Chapter VIII: Act 1881: , the Corrupt Practices and Bankruptcy Acts 1883, the County (4)

HESYCHASTS ([Greek: hesychastai] or [Greek: hesychazontes], from [Greek: hesychos], quiet, also called [Greek: omphalopsychoi], Umbilicanimi, and sometimes referred to as Euchites, Massalians or Palamites), a quietistic sect which arose, during the later period of the Byzantine empire, among the monks of the Greek church, especially at Mount Athos, then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of Andronicus the younger and the abbacy of Symeon. Owing to various adventitious circumstances the sect came into great prominence politically and ecclesiastically for a few years about the middle of the 14th century. Their opinion and practice will be best represented in the words of one of their early teachers (quoted by Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, c. 63): "When thou art alone in thy cell shut thy door, and seat thyself in a corner; raise thy mind above all things vain and transitory; recline thy beard and chin on thy breast; turn thine eyes and thy thought towards the middle of thy belly, the region of the navel ([Greek: omphalos]); and search the place of the heart, the seat of the soul. At first all will be dark and comfortless; but if thou persevere day and night, thou wilt feel an ineffable joy; and no sooner has the soul discovered the place of the heart than it is involved in a mystic and ethereal light." About the year 1337 this hesychasm, which is obviously related to certain well-known forms of Oriental mysticism, attracted the attention of the learned and versatile Barlaam, a Calabrian monk, who at that time held the office of abbot in the Basilian monastery of St Saviour's in Constantinople, and who had visited the fraternities of Mount Athos on a tour of inspection. Amid much that he disapproved, what he specially took exception to as heretical and blasphemous was the doctrine entertained as to the nature of this divine light, the fruition of which was the supposed reward of hesychastic contemplation. It was maintained to be the pure and perfect essence of God Himself, that eternal light which had been manifested to the disciples on Mount Tabor at the transfiguration. This Barlaam held to be polytheistic, inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God. On the hesychastic side the controversy was taken up by Gregory Palamas, afterwards archbishop of Thessalonica, who laboured to establish a distinction between eternal [Greek: ousia] and eternal [Greek: energeia]. In 1341 the dispute came before a synod held at Constantinople and presided over by the emperor Andronicus; the assembly, influenced by the veneration in which the writings of the pseudo-Dionysius were held in the Eastern Church, overawed Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop of Hierace in the Latin communion. One of his friends, Gregory Acindynus, continued the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the Barlaamites gained a brief victory. But in 1351 under the presidency of the emperor John Cantacuzenus, the uncreated light of Mount Tabor was established as an article of faith for the Greeks, who ever since have been ready to recognize it as an additional ground of separation from the Roman Church. The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and Nicephorus Gregoras deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively. It may be mentioned that in the time of Justinian the word hesychast was applied to monks in general simply as descriptive of the quiet and contemplative character of their pursuits.

See article "Hesychasten" in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd
ed., 1900), where further references are given.

HESYCHIUS, grammarian of Alexandria, probably flourished in the 5th century A.D. He was probably a pagan; and the explanations of words from Gregory of Nazianzus and other Christian writers (_glossae sacrae_) are interpolations of a later time. He has left a Greek dictionary, containing a copious list of peculiar words, forms and phrases, with an explanation of their meaning, and often with a reference to the author who used them or to the district of Greece where they were current. Hence the book is of great value to the student of the Greek dialects; while in the restoration of the text of the classical authors generally, and particularly of such writers as Aeschylus and Theocritus, who used many unusual words, its value can hardly be exaggerated. The explanations of many epithets and phrases reveal many important facts about the religion and social life of the ancients. In a prefatory letter Hesychius mentions that his lexicon is based on that of Diogenianus (itself extracted from an earlier work by Pamphilus), but that he has also used similar works by Aristarchus, Apion, Heliodorus and others.

The text is very corrupt, and the order of the words has often been
disturbed. There is no doubt that many interpolations, besides the
Christian glosses, have been made. The work has come down to us from a
single MS., now in the library at Venice, from which the editio
princeps was published. The best edition is by M. Schmidt (1858-1868);
in a smaller edition (1867) he attempts to distinguish the additions
made by Hesychius to the work of Diogenianus.

HESYCHIUS OF MILETUS, Greek chronicler and biographer, surnamed _Illustrius_, son of an advocate, flourished at Constantinople in the 5th century A.D. during the reign of Justinian. According to Photius (cod. 69) he was the author of three important works, (1) _A Compendium of Universal History_ in six books, from Belus, the reputed founder of the Assyrian empire, to Anastasius I. (d. 518). A considerable fragment has been preserved from the sixth book, entitled [Greek: Patria Konstantinoupoleos], a history of Byzantium from its earliest beginnings till the time of Constantine the Great. (2) _A Biographical Dictionary_ ([Greek: Onomatologos] or [Greek: Pinax]) _of Learned Men_, arranged according to classes (poets, philosophers), the chief sources of which were the [Greek: Mousike historia] of Aelius Dionysius and the works of Herennius Philo. Much of it has been incorporated in the lexicon of Suidas, as we learn from that author. It is disputed, however, whether the words in Suidas ("of which this book is an epitome") mean that Suidas himself epitomized the work of Hesychius, or whether they are part of the title of an already epitomized Hesychius used by Suidas. The second view is more generally held. The epitome referred to, in which alphabetical order was substituted for arrangement in classes and some articles on Christian writers added as a concession to the times, is assigned from internal indications to the years 829-837. Both it and the original work are lost, with the exception of the excerpts in Photius and Suidas. A smaller compilation, chiefly from Diogenes Laertius and Suidas, with a similar title, is the work of an unknown author of the 11th or 12th century. (3) A _History_ of the Reign of Justin I. (518-527) and the early years of Justinian, completely lost. Photius praises the style of Hesychius, and credits him with being a veracious historian.

Editions: J. C. Orelli (1820) and J. Flach (1882); fragments in C. W.
Muller, _Frag. hist. Graec._ iv. 143 and in T. Preger's _Scriptores
originis Constantinopolitanae_, i. (1901); _Pseudo-Hesychius_, by J.
Flach (1880); see generally C. Krumbacher, _Geschichte der
byzantinischen Literatur_ (1897).

HETAERISM (Gr. [Greek: hetaira] mistress), the term employed by anthropologists to express the primitive condition of man in his sexual relations. The earliest social organization of the human race was characterized by the absence of the institution of marriage in any form. Women were the common property of their tribe, and the children never knew their fathers.

HETEROKARYOTA, a zoological name proposed by S. J. Hickson for the Infusoria (q.v.) on the ground of the differentiation of their nuclear apparatus into meganucleus and micronucleus (or nuclei).

See Lankester's _Treatise of Zoology_, vol. i. fasc. 1 (1903).

HETERONOMY (from Gr. [Greek: heteros] and [Greek: nomos], the rule of another), the state of being under the rule of another person. In ethics the term is specially used as the antithesis of "autonomy," which, especially in Kantian terminology, treats of the true self as will, determining itself by its own law, the moral law. "Heteronomy" is therefore applied by Kant to all other ethical systems, inasmuch as they place the individual in subjection to external laws of conduct.

HETMAN (a Polish word, probably derived from the Ger. _Hauptmann_, head-man or captain; the Russian form is _ataman_), a military title formerly in use in Poland; the _Hetman Wielki_, or Great Hetman, was the chief of the armed forces of the nation, and commanded in the field, except when the king was present in person. The office was abolished in 1792. From Poland the word was introduced into Russia, in the form _ataman_, and was adopted by the Cossacks, as a title for their head, who was practically an independent prince, when under the suzerainty of Poland. After the acceptance of Russian rule by the Cossacks in 1654, the post was shorn of its power. The title of "ataman" or "hetman of all the Cossacks" is held by the Cesarevitch. "Ataman" or "hetman" is also the name of the elected elder of the _stanitsa_, the unit of Cossack administration. (See COSSACKS.)

HETTNER, HERMANN THEODOR (1821-1882), German literary historian and writer on the history of art, was born at Leisersdorf, near Goldberg, in Silesia, on the 12th of March 1821. At the universities of Berlin, Halle and Heidelberg he devoted himself chiefly to the study of philosophy, but in 1843 turned his attention to aesthetics, art and literature. With a view to furthering these studies, he spent three years in Italy, and, on his return, published a _Vorschule zur bildenden Kunst der Alten_ (1848) and an essay on _Die neapolitanischen Malerschulen_. He became _Privatdozent_ for aesthetics and the history of art at Heidelberg and, after the publication of his suggestive volume on _Die romantische Schule in ihrem Zusammenhang mit Goethe und Schiller_ (1850), accepted a call as professor to Jena where he lectured on the history of both art and literature. In 1855 he was appointed director of the royal collections of antiquities and the museum of plaster casts at Dresden, to which posts were subsequently added that of director of the historical museum and a professorship at the royal _Polytechnikum_. He died in Dresden on the 29th of May 1882. Hettner's chief work is his _Literaturgeschichte des 18ten Jahrhunderts_, which appeared in three parts, devoted respectively to English, French and German literature, between 1856 and 1870 (5th ed. of I. and II., revised by A. Brandl and H. Morf, 1894; 4th of III., revised by O. Harnack, 1894). Although to some extent influenced by the political and literary theories of the Hegelian school, which, since Hettner's day have fallen into discredit, and at times losing sight of the main issues of literary development over questions of social evolution, this work belongs to the best histories that the 19th century produced. Hettner's judgment is sound and his point of view always original and stimulating. His other works include _Griechische Reiseskizzen_ (1853), _Das moderne Drama_ (1852)--a book that arose from a correspondence with Gottfried Keller--_Italienische Studien_ (1879), and several works descriptive of the Dresden art collections. His _Kleine Schriften_ were collected and published in 1884.

See A. Stern, _Hermann Hettner, ein Lebensbild_ (1885); H. Spitzer,
_H. Hettners kunstphilosophische Anfange und Literaturasthetik_
(1903).

HETTSTEDT, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Wipper, and at the junction of the railways Berlin-Blankenheim and Hettstedt-Halle, 23 m. N.W. of the last town. Pop. (1905), 9230. It has a Roman Catholic and four Evangelical churches, and has manufactures of machinery, pianofortes and artificial manure. In the neighbourhood are mines of argentiferous copper, and the surrounding district and villages are occupied with smelting and similar works. Silver and sulphuric acid are the other chief products; nickel and gold are also found in small quantities. In the Kaiser Friedrich mine close by, the first steam-engine in Germany was erected on the 23rd of August 1785. Hettstedt is mentioned as early as 1046; in 1220 it possessed a castle; and in 1380 it received civic privileges. When the countship of Mansfeld was sequestrated, Hettstedt came into the possession of Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1815.

HEUGLIN, THEODOR VON (1824-1876), German traveller in north-east Africa, was born on the 20th of March 1824 at Hirschlanden near Leonberg in Wurttemberg. His father was a Protestant pastor, and he was trained to be a mining engineer. He was ambitious, however, to become a scientific investigator of unknown regions, and with that object studied the natural sciences, especially zoology. In 1850 he went to Egypt where he learnt Arabic, afterwards visiting Arabia Petraea. In 1852 he accompanied Dr Reitz, Austrian consul at Khartum, on a journey to Abyssinia, and in the next year was appointed Dr Reitz's successor in the consulate. While he held this post he travelled in Abyssinia and Kordofan, making a valuable collection of natural history specimens. In 1857 he journeyed through the coast lands of the African side of the Red Sea, and along the Somali coast. In 1860 he was chosen leader of an expedition to search for Eduard Vogel, his companions including Werner Munzinger, Gottlob Kinzelbach, and Dr Hermann Steudner. In June 1861 the party landed at Massawa, having instructions to go direct to Khartum and thence to Wadai, where Vogel was thought to be detained. Heuglin, accompanied by Dr Steudner, turned aside and made a wide detour through Abyssinia and the Galla country, and in consequence the leadership of the expedition was taken from him. He and Steudner reached Khartum in 1862 and there joined the party organized by Miss Tinne. With her or on their own account, they travelled up the White Nile to Gondokoro and explored a great part of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, where Steudner died of fever on the 10th of April 1863. Heuglin returned to Europe at the end of 1864. In 1870 and 1871 he made a valuable series of explorations in Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya; but 1875 found him again in north-east Africa, in the country of the Beni Amer and northern Abyssinia. He was preparing for an exploration of the island of Sokotra, when he died, at Stuttgart, on the 5th of November 1876. It is principally by his zoological, and more especially his ornithological, labours that Heuglin has taken rank as an independent authority.

His chief works are _Systematische Ubersicht der Vogel
Nordost-Afrikas_ (1855); _Reisen in Nordost-Afrika, 1852-1853_ (Gotha,
1857); _Syst. Ubersicht der Saugetiere Nordost-Afrikas_ (Vienna,
1867); _Reise nach Abessinien, den Gala-Landern_, &c., _1861-1862_
(Jena, 1868); _Reise in das Gebiet des Weissen Nil_, &c. _1862-1864_
(Leipzig, 1869); _Reisen nach dem Nordpolarmeer, 1870-1871_
(Brunswick, 1872-1874); _Ornithologie von Nordost-Afrika_ (Cassel,
1869-1875); _Reise in Nordost-Afrika_ (Brunswick, 1877, 2 vols.) A
list of the more important of his numerous contributions to
_Petermann's Mitteilungen_ will be found in that serial for 1877 at
the close of the necrological notice.

HEULANDITE, a mineral of the zeolite group, consisting of hydrous calcium and aluminium silicate, H4CaAl2(SiO3)6 + 3H20. Small amounts of sodium and potassium are usually present replacing part of the calcium. Crystals are monoclinic, and have a characteristic coffin-shaped habit. They have a perfect cleavage parallel to the plane of symmetry (M in the figure), on which the lustre is markedly pearly; on other faces the lustre is of the vitreous type. The mineral is usually colourless or white, sometimes brick-red, and varies from transparent to translucent. The hardness is 3(1/2)-4, and the specific gravity 2.2.

Heulandite closely resembles stilbite (q.v.) in appearance, and differs from it chemically only in containing rather less water of crystallization. The two minerals may, however, be readily distinguished by the fact that in heulandite the acute positive bisectrix of the optic axes emerges perpendicular to the cleavage. Heulandite was first separated from stilbite by A. Breithaupt in 1818, and named by him euzeolite (meaning beautiful zeolite); independently, in 1822, H. J. Brooke arrived at the same result, giving the name heulandite, after the mineral collector, Henry Heuland.

Heulandite occurs with stilbite and other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in gneiss and metalliferous veins. The best specimens are from the basalts of Berufjord, near Djupivogr, in Iceland and the Faroe Islands, and the Deccan traps of the Sahyadri mountains near Bombay. Crystals of a brick-red colour are from Campsie Fells in Stirlingshire and the Fassathal in Tirol. A variety known as beaumontite occurs as small yellow crystals on syenitic schist near Baltimore in Maryland.

Isomorphous with heulandite is the strontium and barium zeolite brewsterite, named after Sir David Brewster. The greyish monoclinic crystals have the composition H4(Sr, Ba, Ca)Al2(SiO3)6 + 3H2O, and are found in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in Co. Antrim, and with harmotome in the lead mines at Strontian in Argyllshire. (L. J. S.)

HEUSCH, WILLEM, or GUILLIAM DE, a Dutch landscape painter in the 17th century at Utrecht. The dates of this artist's birth and death are unknown. Nothing certain is recorded of him except that he presided over the gild of Utrecht, whilst Cornelis Poelemburg, Jan Both and Jan Weenix formed the council of that body, in 1649. According to the majority of historians, Heusch was born in 1638, and was taught by Jan Both. But each of these statements seems open to doubt; and although it is obvious that the style of Heusch is identical with that of Both, it may be that the two masters during their travels in Italy fell under the influence of Claude Lorraine, whose "Arcadian" art they imitated. Heusch certainly painted the same effects of evening in wide expanses of country varied by rock formations and lofty thin-leaved arborescence as Both. There is little to distinguish one master from the other, except that of the two Both is perhaps the more delicate colourist. The gild of Utrecht in the middle of the 17th century was composed of artists who clung faithfully to each other. Poelemburg, who painted figures for Jan Both, did the same duty for Heusch. Sometimes Heusch sketched landscapes for the battlepieces of Molenaer. The most important examples of Heusch are in the galleries of the Hague and Rotterdam, in the Belvedere at Vienna, the Stadel at Frankfort and the Louvre. His pictures are signed with the full name, beginning with a monogram combining a G (for Guilliam), D and H. Heusch's etchings, of which thirteen are known, are also in the character of those of Both.

After Guilliam there also flourished at Utrecht his nephew, Jacob de Heusch, who signs like his uncle, substituting an initial J for the initial G. He was born at Utrecht in 1657, learnt drawing from his uncle, and travelled early to Rome, where he acquired friends and patrons for whom he executed pictures after his return. He settled for a time at Berlin, but finally retired to Utrecht, where he died in 1701. Jacob was an "Arcadian," like his relative, and an imitator of Both, and he chiefly painted Italian harbour views. But his pictures are now scarce. Two of his canvases, the "Ponte Rotto" at Rome, in the Brunswick Gallery, and a lake harbour with shipping in the Lichtenstein collection at Vienna, are dated 1696. A harbour with a tower and distant mountains, in the Belvedere at Vienna, was executed in 1699. Other examples may be found in English private galleries, in the Hermitage of St Petersburg and the museums of Rouen and Montpellier.

HEVELIUS [HEVEL or HOWELCKE], JOHANN (1611-1687), German astronomer, was born at Danzig on the 28th of January 1611. He studied jurisprudence at Leiden in 1630; travelled in England and France; and in 1634 settled in his native town as a brewer and town councillor. From 1639 his chief interest became centred in astronomy, though he took, throughout his life, a leading part in municipal affairs. In 1641 he built an observatory in his house, provided with a splendid instrumental outfit, including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 150 ft. focal length, constructed by himself. It was visited, on the 29th of January 1660, by John II. and Maria Gonzaga, king and queen of Poland. Hevelius made observations of sun-spots, 1642-1645, devoted four years to charting the lunar surface, discovered the moon's libration in longitude, and published his results in _Selenographia_ (1647), a work which entitles him to be called the founder of lunar topography. He discovered four comets in the several years 1652, 1661, 1672 and 1677, and suggested the revolution of such bodies in parabolic tracks round the sun. On the 26th of September 1679, his observatory, instruments and books were maliciously destroyed by fire, the catastrophe being described in the preface to his _Annus climactericus_ (1685). He promptly repaired the damage, so far as to enable him to observe the great comet of December 1680; but his health suffered from the shock, and he died on the 28th of January 1687. Among his works were: _Prodromus cometicus_ (1665); _Cometographia_ (1668); _Machina coelestis_ (first part, 1673), containing a description of his instruments; the second part (1679) is extremely rare, nearly the whole issue having perished in the conflagration of 1679. The observations made by Hevelius on the variable star named by him "Mira" are included in _Annus climactericus_. His catalogue of 1564 stars appeared posthumously in _Prodromus astronomiae_ (1690). Its value was much impaired by his preference of the antique "pinnules" to telescopic sights on quadrants. This led to an acrimonious controversy with Robert Hooke. In an _Atlas_ of 56 sheets, corresponding to his catalogue, and entitled _Firmamentum Sobiescianum_ (1690), he delineated seven new constellations, still in use. Hevelius had his book printed in his own house, at lavish expense, and himself not only designed but engraved many of the plates.

See J. H. Westphal, _Leben, Studien, und Schriften des Astronomen
Johann Hevelius_ (1820); C. B. Lengnich, _Anekdoten und Nachrichten_
(1780); _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_ (C. Bruhns); J. B. J.
Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie moderne_, ii. 471; J. F. Weidler,
_Historia astronomiae_, p. 486; F. Baily's edition of the Catalogue of
Hevelius, _Memoirs Roy. Astr. Society_, xiii. (1843); R. Wolf,
_Geschichte der Astronomie_, p. 396; J. C. Poggendorff, _Biog.-lit.
Handworterbuch_. For an account of the epistolary remains of Hevelius,
see C. G. Hecker, _Monatl. Correspondenz_, viii. 30; also _Astr.
Nachrichten_, vols. xxiii., xxiv. (A. M. C.)

HEWETT, SIR PRESCOTT GARDNER, Bart. (1812-1891), British surgeon, was born on the 3rd of July 1812, being the son of a Yorkshire country gentleman. He lived for some years in early life in Paris, and started on a career as an artist, but abandoned it for surgery. He entered St George's Hospital, London (where his half-brother, Dr Cornwallis Hewett, was physician from 1825 to 1833) becoming demonstrator of anatomy and curator of the museum. He was the pupil and intimate friend of Sir B. C. Brodie, and helped him in much of his work. Eventually he rose to be anatomical lecturer, assistant-surgeon and surgeon to the hospital. In 1876 he was president of the College of Surgeons; in 1877 he was made serjeant-surgeon extraordinary to Queen Victoria, in 1884 serjeant-surgeon, and in 1883 he was created a baronet. He was a very good lecturer, but shrank from authorship; his lectures on _Surgical Affections of the Head_ were, however, embodied in his treatise on the subject in Holmes's _System of Surgery_. As a surgeon he was always extremely conservative, but hesitated at no operation, however severe, when convinced of its expediency. He was a perfect operator, and one of the most trustworthy of counsellors. He died on the 19th of June 1891.

HEWITT, ABRAM STEVENS (1822-1903), American manufacturer and political leader, was born in Haverstraw, New York, on the 31st of July 1822. His father, John, a Staffordshire man, was one of a party of four mechanics who were sent by Boulton and Watt to Philadelphia about 1790 to set up a steam engine for the city water-works and who in 1793-1794 built at Belleville, N.J., the first steam engine constructed wholly in America; he made a fortune in the manufacture of furniture, but lost it by the burning of his factories. The boy's mother was of Huguenot descent. He graduated with high rank from Columbia College in 1842, having supported himself through his course. He taught mathematics at Columbia, and in 1845 was admitted to the bar, but, owing to defective eyesight, never practised. With Edward Cooper (son of Peter Cooper, whom Hewitt greatly assisted in organizing Cooper Union, and whose daughter he married) he went into the manufacture of iron girders and beams under the firm name of Cooper, Hewitt & Co. His study of the making of gun-barrel iron in England enabled him to be of great assistance to the United States government during the Civil War, when he refused any profit on such orders. The men in his works never struck--indeed in 1873-1878 his plant was run at an annual loss of $100,000. In politics he was a Democrat. In 1871 he was prominent in the re-organization of Tammany after the fall of the "Tweed Ring"; from 1875 until the end of 1886 (except in 1879-1881) he was a representative in Congress; in 1876 he left Tammany for the County Democracy; in the Hayes-Tilden campaign of that year he was chairman of the Democratic National Committee, and in Congress he was one of the House members of the joint committee which drew up the famous Electoral Count Act providing for the Electoral Commission. In 1886 he was elected mayor of New York City, his nomination having been forced upon the Democratic Party by the strength of the other nominees, Henry George and Theodore Roosevelt; his administration (1887-1888) was thoroughly efficient and creditable, but he broke with Tammany, was not renominated, ran independently for re-election, and was defeated. In 1896 and 1900 he voted the Republican ticket, but did not ally himself with the organization. He died in New York City on the 18th of January 1903. In Congress he was a consistent defender of sound money and civil service reform; in municipal politics he was in favour of business administrations and opposed to partisan nominations. He was a leader of those who contended for reform in municipal government, was conspicuous for his public spirit, and exerted a great influence for good not only in New York City but in the state and nation. His most famous speech was that made at the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883. He was a terse, able and lucid speaker, master of wit and sarcasm, and a fearless critic. He gave liberally to Cooper Union, of which he was trustee and secretary, and which owes much of its success to him; was a trustee of Columbia University from 1901 until his death, chairman of the board of trustees of Barnard College, and was one of the original trustees, first chairman of the board of trustees, and a member of the executive committee of the Carnegie Institution.

HEWLETT, MAURICE HENRY (1861- ), English novelist, was born on the 22nd of January 1861, the eldest son of Henry Gay Hewlett, of Shaw Hall, Addington, Kent. He was educated at the London International College, Spring Grove, Isleworth, and was called to the bar in 1891. From 1896 to 1900 he was keeper of the land revenue records and enrolments. He published in 1895 two books on Italy, _Earthwork out of Tuscany_, and (in verse) _The Masque of Dead Florentines_. _Songs and Meditations_ followed in 1897, and in 1898 he won an immediate reputation by his _Forest Lovers_, a romance of medieval England, full of rapid movement and passion. In the same year he printed the pastoral and pagan drama of _Pan and the Young Shepherd_, shortened for purposes of representation and produced at the Court Theatre in March 1905, when it was followed by the _Youngest of the Angels_, dramatized from a chapter in his _Fool Errant_. In _Little Novels of Italy_ (1899), a collection of brilliant short stories, he showed again his power of literary expression together with a close knowledge of medieval Italy. The new and vivid portraits of Richard Coeur de Lion in his _Richard Yea-and-Nay_ (1900), and of Mary, queen of Scots, in _The Queen's Quair_ (1904) showed the combination of fiction with real history at its best. _The New Canterbury Tales_ (1901) was another volume of stories of English life, but he returned to Italian subjects with _The Road in Tuscany_ (1904); in _Fond Adventures, Tales of the Youth of the World_ (1905), two are Italian tales, and _The Fool Errant_ (1905) purports to be the memoirs of Francis Antony Stretley, citizen of Lucca. Later works were the novel _The Stooping Lady_ (1907), and a volume of poems, _Artemision_ (1909).

HEXAMETER, the name of the earliest and most important form of classical verse in dactylic rhythm. The word is due to each line containing six feet or measures ([Greek: metra]), the last of which must be a spondee and the penultimate a dactyl, though occasionally, for some special effect, a spondee may be allowed in the fifth foot, when the line is said to be spondaic. The four other feet may be either spondees or dactyls. All the great heroic and epic verse of the Greek and Roman poets is in this metre, of which the finest examples are to be found in Homer and in Virgil. Varied cadences and varied caesura are essential to this form of verse, otherwise the monotony is wearying to the ear. The most usual places for the caesura are at the middle of the third, or the middle of the fourth foot: the former is known as the penthemimeral and the latter as hepthemimeral caesura. There are several more or less successful examples of English poems in this metre, for example Longfellow's _Evangeline_, Kingsley's _Andromeda_ and Clough's _Bothie of Tober-na-Vuoilich_, but it does not really suit the genius of the English language. In English the lack of true spondees is severely felt, even though the English metre depends, not, as in Greek and Latin, on the distinction between long and short syllables, but on that between accented and unaccented syllables. The accent must always (or it sounds very ugly) fall on the first syllable, whatever may have been the case in Greek and Latin--Voss, Klopstock and Goethe have written hexameter poems of varying merit and the metre suits the German language distinctly better than the English. The customary form of hexameter in English verse is exemplified by Coleridge's descriptive line:--

"In the hex | ameter | rises the | fountain's | silvery | column."

Several modern poets, and in particular Robert Browning, and Lord Bowen (1835-1894) have used with effect a truncated hexameter consisting of the usual verse deprived of its last syllable. Thus Browning:--

"Well, it is I gone at | last, the | palace of | music I | reared."

It is not sufficiently observed that even the classic Greek poets introduced considerable variations into their treatment of the hexameter. These have been treated with erudition in G. Hermann's _De aetate scriptoris Argonauticorum_. The differences in the hexameters of the Latin poets were not so remarkable, but even these varied, in various epochs, their treatment of the separate feet, and the position of the caesura. The satirists in particular allowed themselves an extraordinary licence: these hexameters, from Persius, are as far removed from the rhythm of Homer, or even of Virgil, as possible, if they are to remain hexameters:--

"Mane piger stertis. 'Surge!' inquit Avaritia, 'heia
Surge!' negas; instat 'Surge!' inquit 'Non queo.' 'Surge!'
'Et quid agam?' 'Rogitas? en saperdam advehe Ponto.'"

It is also to be noted that various prosodical liberties, due originally to the extreme antiquity of the hexameter, and long reformed and repressed by the culture of poets, were apt to be revived in later ages, by writers who slavishly copied the most antique examples of the art of verse.

See Wilhelm Christ, _Metrik der Griechen und Romer_, 2te Aufl. (1879).

HEXAPLA (Gr. for "sixfold"), the term for an edition of the Bible in six versions, and especially the edition of the Old Testament compiled by Origen, which placed side by side (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek character, (3) Aquila, (4) Symmachus, (5) Septuagint, (6) Theodotion. See BIBLE: _Old Testament, Texts and Versions_.

HEXAPODA (Gr. [Greek: hex], six, and [Greek: pous], foot), a term used in systematic zoology for that class of the ARTHROPODA, popularly known as insects. Linnaeus in his _Systema naturae_ (1735) grouped under the class Insecta all segmented animals with firm exoskeleton and jointed limbs--that is to say, the insects, centipedes, millipedes, crustaceans, spiders, scorpions and their allies. This assemblage is now generally regarded as a great division (phylum or sub-phylum) of the animal kingdom and known by K. T. E. von Siebold's (1848) name of Arthropoda. For the class of the true insects included in this phylum, Linnaeus's old term Insecta, first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson (1756), is still adopted by many zoologists, while others prefer the name Hexapoda, first used systematically in its modern sense by P. A. Latreille in 1825 (_Familles naturelles du regne animal_), since it has the advantage of expressing, in a single word, an important characteristic of the group. The terms "Hexapoda" and "hexapod" had already been used by F. Willughby, J. Ray and others in the late 17th century to include the active larvae of beetles, as well as bugs, lice, fleas and other insects with undeveloped wings.

_Characters._

A true insect, or member of the class Hexapoda, may be known by the grouping of its body-segments in three distinct regions--a head, a thorax and an abdomen--each of which consists of a definite number of segments. In the terminology proposed by E. R. Lankester the arrangement is "nomomeristic" and "nomotagmic." The head of an insect carries usually four pairs of conspicuous appendages--feelers, mandibles and two pairs of maxillae, so that the presence of four primitive somites is immediately evident. The compound eyes of insects resemble so closely the similar organs in Crustaceans that there can hardly be reasonable doubt of their homology, and the primitively appendicular nature of the eyes in the latter class suggests that in the Hexapoda also they represent the appendages of an anterior (protocerebral) segment. Behind the antennal (or deutocerebral) segment an "intercalary" or tritocerebral segment has been demonstrated by W. M. Wheeler (1893) and others in various insect embryos, while in the lowest insect order--the Aptera--a pair of minute jaws--the maxillulae--in close association with the tongue are present, as has been shown by H. J. Hansen (1893) and J. W. Folsom (1900). Distinct vestiges of the maxillulae exist also in the earwigs and booklice, according to G. Enderlein and C. Borner (1904), and they are very evident in larval may-flies. The number of limb-bearing somites in the insectan head is thus seen to be seven. All of these are to be regarded as primitively post-oral, but in the course of development the mouth moves back to the mandibular segment, so that the first three somites--ocular, antennal and intercalary--lie in front of it. In Lankester's terminology, therefore, the head of an insect is "triprosthomerous." The maxillae of the hinder pair become more or less fused together to form a "lower lip" or labium, and the segment of these appendages is, in some insects, only imperfectly united with the head-capsule.

The thorax is composed of three segments; each bears a pair of jointed legs, and in the vast majority of insects the two hindmost bear each a pair of wings. From these three pairs of thoracic legs comes the name--Hexapoda--which distinguishes the class. And the wings, though not always present, are highly characteristic of the Hexapoda, since no other group of the Arthropoda has acquired the power of flight. In the more generalized insects the abdomen evidently consists of ten segments, the hindmost of which often carries a pair of tail-feelers, (cerci or cercopods) and a terminal anal segment. In some cases, however, it can be shown that the cerci really belong to an eleventh abdominal segment which usually becomes fused with the tenth. With very few exceptions the abdomen is without locomotor limbs. Paired processes on the eighth and ninth abdominal segments may be specialized as external organs of reproduction, but these are probably not appendages. The female genital opening usually lies in front of the eighth abdominal segment, the male duct opens on the ninth.

In all main points of their internal structure the Hexapoda agree with other Arthropoda. Specially characteristic of the class, however, is the presence of a complex system of air-tubes (tracheae) for respiration, usually opening to the exterior by a series of paired spiracles on certain of the body segments. The possession of a variable number of excretory tubes (Malpighian tubes), which are developed as outgrowths of the hind-gut and pour their excretion into the intestine, is also a distinctive character of the Hexapoda.

The wings of insects are, in all cases, developed after hatching, the younger stages being wingless, and often unlike the parent in other respects. In such cases the development of wings and the attainment of the adult form depend upon a more or less profound transformation or metamorphosis.

With this brief summary of the essential characters of the Hexapoda, we may pass to a more detailed account of their structure.

EXOSKELETON

The outer cellular layer (ectoderm or "hypodermis") of insects as of
other Arthropods, secretes a chitinous cuticle which has to be
periodically shed and renewed during the growth of the animal. The
regions of this cuticle have a markedly segmental arrangement, and the
definite hardened pieces (sclerites) of the exoskeleton are in close
contact with one another along linear sutures, or are united by
regions of the cuticle which are less chitinous and more membranous,
so as to permit freedom of movement.

_Head._--The head-capsule of an insect (figs. 1, 2) is composed of a
number of sclerites firmly sutured together, so that the primitive
segmentation is masked. Above is the crown (_vertex_ or _epicranium_),
on which or on the "front" may be seated three simple eyes (ocelli).
Below this comes the front, and then the face or clypeus, to which a
very distinct upper lip (_labrum_) is usually jointed. Behind the
labrum arises a process--the _epipharynx_--which in some blood-sucking
insects becomes a formidable piercing-organ. On either side a variable
amount of convex area is occupied by the compound eye; in many insects
of acute sense and accurate flight these eyes are very large and
sub-globular, almost meeting on the middle line of the head. Below
each eye is a cheek area (_gena_), often divided into an anterior and
a posterior part, while a distinct chin-sclerite (_gula_) is often
developed behind the mouth.

FIG. 1.--Head and Jaws of Cockroach (_Blatta_). Magnified 10 times. A,
Front; B, side; C, back; v, vertex; f, frons; cl, clypeus; lbr,
labrum; oc, compound eye; ge, gena; mn, mandible; ca, st, pa, ga, la,
cardo, stipes, palp, galea, lacinia of first maxilla; sm, m, pa', pg,
sub-mentum, mentum, palp, galea of 2nd maxilla.]

_Feelers._--Most conspicuous among the appendages of the head are the
feelers or antennae, which correspond to the anterior feelers
(antennules) of Crustacea. In their simpler condition they are long
and many-jointed, the segments bearing numerous olfactory and tactile
nerve-endings. Elaboration in the form of the feelers, often a
secondary sexual character in male insects, may result from a distal
broadening of the segments, so that the appendage becomes serrate, or
from the development of processes bearing sensory organs, so that the
structure is pinnate or feather-like. On the other hand, the number of
segments may be reduced, certain of them often becoming highly
modified in form.

FIG. 2.--Head of Cicad, front view. Ia, frons; b, clypeus (the pointed
labrum beneath it); II, mandible; III, first maxilla; (a, base; b,
sheath; c, piercer), III', inner view of sheath; IV, second maxillae
forming rostrum (b, mentum; c, ligula).]

_Jaws._--The mandibles of the Hexapoda are usually strong jaws with
one or more teeth at the apex (fig. 1, A, B, mn), articulating at
their bases with the head-capsule by sub-globular condyles, and
provided with abductor and adductor muscles by means of which they can
be separated or drawn together so as to bite solid food, or seize
objects which have to be carried about. They never bear segmented
limbs (palps) and only exceptionally (as in the chafers) is the
skeleton composed of more than one sclerite. The mandibles often
furnish a good example of "secondary sexual characters," being more
strongly developed in the male than in the female of the same species.
In most insects that feed by suction the mandibles are modified. In
bugs (Heteroptera) and many flies, for example, they are changed into
needle-like piercers (fig. 2, II), while in moths and caddis-flies
they are reduced to mere vestiges or altogether suppressed.

As previously mentioned, a pair of minute jaws--the _maxillulae_--are
present in the lowest order of insects, between the mandibles and the
first maxillae. They usually consist of an inner and an outer lobe
arising from a basal piece, which bears also in some genera a small
palp (see APTERA).

In their typical state of development, the _first maxillae_ offer a
striking contrast to the mandibles, being composed of a two-segmented
basal piece (_cardo_ and _stipes_, fig. 1, C, ca, st) bearing a
distinct inner and outer lobe (_lacinia_ and _galea_, fig. 1, C, la,
ga) and externally a jointed limb or palp (fig. 1, C, pa). Such
maxillae are found in most biting insects. In insects whose mouths are
adapted for sucking and piercing, remarkable modifications may occur.
In many blood-sucking flies, for example, the galea is absent, while
the lacinia becomes a strong knife-like piercer and the palp is well
developed. In bugs and aphids the lacinia is a slender needle-like
piercer (fig. 2, III), while the palp is wanting. In butterflies and
moths the lacinia is absent while the galea becomes a flexible
process, grooved on its inner face, so as to make with its fellow a
hollow sucking-trunk, and the palp is usually very small.

The _second pair of maxillae_ are more or less completely fused
together to form what is known as the _labium_ or "lower lip." In
generalized biting insects, such as cockroaches and locusts
(Orthoptera), the parts of a typical maxilla can be easily recognized
in the labium. The fused cardines form a broad basal plate
(_sub-mentum_) and the stipites a smaller plate (_mentum_)--see fig.
1, C, sm, m--jointed on to the sub-mentum, while the galeae, laciniae
and palps remain distinct. In specialized biting insects, such as
beetles (Coleoptera), the labium tends to become a hard transverse
plate bearing the pair of palps, a median structure--known as the
_ligula_--formed of the conjoined laciniae, and a pair of small
rounded processes--the reduced galeae--often called the "paraglossae,"
a term better avoided since it has been applied also to the maxillulae
of Aptera, entirely different structures. The long sucking "tongue" of
bees is probably a modification of the ligula. In bugs and aphids
(Hemiptera), the fused second maxillae form a jointed grooved beak or
rostrum (fig. 2, IV) in which the slender piercers (mandibles and
first maxillae) work to and fro.

This second pair of maxillae (or labium) form then the hinder or lower
boundary of the mouth. In front or above the mouth is bounded by the
labrum, while the mandibles and first maxillae lie on either side of
it. A median process, known as the _hypopharynx_ or tongue, arises
from the floor of the mouth in front of the labium, and becomes most
variously developed or specialized in different insects. The salivary
duct opens on its hinder surface. It does not appear to represent a
pair of appendages, but the maxillulae of the Aptera become closely
associated with it. According to the view of R. Heymons, the
hypopharynx represents the sterna of all the jaw-bearing somites, but
other students consider that it belongs to the mandibular and first
maxillary segments, or entirely to the segment of the first maxillae.

_Neck._--The head is usually connected with the thorax by a distinct
membranous neck, strengthened in the more generalized orders with
small chitinous plates (_cervical sclerites_). These have been
interpreted as indicating one or more primitive segments between the
head and thorax. Probably, however, as suggested by T. H. Huxley
(_Anat. Invert. Animals_, 1877), they really belong to the labial
segment which has not become completely fused with the head-capsule.
It has been shown by C. Janet (1889), from careful studies of the
musculature, that the greater part of the head-capsule is built up of
the four anterior head-segments, the hindmost of which has the
mandibles for its appendages, and this conclusion is in the main
supported by the recent work on the head skeleton of J. H. Comstock
and C. Kochi (1902) and W. A. Riley (1904).

_Thorax._--The three segments which make up the thorax or fore-trunk
are known as the _prothorax_, _mesothorax_ and _metathorax_ (see fig.
3). The dorsal area of the prothorax is occupied by a single sclerite,
the _pronotum_ (fig. 3, d), which is large and conspicuous in those
insects, such as cockroaches, bugs (Heteroptera) and beetles, which
have the prothorax free--i.e. readily movable on the segment
(mesothorax) immediately behind--smaller and of less importance where
the prothorax is fixed to the mesothorax, as in bees and flies. The
dorsal area of the mesothorax, and also of the metathorax, may be made
up of a series of sclerites arranged one behind the
other--_prescutum_, _scutum_, _scutellum_ and _post-scutellum_ (fig.
3, e, f, g, h), the scutellum of the mesothorax being often especially
conspicuous. Ventrally, each segment of the thorax has a _sternum_
with which a median _pre-sternum_ and paired _episterna_ and _epimera_
are often associated (see figs. 3, 4). The recent suggestion of K. W.
Verhoeff (1904) that the hexapodan thorax in reality contains six
primitive segments is entirely without embryological support.

_Legs._--Each segment of the thorax carries a pair of legs. In most
insects the leg is built up of nine segments: (1) a broad triangular,
sub-globular, conical or cylindrical haunch (_coxa_); (2) a small
_trochanter_; (3) an elongate stout thigh (_femur_); (4) a more
slender shin (_tibia_); and (5-9) a foot consisting of five _tarsal
segments_. The fifth (distal) tarsal segment carries a median adhesive
pad--the _pulvillus_--on either side of which is a claw. The pulvillus
is probably to be regarded as a true terminal (tenth) segment of the
leg, while the claws are highly modified bristles. Numerous bristles
are usually present on the thighs, shins and feet of insects, some of
them so delicate as to be termed "hairs," others so stout and hard
that they are named "spines" or "spurs." In the relative development
and shape of the various segments of the leg there is almost endless
variety, dependent on the order to which the insect belongs, and the
special function--walking, running, climbing, digging or swimming--for
which the limb is adapted. The walking of insects has been carefully
studied by V. Graber (1877) and J. Demoor (1890), who find that the
legs are usually moved in two sets of three, the first and third legs
of one side moving with the second leg of the other. One tripod thus
affords a firm base of support while the legs of the other tripod are
brought forward to their new positions.

FIG. 3.--Thorax of Saw-Fly (_Pachynematus_).

I, Dorsal view.
II, Ventral view.
III, Lateral view.
IV, Lateral view with segments separated. _Prothorax_:
a, Episternum.
b, Sternum.
c, Coxa of fore-leg.
d, Pronotum. _Mesothorax_:
e, Prescutum.
f, Scutum.
g, Scutellum.
h, Post-scutellum.
i, Mesophragma.
j, _Epimeron_.
k, _Episternum_.
l, Coxa of middle leg. _Metathorax_:
m, Scutum.
o, Epimeron.
p, Coxa of hind leg.
n, _First Abdominal Segment_.
t, Tegula at base of fore-wing.]

FIG. 4.--Legs and Ventral Thoracic Sclerites of Female Cockroach

(_Blatta_).

I, Fore-leg and pro-sternum (S) in front of which are the ventral
cervical sclerites (c).
cx, Coxa. tr, Trochanter.
fe, Thigh. tb, Shin.
ta, Tarsal segments.
II, Middle leg and mesosternum.
III, Hind-leg and metasternum.
In IIIA, the episternum (a) and epimeron (b) are slightly separated.]

_Wings._--Two pairs of wings are present in the vast majority of
insects, borne respectively on the mesothorax and metathorax. At the
base of the wing, i.e. its attachment to the trunk, we find a highly
complex series of small sclerites adapted for the varied movements
necessary for flight. Those of the dragon-flies (Odonata) have been
described in detail by R. von Lendenfeld (1881). The long axis of the
wings, when at rest, lies parallel to the body axis. In this position
the outer margin of the wing is the _costa_, the inner the _dorsum_,
and the hind-margin the _termen_. The angle between the costa and
termen is the _apex_. When the wing is spread, its long axis is more
or less at a right angle to the body axis. A wing is an outgrowth from
the dorsal and pleural regions of the thoracic segment that bears it,
and microscopic examination shows it to consist of a double layer of
cuticularized skin, the two layers being in contact except where they
are thickened and folded to form the firm tubular nervures, which
serve as a supporting framework for the wing membrane, enclose
air-tubes, and convey blood. These nervures consist of a series of
trunks radiating from the wing-base and usually branching as they
approach the wing-margins, the branches being often connected by short
transverse nervures, so that the wing-area is marked off into a number
of "cells" or areolets.

FIG. 5.--Wing-Neuration in a Cossid Moth. 2, sub-costal; 3, radial; 4,
median; 5, cubital; 6, 7, 8, anal nervures.]

The details of the nervuration vary greatly in the different orders,
but J. H. Comstock and J. G. Needham have lately (1898-1899) shown
that a common arrangement underlies all, six series of longitudinal or
radiating nervures being present in the typical wing (see fig. 5).
Along the costa runs a costal nervure. This is followed by a
sub-costal which sometimes shows two main branches. Then comes the
radial--usually the most important nervure of the wing--typically with
five branches, and the median with four. These sets arise from a main
trunk towards the front region of the wing-base. From another hinder
trunk arise the two-branched cubital nervure and three separate anal
nervures. In the hind-wing of many insects the number of radial
branches becomes reduced, while the anal area is especially well
developed and undergoes a fan-like folding when the wings are closed.
Great diversity exists in the texture and functions of fore and
hind-wings in different insects; these differences are discussed in
the descriptions of the various orders. The wings often afford
secondary sexual characters, being not infrequently absent or reduced
in the female when well developed in the male (see fig. 6). Rarely the
male is the wingless sex.

In addition to the wings there are smaller dorsal outgrowths of the
thorax in many insects. Paired erectile plates (patagia) are borne on
the prothorax in moths, while in moths, sawflies, wasps, bees and
other insects there are small plates (tegulae)--see Fig. 3, t--on the
mesothorax at the base of the fore-wings.

_Abdomen._--In the abdominal exoskeleton the segmental structure is
very clearly marked, a series of sclerites--dorsal terga and abdominal
sterna--being connected by pale, feebly chitinized cuticle, so that
considerable freedom of movement between the segments is possible. The
first and second abdominal sterna are often suppressed or reduced, on
account of the strong development of the hind-legs. In many insects
ten, and in a few eleven, abdominal segments can be clearly
distinguished in addition to a small terminal anal segment. The female
genital opening usually lies between the seventh and eighth segments,
the male on the ninth. Prominent paired limbs are often borne on the
tenth segment, the elongate tail-feelers (cerci) of bristle-tails and
may-flies, or the forceps of earwigs, for example. In the Embiidae, a
family of Isoptera, it has been shown by G. Enderlein (1901) that
these cerci clearly belong to a partially suppressed eleventh segment,
and R. Heymons (1895-1896) has proved by embryological study that in
all cases they really belong to this eleventh segment, which in the
course of development becomes fused with the tenth. Smaller appendages
(such as the stylets of male cockroaches) may be carried on the ninth
segment. Pairs of processes carried on the eighth and ninth segments
often become specialized to form the ovipositor of the female (see
fig. 14) and the genital armature of the male. A marked modification
of the hinder abdominal segments may be noticed in most insects, the
sclerites of the eighth and ninth being frequently hidden by those of
the seventh. In the higher orders several of the hinder segments may
be altogether suppressed.

FIG. 6.--Outline of Male ([Male sign]) and Female ([Female sign])
Cockroaches (_Blatta_) from the side, showing Abdominal Segments
(numbered 1-10).]

FIG. 7.--Brain of Cockroach from side. oe, Gullet; op, optic nerve;
sb, sub-oesophageal ganglion; mn, mx, mx', nerves to jaws; t,
tentorium.]

INTERNAL ORGANS