Chapter VI: Act 1881: , the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County (2)

But the opposition between him and the new king, which had already appeared at the time of the conclusion of the triple alliance between Holland, England and Prussia, became more marked in the following years, when Hertzberg, relying upon this alliance, and in conscious imitation of Frederick II.'s policy at the time of the first partition of Poland, sought to take advantage of the entanglement of Austria with Russia in the war with Turkey to secure for Prussia an extension of territory by diplomatic intervention. According to his plan, Prussia was to offer her mediation at the proper moment, and in the territorial readjustments that the peace would bring, was to receive Danzig and Thorn as her portion. Beyond this he aimed at preventing the restoration of the hegemony of Austria in the Empire, and secretly cherished the hope of restoring Frederick the Great's Russian alliance.

With a curious obstinacy he continued to pursue these aims even when, owing to military and diplomatic events, they were already partly out of date. His personal position became increasingly difficult, as deep-rooted differences between him and the king were revealed during these diplomatic campaigns. Hertzberg wished to effect everything by peaceful means, while Frederick William II. was for a time determined on war with Austria. As regards Polish policy, too, their ideas came into conflict, Hertzberg having always been openly opposed to the total annihilation of the Polish kingdom. The same is true of the attitude of king and minister towards Great Britain. At the conferences at Reichenbach in the summer of 1790, this opposition became more and more acute, and Hertzberg was only with difficulty persuaded to come to an agreement merely on the basis of the _status_ quo, as demanded by Pitt. The king's renunciation of any extension of territory was in Hertzberg's eyes impolitic, and this view of his was later endorsed by Bismarck. A letter which came to the eyes of the king, in which Hertzberg severely criticized the king's foreign policy, and especially his plans for attacking Russia, led to his dismissal on the 5th of July 1791. He afterwards made several attempts to exert an influence over foreign affairs, but in vain. The king showed himself more and more personally hostile to the ex-minister, and in later years pursued Hertzberg, now quite embittered, with every kind of petty persecution, even ordering his letters to be opened.

Even in his literary interests Hertzberg found an adversary in the ungrateful king, for Frederick William, to give one instance, made it so difficult for him to use the archives that in the end Hertzberg entirely gave up the attempt. He found, however, some recompense for all his disillusionment and discouragement in learning, and, Wilhelm von Humboldt excepted, he was the most learned of all the Prussian ministers. As a member of the Berlin Academy especially, and, from 1786 onwards, as its curator, Hertzberg carried on a great and valuable activity in the world of learning. His yearly reports dealt with history, statistics and political science. The most interesting is that of 1784: _Sur la forme des gouvernements, et quelle est la meilleure_. This is directed exclusively against the absolute system (following Montesquieu), upholds a limited monarchy, and is in favour of extending to the peasants the right to be represented in the diet. He spoke for the last time in 1793 on Frederick the Great and the advantages of monarchy. After 1783 these discourses caused a great sensation, since Hertzberg introduced into them a review of the financial situation, which in the days of absolutism seemed an unprecedented innovation. Besides this, Hertzberg exerted himself as an academician to change the strongly French character of the Academy and make it into a truly German institution. He showed a keen interest in the old German language and literature. A special "German deputation" was set aside at the Academy and entrusted with the drawing up of a German grammar and dictionary. He also stood in very close relations with many of the German poets of the time, and especially with Daniel Schubart. Among the German historians in whom he took a great interest, he had the greatest esteem for Pufendorf. He was equally concerned in the improvement of the state of education. In 1780 he boldly took up the defence of German literature, which had been disparaged by Frederick the Great in his famous writing _De la litterature allemande_.

Hertzberg's frank and honourable nature little fitted him to be a successful diplomatist; but the course of history has justified many of his aims and ideals, and in Prussia his memory is honoured. He died at Berlin on the 22nd of May 1795.

AUTHORITIES.--(1) By Hertzberg himself: The _Memoires de l'Academie_
from 1780 on contain Hertzberg's discourses. The most noteworthy of
them were printed in 1787. Here too is to be found: _Histoire de la
dissertation [du roi] sur la litterature allemande_; see also _Recueil
des deductions, &c., qui ont ete rediges ... pour la cour de Prusse
par le ministre_ (3 vols., 1789-1795); and an "Autobiographical
Sketch" published by Hopke in Schmidt's _Zeitschrift fur
Geschichtswissenschaft_, i. (1843). (2) Works dealing specially with
Hertzberg: Mirabeau, _Histoire secrete de la cour de Berlin_ (1788);
P. F. Weddigen, _Hertzbergs Leben_ (Bremen, 1797); E. L. Posselt,
_Hertzbergs Leben_ (Tubingen, 1798); H. Lehmann, in _Neustettiner
Programm_ (1862); E. Fischer, in _Staatsanzeiger_ (1873); M. Duncker,
in _Historische Zeitschrift_ (1877); Paul Bailleu, in _Historische
Zeitschrift_ (1879); and _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (1880); H.
Petrich, _Pommersche Lebensbilder_ i. (1880); G. Dressler, _Friedrich
II. und Hertzberg in ihrer Stellung zu den hollandischen Wirren_,
Breslauer Dissertation (1882); K. Krauel, _Hertzberg als Minister
Friedrich Wilhelms II_. (Berlin, 1899); F. K. Wittichen, in
_Historische Vierteljahrschrift_, 9 (1906); A. Th. Preuss, _Ewald
Friedrich, Graf von Hertzberg_ (Berlin, 1909). (3) General works: F.
K. Wittichen, _Preussen und England, 1785-1788_ (Heidelberg, 1902); F.
Luckwaldt, _Die englisch-preussische Allianz von 1788 in den
Forschungen zur brandenburgisch-preussischen Geschichte_, Bd. 15, and
in the _Delbruckfestschrift_ (Berlin, 1908); L. Sevin, _System der
preussischen Geheimpolitik_ 1790-1791 (Heidelberger Dissertation,
1903); P. Wittichen, _Die polnische Politik Preussens 1788-1790_
(Berlin, 1899); F. Andreae, _Preussische und russische Politik in
Polen_ 1787-1789 (Berliner Dissertation, 1905); also W. Wenck,
_Deutschland vor 100 Jahren_ (2 vols., 1887, 1890); A. Harnack,
_Geschichte der preussischen Akademie_ (4 vols., 1899); Consentius,
_Preussische Jahrbucher_ (1904); J. Hashagen, "Hertzbergs Verhaltnis
zur deutschen Literatur," in _Zeitschrift fur deutsche Philologie_ for
1903. (J. Hn.)

HERTZEN, ALEXANDER (1812-1870), Russian author, was born at Moscow, a very short time before the occupation of that city by the French. His father, Ivan Yakovlef, after a personal interview with Napoleon, was allowed to leave, when the invaders arrived, as the bearer of a letter from the French to the Russian emperor. His family attended him to the Russian lines. Then the mother of the infant Alexander (a young German Protestant of Jewish extraction from Stuttgart, according to A. von Wurzbach), only seventeen years old, and quite unable to speak Russian, was forced to seek shelter for some time in a peasant's hut. A year later the family returned to Moscow, where Hertzen passed his youth--remaining there, after completing his studies at the university, till 1834, when he was arrested and tried on a charge of having assisted, with some other youths, at a festival during which verses by Sokolovsky, of a nature uncomplimentary to the emperor, were sung. The special commission appointed to try the youthful culprits found him guilty, and in 1835 he was banished to Viatka. There he remained till the visit to that city of the hereditary grand-duke (afterwards Alexander II.), accompanied by the poet Joukofsky, led to his being allowed to quit Viatka for Vladimir, where he was appointed editor of the official gazette of that city. In 1840 he obtained a post in the ministry of the interior at St Petersburg; but in consequence of having spoken too frankly about a death due to a police officer's violence, he was sent to Novgorod, where he led an official life, with the title of "state councillor," till 1842. In 1846 his father died, leaving him by his will a very large property. Early in 1847 he left Russia, never to return. From Italy, on hearing of the revolution of 1848, he hastened to Paris, whence he afterwards went to Switzerland. In 1852 he quitted Geneva for London, where he settled for some years. In 1864 he returned to Geneva, and after some time went to Paris, where he died on the 21st of January 1870.

His literary career began in 1842 with the publication of an essay, in Russian, on _Dilettantism in Science_, under the pseudonym of "Iskander," the Turkish form of his Christian name--convicts, even when pardoned, not being allowed in those days to publish under their own names. His second work, also in Russian, was his _Letters on the Study of Nature_ (1845-1846). In 1847 appeared, his novel _Kto Vinovat?_ (Whose Fault?), and about the same time were published in Russian periodicals the stories which were afterwards collected and printed in London in 1854, under the title of _Prervannuie Razskazui_ (Interrupted Tales). In 1850 two works appeared, translated from the Russian manuscript, _Vom anderen Ufer_ (From another Shore) and _Lettres de France et d'Italie_. In French appeared also his essay _Du Developpement des idees revolutionnaires en Russie_, and his _Memoirs_, which, after being printed in Russian, were translated under the title of _Le Monde russe et la Revolution_ (3 vols., 1860-1862), and were in part translated into English as _My Exile to Siberia_ (2 vols., 1855). From a literary point of view his most important work is _Kto Vinovat?_ a story describing how the domestic happiness of a young tutor, who marries the unacknowledged daughter of a Russian sensualist of the old type, dull, ignorant and genial, is troubled by a Russian sensualist of the new school, intelligent, accomplished and callous, without there being any possibility of saying who is most to be blamed for the tragic termination. But it was as a political writer that Hertzen gained the vast reputation which he at one time enjoyed. Having founded in London his "Free Russian Press," of the fortunes of which, during ten years, he gave an interesting account in a book published (in Russian) in 1863, he issued from it a great number of Russian works, all levelled against the system of government prevailing in Russia. Some of these were essays, such as his _Baptized Property_, an attack on serfdom; others were periodical publications, the _Polyarnaya Zvyezda_ (or Polar Star), the _Kolokol_ (or Bell), and the _Golosa iz Rossii_ (or Voices from Russia). The _Kolokol_ soon obtained an immense circulation, and exercised an extraordinary influence. For three years, it is true, the founders of the "Free Press" went on printing, "not only without selling a single copy, but scarcely being able to get a single copy introduced into Russia"; so that when at last a bookseller bought ten shillings' worth of _Baptized Property_, the half-sovereign was set aside by the surprised editors in a special place of honour. But the death of the emperor Nicholas in 1855 produced an entire change. Hertzen's writings, and the journals he edited, were smuggled wholesale into Russia, and their words resounded throughout that country, as well as all over Europe. Their influence became overwhelming. Evil deeds long hidden, evil-doers who had long prospered, were suddenly dragged into light and disgrace. His bold and vigorous language aptly expressed the thoughts which had long been secretly stirring Russian minds, and were now beginning to find a timid utterance at home. For some years his influence in Russia was a living force, the circulation of his writings was a vocation zealously pursued. Stories tell how on one occasion a merchant, who had bought several cases of sardines at Nijni-Novgorod, found that they contained forbidden print instead of fish, and at another time a supposititious copy of the _Kolokol_ was printed for the emperor's special use, in which a telling attack upon a leading statesman, which had appeared in the genuine number, was omitted. At length the sweeping changes introduced by Alexander II. greatly diminished the need for and appreciation of Hertzen's assistance in the work of reform. The freedom he had demanded for the serfs was granted, the law-courts he had so long denounced were remodelled, trial by jury was established, liberty was to a great extent conceded to the press. It became clear that Hertzen's occupation was gone. When the Polish insurrection of 1863 broke out, and he pleaded the insurgents' cause, his reputation in Russia received its death-blow. From that time it was only with the revolutionary party that he was in full accord.

In 1873 a collection of his works in French was commenced in Paris. A
volume of posthumous works, in Russian, was published at Geneva in
1870. His _Memoirs_ supply the principal information about his life, a
sketch of which appears also in A. von Wurzbach's _Zeitgenossen_, pt.
7 (Vienna, 1871). See also the _Revue des deux mondes_ for July 15 and
Sept. 1, 1854. _Kto Vinovat?_ has been translated into German under
the title of _Wer ist schuld?_ in Wolffsohn's _Russlands
Novellendichter_, vol. iii. The title of _My Exile in Siberia_ is
misleading; he was never in that country. (W. R. S.-R.)

HERULI, a Teutonic tribe which figures prominently in the history of the migration period. The name does not occur in writings of the first two centuries A.D. Where the original home of the Heruli was situated is never clearly stated. Jordanes says that they had been expelled from their territories by the Danes, from which it may be inferred that they belonged either to what is now the kingdom of Denmark, or the southern portion of the Jutish peninsula. They are mentioned first in the reign of Gallienus (260-268), when we find them together with the Goths ravaging the coasts of the Black Sea and the Aegean. Shortly afterwards, in A.D. 289, they appear in the region about the mouth of the Rhine. During the 4th century they frequently served together with the Batavi in the Roman armies. In the 5th century we again hear of piratical incursions by the Heruli in the western seas. At the same time they had a kingdom in central Europe, apparently in or round the basin of the Elbe. Together with the Thuringi and Warni they were called upon by Theodoric the Ostrogoth about the beginning of the 6th century to form an alliance with him against the Frankish king Clovis, but very shortly afterwards they were completely overthrown in war by the Langobardi. A portion of them migrated to Sweden, where they settled among the Gotar, while others crossed the Danube and entered the Roman service, where they are frequently mentioned later in connexion with the Gothic wars. After the middle of the 6th century, however, their name completely disappears. It is curious that in English, Frankish and Scandinavian works they are never mentioned, and there can be little doubt that they were known, especially among the western Teutonic peoples, by some other name. Probably they are identical either with the North Suabi or with the Iuti. The name Heruli itself is identified by many with the A.S. _eorlas_ (nobles), O.S. _erlos_ (men), the singular of which (_erilaz_) frequently occurs in the earliest Northern inscriptions, apparently as a title of honour. The Heruli remained heathen until the overthrow of their kingdom, and retained many striking primitive customs. When threatened with death by disease or old age, they were required to call in an executioner, who stabbed them on the pyre. Suttee was also customary. They were entirely devoted to warfare and served not only in the Roman armies, but also in those of all the surrounding nations. They disdained the use of helmets and coats of mail, and protected themselves only with shields.

See Georgius Syncellus; Mamertinus _Paneg. Maximi_; Ammianus
Marcellinus; Zosimus i. 39; Idatius, _Chronica_; Jordanes, _De origine
Getarum_; Procopius, esp. _Bellum Goticum_, ii. 14 f.; _Bellum
Persicum_, ii. 25; Paulus Diaconus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, i. 20; K.
Zeuss, _Die Deutschen und die Nachbarstamme_, pp. 476 ff. (Munich,
1837). (F. G. M. B.)

HERVAS Y PANDURO, LORENZO (1735-1809), Spanish philologist, was born at Horcajo (Cuenca) on the 10th of May 1735. He joined the Jesuits on the 29th of September 1745 and in course of time became successively professor of philosophy and humanities at the seminaries of Madrid and Murcia. When the Jesuit order was banished from Spain in 1767, Hervas settled at Forli, and devoted himself to the first part of his _Idea dell' Universo_ (22 vols., 1778-1792). Returning to Spain in 1798, he published his famous _Catalogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas_ (6 vols., 1800-1805), in which he collected the philological peculiarities of three hundred languages and drew up grammars of forty languages. In 1802 he was appointed librarian of the Quirinal Palace in Rome, where he died on the 24th of August 1809. Max Muller credits him with having anticipated Humboldt, and with making "one of the most brilliant discoveries in the history of the science of language" by establishing the relation between the Malay and Polynesian family of speech.

HERVEY, JAMES (1714-1758), English divine, was born at Hardingstone, near Northampton, on the 26th of February 1714, and was educated at the grammar school of Northampton, and at Lincoln College, Oxford. Here he came under the influence of John Wesley and the Oxford methodists; ultimately, however, while retaining his regard for the men and his sympathy with their religious aims, he adopted a thoroughly Calvinistic creed, and resolved to remain in the Anglican Church. Having taken orders in 1737, he held several curacies, and in 1752 succeeded his father in the family livings of Weston Favell and Collingtree. He was never robust, but was a good parish priest and a zealous writer. His style is often bombastic, but he displays a rare appreciation of natural beauty, and his simple piety made him many friends. His earliest work, _Meditations and Contemplations_, said to have been modelled on Robert Boyle's _Occasional Reflexions on various Subjects_, within fourteen years passed through as many editions. _Theron and Aspasio, or a series of Letters upon the most important and interesting Subjects_, which appeared in 1755, and was equally well received, called forth some adverse criticism even from Calvinists, on account of tendencies which were considered to lead to antinomianism, and was strongly objected to by Wesley in his _Preservative against unsettled Notions in Religion_. Besides carrying into England the theological disputes to which the _Marrow of Modern Divinity_ had given rise in Scotland, it also led to what is known as the Sandemanian controversy as to the nature of saving faith. Hervey died on the 25th of December 1758.

A "new and complete" edition of his _Works_, with a memoir, appeared
in 1797. See also _Collection of the Letters of James Hervey, to which
is prefixed an account of his Life and Death_, by Dr Birch (1760).

HERVEY DE SAINT DENYS, MARIE JEAN LEON, MARQUIS D' (1823-1892), French Orientalist and man of letters, was born in Paris in 1823. He devoted himself to the study of Chinese, and in 1851 published his _Recherches sur l'agriculture et l'horticulture des Chinois_, in which he dealt with the plants and animals that might be acclimatized in the West. At the Paris Exhibition of 1867 he acted as commissioner for the Chinese exhibits; in 1874 he succeeded Stanislas Julien in the chair of Chinese at the College de France; and in 1878 he was elected a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et de Belles-Lettres. His works include _Poesies de l'epoque des T'ang_ (1862), translated from the Chinese; _Ethnographie des peuples etrangers a la Chine_, translated from Ma-Touan-Lin (1876-1883); _Li-Sao_ (1870), from the Chinese; _Memoires sur les doctrines religieuse; de Confucius et de l'ecole des lettres_ (1887); and translations of some Chinese stories not of classical interest but valuable for the light they throw on oriental custom. Hervey de Saint Denys also translated some works from the Spanish, and wrote a history of the Spanish drama. He died in Paris on the 2nd of November 1892.

HERVEY OF ICKWORTH, JOHN HERVEY, BARON (1696-1743), English statesman and writer, eldest son of John, 1st earl of Bristol, by his second marriage, was born on the 13th of October 1696. He was educated at Westminster school and at Clare Hall, Cambridge, where he took his M.A. degree in 1715. In 1716 his father sent him to Paris, and thence to Hanover to pay his court to George I. He was a frequent visitor at the court of the prince and princess of Wales at Richmond, and in 1720 he married Mary Lepell, who was one of the princess's ladies-in-waiting, and a great court beauty. In 1723 he received the courtesy title of Lord Hervey on the death of his half-brother Carr, and in 1725 he was elected M.P. for Bury St Edmunds. He had been at one time on very friendly terms with Frederick, prince of Wales, but from 1731 he quarrelled with him, apparently because they were rivals in the favour of Anne Vane. These differences probably account for the scathing picture he draws of the prince's callous conduct. Hervey had been hesitating between William Pulteney (afterwards earl of Bath) and Walpole, but in 1730 he definitely took sides with Walpole, of whom he was thenceforward a faithful adherent. He was assumed by Pulteney to be the author of _Sedition and Defamation display'd with a Dedication to the patrons of The Craftsman_ (1731). Pulteney, who, up to this time, had been a firm friend of Hervey, replied with _A Proper Reply to a late Scurrilous Libel_, and the quarrel resulted in a duel from which Hervey narrowly escaped with his life. Hervey is said to have denied the authorship of both the pamphlet and its dedication, but a note on the MS. at Ickworth, apparently in his own hand, states that he wrote the latter. He was able to render valuable service to Walpole from his influence over the queen. Through him the minister governed Queen Caroline and indirectly George II. Hervey was vice-chamberlain in the royal household and a member of the privy council. In 1733 he was called to the House of Lords by writ in virtue of his father's barony. In spite of repeated requests he received no further preferment until after 1740, when he became lord privy seal. After the fall of Sir Robert Walpole he was dismissed (July 1742) from his office. An excellent political pamphlet, _Miscellaneous Thoughts on the present Posture of Foreign and Domestic Affairs_, shows that he still retained his mental vigour, but he was liable to epilepsy, and his weak appearance and rigid diet were a constant source of ridicule to his enemies. He died on the 5th of August 1743. He predeceased his father, but three of his sons became successively earls of Bristol.

Hervey wrote detailed and brutally frank memoirs of the court of George II. from 1727 to 1737. He gave a most unflattering account of the king, and of Frederick, prince of Wales, and their family squabbles. For the queen and her daughter, Princess Caroline, he had a genuine respect and attachment, and the princess's affection for him was commonly said to be the reason for the close retirement in which she lived after his death. The MS. of Hervey's memoirs was preserved by the family, but his son, Augustus John, 3rd earl of Bristol, left strict injunctions that they should not be published until after the death of George III. In 1848 they were published under the editorship of J. W. Croker, but the MS. had been subjected to a certain amount of mutilation before it came into his hands. Croker also softened in some cases the plainspokenness of the original. Hervey's bitter account of court life and intrigues resembles in many points the memoirs of Horace Walpole, and the two books corroborate one another in many statements that might otherwise have been received with suspicion.

Until the publication of the _Memoirs_ Hervey was chiefly known as the object of savage satire on the part of Pope, in whose works he figured as Lord Fanny, Sporus, Adonis and Narcissus. The quarrel is generally put down to Pope's jealousy of Hervey's friendship with Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In the first of the _Imitations of Horace_, addressed to William Fortescue, "Lord Fanny" and "Sappho" were generally identified with Hervey and Lady Mary, although Pope denied the personal intention. Hervey had already been attacked in the _Dunciad_ and the _Bathos_, and he now retaliated. There is no doubt that he had a share in the _Verses to the Imitator of Horace_ (1732) and it is possible that he was the sole author. In the _Letter from a nobleman at Hampton Court to a Doctor of Divinity_ (1733), he scoffed at Pope's deformity and humble birth. Pope's reply was a _Letter to a Noble Lord_, dated November 1733, and the portrait of Sporus in the _Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot_ (1735), which forms the prologue to the satires. Many of the insinuations and insults contained in it are borrowed from Pulteney's libel. The malicious caricature of Sporus does Hervey great injustice, and he is not much better treated by Horace Walpole, who in reporting his death in a letter (14th of August 1743) to Horace Mann, said he had outlived his last inch of character. Nevertheless his writings prove him to have been a man of real ability, condemned by Walpole's tactics and distrust of able men to spend his life in court intrigue, the weapons of which, it must be owned, he used with the utmost adroitness. His wife Lady Hervey [Molly Lepell] (1700-1768), of whom an account is to be found in Lady Louisa Stuart's _Anecdotes_, was a warm partisan of the Stuarts. She retained her wit and charm throughout her life, and has the distinction of being the recipient of English verses by Voltaire.

See Hervey's _Memoirs of the Court of George II._, edited by J. W.
Croker (1848); and an article by G. F. Russell Barker in the _Dict.
Nat. Biog._ (vol. xxvi., 1891). Besides the _Memoirs_ he wrote
numerous political pamphlets, and some occasional verses.

HERVIEU, PAUL (1857- ), French dramatist and novelist, was born at Neuilly (Seine) on the 2nd of November 1857. He was called to the bar in 1877, and, after serving some time in the office of the president of the council, he qualified for the diplomatic service, but resigned on his nomination in 1881 to a secretaryship in the French legation in Mexico. He contributed novels, tales and essays to the chief Parisian papers and reviews, and published a series of clever novels, including _L'Inconnu_ (1887), _Flirt_ (1890), _L'Exorcisee_ (1891), _Peints par eux-memes_ (1893), an ironical study written in the form of letters, and _L'Armature_ (1895), dramatized in 1905 by Eugene Brieux. But his most important work consists of a series of plays: _Les Paroles restent_ (Vaudeville, 17th of November 1892); _Les Tenailles_ (Theatre Francais, 28th of September 1895); _La Loi de l'homme_ (Theatre Francais, 15th of February 1897); _La Course du flambeau_ (Vaudeville, 17th of April 1901); _Point de lendemain_ (Odeon, 18th of October 1901), a dramatic version of a story by Vivaut Denon; _L'Enigme_ (Theatre Francais, 5th of November 1901); _Theroigne de Mericourt_ (Theatre Sarah Bernhardt, 23rd of September 1902); _Le Dedale_ (Theatre Francais, 19th of December 1903), and _Le Reveil_ (Theatre Francais, 18th of December 1905). These plays are built upon a severely logical method, the mechanism of which is sometimes so evident as to destroy the necessary sense of illusion. The closing words of _La Course du flambeau_--"_Pour ma fille, j'ai tue ma mere_"--are an example of his selection of a plot representing an extreme theory. The riddle in _L'Engime_ (staged at Wyndham's Theatre, London, March 1st 1902, as _Caesar's Wife_) is, however, worked out with great art, and _Le Dedale_, dealing with the obstacles to the remarriage of a divorced woman, is reckoned among the masterpieces of the modern French stage. He was elected to the French Academy in 1900.

See A. Binet, in _L'Annee psychologique_, vol. x. Hervieu's _Theatre_
was published, by Lemerre (3 vols., 1900-1904).

HERWARTH VON BITTENFELD, KARL EBERHARD (1796-1884), Prussian general field-marshal, came of an aristocratic family which had supplied many distinguished officers to the Prussian army. He entered the Guard infantry in 1811, and served through the War of Liberation (1813-15), distinguishing himself at Lutzen and Paris. During the years of peace he rose slowly to high command. In the Berlin revolution of 1848 he was on duty at the royal palace as colonel of the 1st Guards. Major-general in 1852, and lieutenant-general in 1856, he received the grade of general of infantry and the command of the VIIth (Westphalian) Army Corps in 1860. In the Danish War of 1864 he succeeded to the command of the Prussians when Prince Frederick Charles became commander-in-chief of the Allies, and it was under his leadership that the Prussians forced the passage into Alsen on the 29th of June. In the war of 1866 Herwarth commanded the "Army of the Elbe" which overran Saxony and invaded Bohemia by the valley of the Elbe and Iser. His troops won the actions of Huhnerwasser and Munchengratz, and at Koniggratz formed the right wing of the Prussian army. Herwarth himself directed the battle against the Austrian left flank. In 1870 he was not employed in the field, but was in charge of the scarcely less important business of organizing and forwarding all the reserves and material required for the armies in France. In 1871 his great services were recognized by promotion to the rank of field-marshal. The rest of his life was spent in retirement at Bonn, where he died in 1884. Since 1889 the 13th (1st Westphalian) Infantry has borne his name.

See _G. F. M. Herwarth von Bittenfeld_ (Munster, 1896).

HERWEGH, GEORG (1817-1875), German political poet, was born at Stuttgart on the 31st of May 1817, the son of a restaurant keeper. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city, and in 1835 proceeded to the university of Tubingen as a theological student, where, with a view to entering the ministry, he entered the protestant theological seminary. But the strict discipline was distasteful; he broke the rules and was expelled in 1836. He next studied law, but having gained the interest of August Lewald (1793-1871) by his literary ability, he returned to Stuttgart, where Lewald obtained for him a journalistic post. Called out for military service, he had hardly joined his regiment when he committed an act of flagrant insubordination, and fled to Switzerland to avoid punishment. Here he published his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_ (1841), a volume of political poems, which gave expression to the fervent aspirations of the German youth of the day. The work immediately rendered him famous, and although confiscated, it soon ran through several editions. The idea of the book was a refutation of the opinions of Prince Puckler-Muskau (q.v.) in his _Briefe eines Verstorbenen_. He next proceeded to Paris and in 1842 returned to Germany, visiting Jena, Leipzig, Dresden and Berlin--a journey which was described as being a "veritable triumphal progress." His military insubordination appears to have been forgiven and forgotten, for in Berlin King Frederick William IV. had him introduced to him and used the memorable words: "_ich liebe eine gesinnungsvolle Opposition_" ("I admire an opposition, when dictated by principle.") Herwegh next returned to Paris, where he published in 1844 the second volume of his _Gedichte eines Lebendigen_, which, like the first volume, was confiscated by the German police. At the head of a revolutionary column of German working men, recruited in Paris, Herwegh took an active part in the South German rising in 1848; but his raw troops were defeated on the 27th of April at Schopfheim in Baden and, after a very feeble display of heroism, he just managed to escape to Switzerland, where he lived for many years on the proceeds of his literary productions. He was later (1866) permitted to return to Germany, and died at Lichtenthal near Baden-Baden on the 7th of April 1875. A monument was erected to his memory there in 1904. Besides the above-mentioned works, Herwegh published _Einundzwanzig Bogen aus der Schweiz_ (1843), and translations into German of A. de Lamartine's works and of seven of Shakespeare's plays. Posthumously appeared _Neue Gedichte_ (1877).

Herwegh's correspondence was published by his son Marcel in 1898. See
also Johannes Scherr, _Georg Herwegh; literarische und politische
Blatter_ (1843); and the article by Franz Muncker in the _Allgemeine
deutsche Biographie_.

HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hanover, situated under the south-western declivity of the Harz, on the Sieber, 25 m. N.W. from Nordhausen by the railway to Osterode-Hildesheim. Pop. (1905) 3896. It contains an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a botanical garden, and has manufactures of cloth and cigars, and weaving and dyeing works. The breeding of canaries is extensively carried on here and in the district. On a hill to the south-west of the town lies the castle of Herzberg, which in 1157 came into the possession of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and afterwards was one of the residences of a branch of the house of Brunswick.

HERZBERG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, on the Schwarze Elster, 25 m. S. from Juterbog by the railway Berlin-Roderau-Dresden. It has a church (Evangelical) dating from the 13th century and a medieval town hall. Its industries include the founding and turning of metal, agricultural machinery and boot-making. Pop. (1905) 4043.

HERZL, THEODOR (1860-1904), founder of modern political Zionism (q.v.), was born in Budapest on the 2nd of May 1860, and died at Edlach on the 3rd of July 1904. The greater part of his career was associated with Vienna, where he acquired high repute as a literary journalist. He was also a dramatist, and apart from his prominence as a Jewish Nationalist would have found a niche in the temple of fame. All his other claims to renown, however, sink into insignificance when compared with his work as the reviver of Jewish hopes for a restoration to political autonomy. Herzl was stirred by sympathy for the misery of Jews under persecution, but he was even more powerfully moved by the difficulties experienced under conditions of assimilation. Modern anti-Semitism, he felt, was both like and unlike the medieval. The old physical attacks on the Jews continued in Russia, but there was added the reluctance of several national groups in Europe to admit the Jews to social equality. Herzl believed that the humanitarian hopes which inspired men at the end of the 18th and during the larger part of the 19th centuries had failed. The walls of the ghettos had been cast down, but the Jews could find no entry into the comity of nations. The new nationalism of 1848 did not deprive the Jews of political rights, but it denied them both the amenities of friendly intercourse and the opportunity of distinction in the university, the army and the professions. Many Jews questioned this diagnosis, and refused to see in the new anti-Semitism (q.v.) which spread over Europe in 1881 any more than a temporary reaction against the cosmopolitanism of the French Revolution. In 1896 Herzl published his famous pamphlet "Der Judenstaat." Holding that the only alternatives for the Jews were complete merging by intermarriage or self-preservation by a national re-union, he boldly advocated the second course. He did not at first insist on Palestine as the new Jewish home, nor did he attach himself to religious sentiment. The expectation of a Messianic restoration to the Holy Land has always been strong, if often latent, in the Jewish consciousness. But Herzl approached the subject entirely on its secular side, and his solution was economic and political rather than sentimental. He was a strong advocate for the complete separation of Church and State. The influence of Herzl's pamphlet, the progress of the movement he initiated, the subsequent modifications of his plans, are told at length in the article ZIONISM.

His proposals undoubtedly roused an extraordinary enthusiasm, and though he almost completely failed to win to his cause the classes, he rallied the masses with sensational success. He unexpectedly gained the accession of many Jews by race who were indifferent to the religious aspect of Judaism, but he quite failed to convince the leaders of Jewish thought, who from first to last remained (with such conspicuous exceptions as Nordau and Zangwill) deaf to his pleading. The orthodox were at first cool because they had always dreamed of a nationalism inspired by messianic ideals, while the liberals had long come to dissociate those universalistic ideals from all national limitations. Herzl, however, succeeded in assembling several congresses at Basel (beginning in 1897), and at these congresses were enacted remarkable scenes of enthusiasm for the cause and devotion to its leader. At all these assemblies the same ideal was formulated: "the establishing for the Jewish people a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine." Herzl's personal charm was irresistible. Among his political opponents he had some close personal friends. His sincerity, his eloquence, his tact, his devotion, his power, were recognized on all hands. He spent his whole strength in the furtherance of his ideas. Diplomatic interviews, exhausting journeys, impressive mass meetings, brilliant literary propaganda--all these methods were employed by him to the utmost limit of self-denial. In 1901 he was received by the sultan; the pope and many European statesmen gave him audiences. The British government was ready to grant land for an autonomous settlement in East Africa. This last scheme was fatal to Herzl's peace of mind. Even as a temporary measure, the choice of an extra-Palestinian site for the Jewish state was bitterly opposed by many Zionists; others (with whom Herzl appears to have sympathized) thought that as Palestine was, at all events momentarily, inaccessible, it was expedient to form a settlement elsewhere. Herzl's health had been failing and he did not long survive the initiation of the somewhat embittered "territorial" controversy. He died in the summer of 1904, amid the consternation of supporters and the deep grief of opponents of his Zionistic aims.

Herzl was beyond question the most influential Jewish personality of the 19th century. He had no profound insight into the problem of Judaism, and there was no lasting validity in his view that the problem--the thousands of years' old mystery--could be solved by a retrogression to local nationality. But he brought home to Jews the perils that confronted them; he compelled many a "semi-detached" son of Israel to rejoin the camp; he forced the "assimilationists" to realize their position and to define it; his scheme gave a new impulse to "Jewish culture," including the popularization of Hebrew as a living speech; and he effectively roused Jews all the world over to an earnest and vital interest in their present and their future. Herzl thus left an indelible mark on his time, and his renown is assured whatever be the fate in store for the political Zionism which he founded and for which he gave his life. (I. A.)

HERZOG, HANS (1819-1894), Swiss general, was born at Aarau. He became a Swiss artillery lieutenant in 1840, and then spent six years in travelling (visiting England among other countries), before he became a partner in his father's business in 1846. In 1847 he saw his first active service (as artillery captain) in the short Swiss _Sonderbund_ war. In 1860 he abandoned mercantile pursuits for a purely military career, becoming colonel and inspector-general of the Swiss artillery. In 1870 he was commander-in-chief of the Swiss army, which guarded the Swiss frontier, in the Jura, during the Franco-German War, and in February 1871, as such, concluded the Convention of Verrieres with General Clinchant for the disarming and the interning of the remains of Bourbaki's army, when it took refuge in Switzerland. In 1875 he became the commander-in-chief of the Swiss artillery, which he did much to reorganize, helping also in the re-organization of the other branches of the Swiss army. He died in 1894 at his native town of Aarau. (W. A. B. C.)

HERZOG, JOHANN JAKOB (1805-1882), German Protestant theologian, was born at Basel on the 12th of September 1805. He studied at Basel and Berlin, and eventually (1854) settled at Erlangen as professor of church history. He died there on the 30th of September 1882, having retired in 1877. His most noteworthy achievement was the publication of the _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche_ (1853-1868, 22 vols.), of which he undertook a new edition with G. L. Plitt (1836-1880) in 1877, and after Plitt's death with Albert Hauck (b. 1845). Hauck began the publication of the third edition in 1896 (completed in 22 vols., 1909).

His other works include _Joh. Calvin_ (1843), _Leben Okolampads_
(1843), _Die romanischen Waldenser_ (1853), _Abriss der gesamten
Kirchengeschichte_ (3 vols., 1876-1882, 2nd ed., G. Koffmane, Leipzig,
1890-1892).

HESEKIEL, JOHANN GEORG LUDWIG (1819-1874), German author, was born on the 12th of August 1819 in Halle, where his father, distinguished as a writer of sacred poetry, was a Lutheran pastor. Hesekiel studied history and philosophy in Halle, Jena and Berlin, and devoted himself in early life to journalism and literature. In 1848 he settled in Berlin, where he lived until his death on the 26th of February 1874, achieving a considerable reputation as a writer and as editor of the _Neue Preussische Zeitung_. He attempted many different kinds of literary work, the most ambitious being perhaps his patriotic songs _Preussenlieder_, of which he published a volume during the revolutionary excitement of 1848-1849. Another collection--_Neue Preussenlieder_--appeared in 1864 after the Danish War, and a third in 1870--_Gegen die Franzosen, Preussische Kriegs- und Konigslieder_. Among his novels may be mentioned _Unter dem Eisenzahn_ (1864) and _Der Schultheiss vom Zeyst_ (1875). The best known of his works is his biography of Prince Bismarck (_Das Buch vom Fursten Bismarck_) (3rd ed., 1873; English trans. by R. H. Mackenzie).

HESILRIGE (or HESELRIG), SIR ARTHUR, 2nd Bart. (d. 1661), English parliamentarian, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Hesilrige, 1st baronet (c. 1622), of Noseley, Leicestershire, a member of a very ancient family settled in Northumberland and Leicestershire, and of Frances, daughter of Sir William Gorges, of Alderton, Northamptonshire. He early imbibed strong puritanical principles, and showed a special antagonism to Laud. He sat for Leicestershire in the Short and Long Parliaments in 1640, and took a principal part in Strafford's attainder, the Root and Branch Bill and the Militia Bill of the 7th of December 1641, and was one of the five members impeached on the 3rd of January 1642. He showed much activity in the Great Rebellion, raised a troop of horse for Essex, fought at Edgehill, commanded in the West under Waller, being nicknamed his _fidus Achates_, and distinguished himself at the head of his cuirassiers, "The Lobsters," at Lansdown on the 5th of July 1643, at Roundway Down on the 13th of July, at both of which battles he was wounded, and at Cheriton, March 29th 1644. On the occasion of the breach between the army and the parliament, Hesilrige supported the former, took Cromwell's part in his dispute with Manchester and Essex, and on the passing of the Self-denying Ordinance gave up his commission and became one of the leaders of the Independent party in parliament. On the 30th of December 1647 he was appointed governor of Newcastle, which he successfully defended, besides defeating the Royalists on the 2nd of July 1648 and regaining Tynemouth. In October he accompanied Cromwell to Scotland, and gave him valuable support in the Scottish expedition in 1650. Hesilrige, though he approved of the king's execution, had declined to act as judge on his trial. He was one of the leading men in the Commonwealth, but Cromwell's expulsion of the Long Parliament threw him into antagonism, and he opposed the Protectorate and refused to pay taxes. He was returned for Leicester to the parliaments of 1654, 1656 and 1659, but was excluded from the two former. He refused a seat in the Lords, whither Cromwell sought to relegate him, and succeeded in again obtaining admission to the Commons in January 1658. On Cromwell's death Hesilrige refused support to Richard, and was instrumental in effecting his downfall. He was now one of the most influential men in the council and in parliament. He attempted to maintain a republican parliamentary administration, "to keep the sword subservient to the civil magistrate," and opposed Lambert's schemes. On the latter succeeding in expelling the parliament, Hesilrige turned to Monk for support, and assisted his movements by securing Portsmouth on the 3rd of December 1659. He marched to London, and was appointed one of the council of state on the 2nd of January 1660, and on the 11th of February a commissioner for the army. He was completely deceived by Monk, and trusting to his assurance of fidelity to "the good old cause" consented to the retirement of his regiment from London. At the Restoration his life was saved by Monk's intervention, but he was imprisoned in the Tower, where he died on the 7th of January 1661. Clarendon describes Hesilrige as "an absurd, bold man." He was rash, "hare-brained," devoid of tact and had little claim to the title of a statesman, but his energy in the field and in parliament was often of great value to the parliamentary cause. He exposed himself to considerable obloquy by his exactions and appropriations of confiscated landed property, though the accusation brought against him by John Lilburne was examined by a parliamentary committee and adjudged to be false. Hesilrige married (1) Frances, daughter of Thomas Elmes of Lilford, Northamptonshire, by whom he had two sons and two daughters, and (2) Dorothy, sister of Robert Greville, 2nd Lord Brooke, by whom he had three sons and five daughters. The family was represented in 1907 by his descendant Sir Arthur Grey Hazlerigg of Noseley, 13th Baronet.

AUTHORITIES.--Article on Hesilrige by C. H. Firth in the _Dict. of
Nat. Biography_, and authorities there quoted; _Early History of the
Family of Hesilrige_, by W. G. D. Fletcher; _Cal. of State Papers,
Domestic_, 1631-1664, where there are a large number of important
references, as also in _Hist. MSS._, _Comm. Series_, _MSS. of Earl
Cowper_, _Duke of Leeds_ and _Duke of Portland_; _Egerton MSS._ 2618,
_Harleian_ 7001 f. 198, and in the _Sloane_, _Stowe_ and _Additional_
collections in the British Museum; also S. R. Gardiner, _Hist. of
England_, _Hist. of the Great Civil War and Commonwealth_; Clarendon's
_History, State Papers and Cal. of State Papers_, J. L. Sanford's
_Studies of the Great Rebellion_. His life is written by Noble in the
_House of Cromwell_, i. 403. For his public letters and speeches in
parliament see the catalogue of the British Museum.

HESIOD, the father of Greek didactic poetry, probably flourished during the 8th century B.C. His father had migrated from the Aeolic Cyme in Asia Minor to Boeotia; and Hesiod and his brother Perses were born at Ascra, near mount Helicon (_Works and Days_, 635). Here, as he fed his father's flocks, he received his commission from the Muses to be their prophet and poet--a commission which he recognized by dedicating to them a tripod won by him in a contest of song (see below) at some funeral games at Chalcis in Euboea, still in existence at Helicon in the age of Pausanias (_Theogony_, 20-34, _W. and D._, 656; Pausanias ix. 38. 3). After the death of his father Hesiod is said to have left his native land in disgust at the result of a law-suit with his brother and to have migrated to Naupactus. There was a tradition that he was murdered by the sons of his host in the sacred enclosure of the Nemean Zeus at Oeneon in Locris (Thucydides iii. 96; Pausanias ix. 31); his remains were removed for burial by command of the Delphic oracle to Orchomenus in Boeotia, where the Ascraeans settled after the destruction of their town by the Thespians, and where, according to Pausanias, his grave was to be seen.

Hesiod's earliest poem, the famous _Works and Days_, and according to Boeotian testimony the only genuine one, embodies the experiences of his daily life and work, and, interwoven with episodes of fable, allegory, and personal history, forms a sort of Boeotian shepherd's calendar. The first portion is an ethical enforcement of honest labour and dissuasive of strife and idleness (1-383); the second consists of hints and rules as to husbandry (384-764); and the third is a religious calendar of the months, with remarks on the days most lucky or the contrary for rural or nautical employments. The connecting link of the whole poem is the author's advice to his brother, who appears to have bribed the corrupt judges to deprive Hesiod of his already scantier inheritance, and to whom, as he wasted his substance lounging in the agora, the poet more than once returned good for evil, though he tells him there will be a limit to this unmerited kindness. In the _Works and Days_ the episodes which rise above an even didactic level are the "Creation and Equipment of Pandora," the "Five Ages of the World" and the much-admired "Description of Winter" (by some critics judged post-Hesiodic). The poem also contains the earliest known fable in Greek literature, that of "The Hawk and the Nightingale." It is in the _Works and Days_ especially that we glean indications of Hesiod's rank and condition in life, that of a stay-at-home farmer of the lower class, whose sole experience of the sea was a single voyage of 40 yds. across the Euripus, and an old-fashioned bachelor whose misogynic views and prejudice against matrimony have been conjecturally traced to his brother Perses having a wife as extravagant as himself.

The other poem attributed to Hesiod or his school which has come down in great part to modern times is _The Theogony_, a work of grander scope, inspired alike by older traditions and abundant local associations. It is an attempt to work into system, as none had essayed to do before, the floating legends of the gods and goddesses and their offspring. This task Herodotus (ii. 53) attributes to Hesiod, and he is quoted by Plato in the _Symposium_ (178 B) as the author of the _Theogony_. The first to question his claim to this distinction was Pausanias, the geographer (A.D. 200). The Alexandrian grammarians had no doubt on the subject; and indications of the hand that wrote the _Works and Days_ may be found in the severe strictures on women, in the high esteem for the wealth-giver Plutus and in coincidences of verbal expression. Although, no doubt, of Hesiodic origin, in its present form it is composed of different recensions and numerous later additions and interpolations. The _Theogony_ consists of three divisions--(1) a cosmogony, or creation; (2) a theogony proper, recounting the history of the dynasties of Zeus and Cronus; and (3) a brief and abruptly terminated heroogony, the starting-point not improbably of the supplementary poem, the [Greek: katalogos], or "Lists of Women" who wedded immortals, of which all but a few fragments are lost.[1] The proem (1-116) addressed to the Heliconian and Pierian muses, is considered to have been variously enlarged, altered and arranged by successive rhapsodists. The poet has interwoven several episodes of rare merit, such as the contest of Zeus and the Olympian gods with the Titans, and the description of the prison-house in which the vanquished Titans are confined, with the Giants for keepers and Day and Night for janitors (735 seq.).

The only other poem which has come down to us under Hesiod's name is the _Shield of Heracles_, the opening verses of which are attributed by a nameless grammarian to the fourth book of _Eoiai_. The theme of the piece is the expedition of Heracles and Iolaus against the robber Cycnus; but its main object apparently is to describe the shield of Heracles (141-317). It is clearly an imitation of the Homeric account of the shield of Achilles (_Iliad_, xviii. 479) and is now generally considered spurious. Titles and fragments of other lost poems of Hesiod have come down to us: didactic, as the _Maxims of Cheiron_; genealogical, as the _Aegimius_, describing the contest of that mythical ancestor of the Dorians with the Lapithae; and mythical, as the _Marriage of Ceyx_ and the _Descent of Theseus to Hades_.

Recent editions of Hesiod include the [Greek: Agon Homerou kai Hesiodou], the contest of song between Homer and Hesiod at the funeral games held in honour of King Amphidamas at Chalcis. This little tract belongs to the time of Hadrian, who is actually mentioned as having been present during its recitation, but is founded on an earlier account by the sophist Alcidamas (q.v.). Quotations (old and new) are made from the works of both poets, and, in spite of the sympathies of the audience, the judge decides in favour of Hesiod. Certain biographical details of Homer and Hesiod are also given.

A strong characteristic of Hesiod's style is his sententious and proverbial philosophy (as in _Works and Days_, 24-25, 40, 218, 345, 371). There is naturally less of this in the _Theogony_, yet there too not a few sentiments take the form of the saw or adage. He has undying fame as the first of didactic poets (see DIDACTIC POETRY), the accredited systematizer of Greek mythology and the rough but not unpoetical sketcher of the lines on which Virgil wrought out his exquisitely finished Georgics.