_ of Apollo. A great bronze altar stood in front, set about with statues, and in the forecourt lived numerous sacred animals and birds (but not swine) used for sacrifice. Some three hundred priests served the shrine and there were numerous minor ministrants. The lake was the centre of sacred festivities and it was customary for votaries to swim out and decorate an altar standing in the middle of the water. Self-mutilation and other orgies went on in the temple precinct, and there was an elaborate ritual on entering the city and first visiting the shrine under the conduct of local guides, which reminds one of the Meccan Pilgrimage.

The temple was sacked by Crassus on his way to meet the Parthians (53 B.C.); but in the 3rd century of the empire the city was the capital of the Euphratensian province and one of the great cities of Syria. Procopius called it the greatest in that part of the world. It was, however, ruinous when Julian collected his troops there ere marching to his defeat and death in Mesopotamia, and Chosroes I. held it to ransom after Justinian had failed to put it in a state of defence. Harun restored it at the end of the 8th century and it became a bone of contention between Byzantines, Arabs and Turks. The crusaders captured it from the Seljuks in the 12th century, but Saladin retook it (1175), and later it became the headquarters of Hulagu and his Mongols, who completed its ruin. The remains are extensive, but almost wholly of late date, as is to be expected in the case of a city which survived into Moslem times. The walls are Arab, and no ruins of the great temple survive. The most noteworthy relic of antiquity is the sacred lake, on two sides of which can still be seen stepped quays and water-stairs. The first modern account of the site is in a short narrative appended by H. Maundrell to his _Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem_. He was at Mumbij in 1699.

The coinage of the city begins in the 4th century B.C. with an Aramaic series, showing the goddess, either as a bust with mural crown or as riding on a lion. She continues to supply the chief type even during imperial times, being generally shown seated with the _tympanum_ in her hand. Other coins substitute the legend [Greek: Theas Surias Hieropoliton], within a wreath. It is interesting to note that from _Bambyce_ (near which much silk was produced) were derived the _bombycina vestis_ of the Romans and, through the crusaders, the bombazine of modern commerce.

See F. R. Chesney, _Euphrates Expedition_ (1850); W. F. Ainsworth,
_Personal Narrative of the Euphrates Expedition_ (1888); E. Sachau,
_Reise in Syrien_, &c. (1883); D. G. Hogarth in _Journal of Hellenic
Studies_ (1909).

2. A Phrygian city, altitude 1200 ft. on the right bank of the Churuk Su (Lycus), about 8 m. above its junction with the Menderes (Maeander), situated on a broad terrace, 200 ft. above the valley and 6 m. N. of Laodicea. On the terrace rise calcareous springs, that have deposited vast incrustations of snowy whiteness. To these springs, which are warm and slightly sulphureous, and to the "Plutonium"--a hole reaching deep into the earth, from which issued a mephitic vapour--the place owed its celebrity and sanctity. Here, at an early date, a religious establishment (_hieron_) existed in connexion with the old Phrygian Kydrara, a settlement of the tribe Hydrelitae; and the town which grew round it became one of the greatest centres of Phrygian native life but of non-political importance. The chief religious festival was the Letoia, named after the goddess Leto, a local variety of the Mother Goddess (Cybele), who was honoured with orgiastic rites in which elements of the original Anatolian matriarchate and Nature-cult survived: there was also a worship of Apollo Lairbenos. Hierapolis was the seat of an early church (Col. iv. 13), with which tradition closely connects the apostle Philip. Epictetus, the philosopher, and Papias, a disciple of St John and author of a lost work on the Sayings of Jesus, were born there. Hierapolis is now easily reached from Gonjeli, a station on the Dineir railway about 7 m. distant. A village of Yuruks has gradually grown below the site. The native name for the place is apparently _Pambuk Kale_ (though doubt has been thrown on the statement), and this has always been explained by the cotton-like appearance of the white incrustations. It should be noted, however, that this name, if genuine, is curiously like that given by the Syrians to the Commagenian Hierapolis (above), _Bambyce_, the origin of which it has been suggested was a native name of the goddess Pambe or Mambe (whence Mabog). Considering that cotton is a comparatively modern phenomenon in Anatolia, it is worth suggesting that _Pambuk_ in this case may be a survival of a primitive name, derived from the same goddess, Pambe. The goddesses of the two Hierapoleis were in any case closely akin. If an old native name has reappeared here after the decline of Greek influence, and been given a meaning in modern Turkish, it affords another instance of a very common feature of west Asian nomenclature. Combined with the petrified terraces, the ruins of Hierapolis present the most attractive of the easily accessible spectacles in Asia Minor. They are remarkable for the long avenue of tombs, mostly inscribed sarcophagi on plinths, by which the city is approached from the W., and for a very perfect theatre partly excavated in the hill at the N. side of the site. Stage buildings as well as auditorium are well preserved. On the S., just above the white terraces and largely blocked with petrified deposit, stand large baths, into which the natural warm spring was once conducted. Behind these is a fine triumphal arch, whence runs a colonnade. Ruins of several churches survive, and also of a large basilica. There is a sulphureous pool which may represent the "Plutonium," but it has no such deadly power as was ascribed to that pond. Ramsay thinks that the "Plutonium" was obliterated by Christians in the 4th century. Over 300 inscriptions have been collected, mostly sepulchral, whence Ramsay has deduced interesting facts about the very early Christian community which existed here. The site has been often visited and described, and was systematically examined in 1887 by parties under W. M. Ramsay and K. Humann respectively.

See K. Humann, _Altertumer v. Hierapolis_ (1888); Sir W. M. Ramsay,
_Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia_, vol. i. (1895).
(C. W. W.; D. G. H.)

HIERARCHY (Gr. [Greek: hieros], holy, and [Greek: archein], to rule), the office of a steward or guardian of holy things, not a "ruler of priests" or "priestly ruler" (see Boeckh, _Corp. inscr. Gr._ No. 1570), a term commonly used in ecclesiastical language to denote the aggregate of those persons who exercise authority within the Christian Church, the patriarchate, episcopate or entire three-fold order of the clergy. The word [Greek: hierarchia], which does not occur in any classical Greek writer, owes its present extensive currency to the celebrated writings of Dionysius Areopagiticus. Of these the most important are the two which treat of the celestial and of the ecclesiastical hierarchy respectively. Defining hierarchy as the "function which comprises all sacred things," or, more fully, as "a sacred order and science and activity, assimilated as far as possible to the godlike, and elevated to the imitation of God proportionately to the Divine illuminations conceded to it," the author proceeds to enumerate the nine orders of the heavenly host, which are subdivided again into hierarchies or triads, in descending order, thus: Seraphim, Cherubim, Thrones; Dominations, Virtues, Powers; Principalities, Archangels, Angels. These all exist for the common object of raising men through ascending stages of purification and illumination to perfection. The ecclesiastical or earthly hierarchy is the counterpart of the other. In it the first or highest triad is formed by baptism, communion and chrism. The second triad consists of the three orders of the ministry, bishop or hierarch, priest and minister or deacon ([Greek: hierarches, hiereus, leitourgos]); this is the earliest known instance in which the title hierarch is applied to a bishop. The third or lowest triad is made up of monks, "initiated" and catechumens. To Dionysius may be traced, through Thomas Aquinas and other Catholic writers of the intervening period, the definition of the term usually given by Roman Catholic writers--"coetus seu ordo praesidum et sacrorum ministrorum ad regendam ecclesiam gignendamque in hominibus sanctitatem divinitus institutus"[1]--although it immediately rests upon the authority of the sixth canon of the twenty-third session of the council of Trent, in which anathema is pronounced upon all who deny the existence within the Catholic Church of a hierarchy instituted by divine appointment, and consisting of bishops, priests and ministers.[2] (See ORDER, HOLY).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Perrone, _De locis theologicis_, pt. i., sec. i. cap. 2.

[2] Si quis dixerit in ecclesia catholica non esse hierarchiam divina
ordinatione institutam, quae constat ex episcopis, presbyteris, et
ministris: anathema sit.

HIERATIC, priestly or sacred (Gr. [Greek: hieratikos, hieros], sacred), a term particularly applied to a style of ancient Egyptian writing, which is a simplified cursive form of hieroglyphic. The name was first given by Champollion (see EGYPT, S _Language_).

HIERAX, or HIERACAS, a learned ascetic who flourished about the end of the 3rd century at Leontopolis in Egypt, where he lived to the age of ninety, supporting himself by calligraphy and devoting his leisure to scientific and literary pursuits, especially to the study of the Bible. He was the author of Biblical commentaries both in Greek and Coptic, and is said to have composed many hymns. He became leader of the so-called sect of the Hieracites, an ascetic society from which married persons were excluded, and of which one of the leading tenets was that only the celibate could enter the kingdom of heaven. He asserted that the suppression of the sexual impulse was emphatically the new revelation brought by the Logos, and appealed to 1 Cor. vii., Heb. xii. 14, and Matt. xix. 12, xxv. 21. Hierax may be called the connecting link between Origen and the Coptic monks. A man of deep learning and prodigious memory, he seems to have developed Origen's Christology in the direction of Athanasius. He held that the Son was a torch lighted at the torch of the Father, that Father and Son are a bipartite light. He repudiated the ideas of a bodily resurrection and a material paradise, and on the ground of 2 Tim. ii. 5 questioned the salvation of even baptized infants, "for without knowledge no conflict, without conflict no reward." In his insistence on virginity as the specifically Christian virtue he set up the great theme of the church of the 4th and 5th centuries.

HIERO (strictly HIERON), the name of two rulers of Syracuse.

HIERO I. was the brother of Gelo, and tyrant of Syracuse from 478 to 467/6 B.C. During his reign he greatly increased the power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catana to Leontini, peopled Catana (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas (Agrigentum), and espoused the cause of the Locrians against Anaxilaus, tyrant of Rhegium. His most important achievement was the defeat of the Etruscans at Cumae (474), by which he saved the Greeks of Campania. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum), with an inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia. Though despotic in his rule Hiero was a liberal patron of literature. He died at Catana in 467.

See Diod. Sic. xi. 38-67; Xenophon, _Hiero_, 6. 2; E. Lubbert,
_Syrakus zur Zeit des Gelon und Hieron_ (1875); for his coins see
NUMISMATICS (section _Sicily_).

HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse from 270 to 216 B.C., was the illegitimate son of a Syracusan noble, Hierocles, who claimed descent from Gelo. On the departure of Pyrrhus from Sicily (275) the Syracusan army and citizens appointed him commander of the troops. He materially strengthened his position by marrying the daughter of Leptines, the leading citizen. In the meantime, the Mamertines, a body of Campanian mercenaries who had been employed by Agathocles, had seized the stronghold of Messana, whence they harassed the Syracusans. They were finally defeated in a pitched battle near Mylae by Hiero, who was only prevented from capturing Messana by Carthaginian interference. His grateful countrymen then chose him king (270). In 264 he again returned to the attack, and the Mamertines called in the aid of Rome. Hiero at once joined the Punic leader Hanno, who had recently landed in Sicily; but being defeated by the consul Appius Claudius, he withdrew to Syracuse. Pressed by the Roman forces, in 263 he was compelled to conclude a treaty with Rome, by which he was to rule over the south-east of Sicily and the eastern coast as far as Tauromenium (Polybius i. 8-16; Zonaras viii. 9). From this time till his death in 216 he remained loyal to the Romans, and frequently assisted them with men and provisions during the Punic wars (Livy xxi. 49-51, xxii. 37, xxiii. 21). He kept up a powerful fleet for defensive purposes, and employed his famous kinsman Archimedes in the construction of those engines that, at a later date, played so important a part during the siege of Syracuse by the Romans.

A picture of the prosperity of Syracuse during his rule is given in
the sixteenth idyll of Theocritus, his favourite poet. See Diod. Sic.
xxii. 24-xxvi. 24; Polybius i. 8-vii. 7; Justin xxiii. 4.