Chapter III: THE SOUTHERN ZONE.--Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and (4)

Now it is just to these implications in the idea of spirit that some
of the prominent recent expositions of Idealism seem to have failed to
do justice. They have failed particularly when they have left the idea
of "determination" unpurged of the suggestion of time succession. The
very word lends itself to this mistake. Idealists have gone beyond
others in asserting that the subject in the sense of a being which
merely repeats what has gone before is timeless. This involves that
its activity cannot be truly conceived of as included in an
antecedent, as an effect in a cause or one term of an equation in the
other. As the activity of a subject or spirit it is essentially a new
birth. It is this failure that has led to the present revolt against a
"block universe." But the difficulty is not to be met by running to
the, opposite extreme in the assertion of a loose and ramshackle one.
This is merely another way of perpetuating the mistake of allowing the
notion of determination by an _other_ or a preceding to continue to
dominate us in a region where we have in reality passed from it to the
notion of determination by self or by self-acknowledged ideals. As the
correction from the one side consists in a more whole-hearted
acceptance of the conception of determination by an ideal as the
essence of mind, so from the other side it must consist in the
recognition of the valuelessness of a freedom which does not mean
submission to a self-chosen, though not self-created, law.

The solution here suggested is probably more likely to meet with
opposition from the side of Idealism than of Pragmatism. It involves,
it will be said, the reality of time, the dependence of the Infinite
in the finite, and therewith a departure from the whole line of
Hegelian thought. (1) It does surely involve the reality of time in
the sense that it involves the reality of existence, which it is
agreed is process. Without process the eternal is not complete or, if
eternity means completeness, is not truly eternal. Our mistake lies in
abstraction of the one from the other, which, as always, ends in
confusion of the one with the other. Truth lies in giving each its
place. Not only does eternity assert the conception of the hour but
the hour asserts the conception of eternity--with what adequacy is
another question. (2) The second of the above objections takes its
point from the contradiction to religious consciousness which seems to
be involved. This is certainly a mistake. Religious consciousness
asserts, no doubt, that God is necessary to the soul: from Him as its
inspiration, to Him as its ideal are all things. But it asserts with
equal emphasis that the soul is necessary to God. To declare itself an
unnecessary creation is surely on the part of the individual soul the
height of impiety. God lives in the soul as it in Him. He also might
say, from it as His offspring, to it as the object of His outgoing
love are all things. (3) It is a mistake to attribute to Hegel the
doctrine that time is an illusion. If in a well-known passage (_Logic_
§ 212) he seems to countenance the Spinoxistic view he immediately
corrects it by assigning an "actualizing force" to this illusion and
making it a "necessary dynamic element of truth." Consistently with
this we have the conclusion stated in the succeeding section on the
Will. "Good, the final end of the world, has being only while it
constantly produces itself. And the world of the spirit and the world
of nature continue to have this distinction, that the latter moves
only in a recurring cycle while the former certainly also makes
progress." The mistake is not Hegel's but ours. It is to be remedied
not by giving up the idea of the Infinite but by ceasing to think of
the Infinite as of a being endowed with a static perfection which the
finite will merely reproduces, and definitely recognizing the forward
effort of the finite as an essential element in Its self-expression.
If there be any truth in this suggestion it seems likely that the last
word of idealism, like the first, will prove to be that the type of
the highest reality is to be sought for not in any fixed Parmenidean
circle of achieved being but in an ideal of good which while never
fully expressed under the form of time can never become actual and so
fulfil itself under any other.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--(A) General works besides those of the writers
mentioned above: W. Wallace, _Prolegomena to the Study of Hegel_
(1894), and Hegel's _Philosophy of Mind_ (1894); A. Seth and R. B.
Haldane, _Essays in Phil. Criticism_ (1883); John Watson, _Kant and
his English Critics_ (1881); J. B. Baillie, _Idealistic Construction
of Experience_ (1906); J. S. Mackenzie, _Outlines of Metaphysics_
(1902); A. E. Taylor, _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903); R. L.
Nettleship, _Lectures and Remains_ (1897); D. G. Ritchie,
_Philosophical Studies_ (1905).

(B) Works on particular branches of philosophy: (a) _Logic_--F. H.
Bradley, _Principles of Logic_ (1883); B. Bosanquet, _Logic_ (1888)
and _Essentials of Logic_ (1895). (b) _Psychology_--J. Dewey,
_Psychology_ (1886); G. F. Stout, _Analytic Psychology_ (1896); B.
Bosanquet, _Psychology of the Moral Self_ (1897). (c) _Ethics_--F. H.
Bradley, _Ethical Studies_ (1876); J. Dewey, _Ethics_ (1891); W. R.
Sorley, _Ethics of Naturalism_ (2nd ed., 1904); J. S. Mackenzie,
_Manual of Ethics_ (4th ed., 1900); J. H. Muirhead, _Elements of
Ethics_ (3rd ed., 1910). (d) _Politics and Economics_--B. Bosanquet,
_Philosophical Theory of the State_ (1899), and _Aspects of the Social
Problem_ (1895); B. Bonar, _Philosophy and Political Economy in their
historical Relations_ (1873); D. G. Ritchie, _Natural Rights_ (1895);
J. S. Mackenzie, _An Introd. to Social Phil._ (1890); J. MacCunn, _Six
Radical Thinkers_ (1907). (e) _Aesthetic_--B. Bosanquet, _History of
Aesthetic_ (1892), and _Introd. to Hegel's Phil. of the Fine Arts_
(1886); W. Hastie, _Phil. of Art by Hegel and Michelet_ (1886). (f)
_Religion_--J. Royce, _Religious Aspect of Philosophy_ (1885), and
_The Conception of God_ (1897); R. B. Haldane, _The Pathway to
Reality_ (1903); E. Caird, _Evolution of Religion_ (1893); J. Caird,
_Introd. to the Phil. of Religion_ (1880); H. Jones, _Idealism as a
Practical Creed_ (1909).

(C) Recent Criticism. Besides works mentioned in the text: W. James,
_Pragmatism_ (1907), _A Pluralistic Universe_ (1909), _The Meaning of
Truth_ (1909); H. Sturt, _Personal Idealism_ (1902); F. C. S.
Schiller, _Humanism_ (1903); G. E. Moore, _Principia Ethica_; H.
Rashdall, _The Theory of Good and Evil_ (1907).

See also ETHICS and METAPHYSICS. (J. H. Mu.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] _Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_, p. 197 (ed. Hartenstein).

[2] _Institutes of Metaphysics_ (1854); _Works_ (1866).

[3] _Secret of Hegel_ (1865).

[4] _Dialogues of Plato_ (1871).

[5] _Journal of Spec. Phil._ (1867).

[6] Hume's _Phil. Works_ (1875).

[7] _Critical account of the Phil. of Kant_ (1877).

[8] _Knowledge and Reality_ (1885); Logic (1888).

[9] _Appearance and Reality_ (1893).

[10] _Studies in Hegelian Cosmology_ (1901).

[11] _Elements of Metaphysics_ (1903).

[12] _The World and the individual_ (1901).

[13] See _Mind_, New Series, xii. p. 433 sqq.

[14] _Proceedings_ of the Aristotelian Society (1900-1901), p. 110.

[15] _Mind_, New Series, xiii. p. 523; cf. 204, 350.

[16] The most striking statement of this argument is to be found in
Boutroux's treatise _De la contingence des lois de la nature_, first
published in 1874 and reprinted without alteration in 1905. The same
general line of thought underlies James Ward's _Naturalism and
Agnosticism_ (2nd ed., 1903), and A. J. Balfour's _Foundations of
Belief_ (8th ed., 1901). H. Bergson's works on the other hand contain
the elements of a reconstruction similar in spirit to the suggestions
of the present article.

IDELER, CHRISTIAN LUDWIG (1766-1846), German chronologist and astronomer, was born near Perleberg on the 21st of September 1766. After holding various official posts under the Prussian government he became professor at the university of Berlin in 1821, and eighteen years later foreign member of the Institute of France. From 1816 to 1822 he was tutor to the young princes William Frederick and Charles. He died in Berlin on the 10th of August 1846. He devoted his life chiefly to the examination of ancient systems of chronology. In 1825-1826 he published his great work, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen Chronologie_ (2 vols.; 2nd ed., 1883), re-edited as _Lehrbuch der Chronologie_ (1831); a supplementary volume, _Die Zeitrechnung der Chinesen_, appeared in 1839. Beside these important works he wrote also _Untersuchungen über d. Ursprung und d. Bedeutung d. Sternnamen_ (1809) and _Über d. Ursprung d. Thierkreises_ (1838). With Nolte he published handbooks on English and French language and literature. His son, JULIUS LUDWIG IDELER (1809-1842), wrote _Meteorologia veterum Graecorum et Romanorum_ (1832).

IDENTIFICATION (Lat. _idem_, the same), the process of proving any one's identity, i.e. that he is the man he purports to be, or--if he is pretending to be some one else--the man he really is; or in case of dispute, that he is the man he is alleged to be. As more strenuous efforts have been made for the pursuit of criminals, and more and more severe penalties are inflicted on old offenders, means of identification have become essential, and various processes have been tried to secure that desirable end. For a long time they continued to be most imperfect; nothing better was devised than rough and ready methods of recognition depending upon the memories of officers of the law or the personal impressions of witnesses concerned in the case, supplemented in more recent years by photographs, not always a safe and unerring guide. The machinery employed was cumbrous, wasteful of time and costly. Detective policemen were marched in a body to inspect arrested prisoners in the exercising yards of the prison. Accused persons were placed in the midst of a number of others of approximately like figure and appearance, and the prosecutor and witnesses were called in one by one to pick out the offender. Inquiries, with a detailed description of distinctive marks, and photographs were circulated far and wide to local police forces. Officers, police and prison wardens were despatched in person to give evidence of identity at distant courts. Mis-identification was by no means rare. Many remarkable cases may be quoted. One of the most notable was that of the Frenchman Lesurques, in the days of the Directory, who was positively identified as having robbed the Lyons mail and suffered death, protesting his innocence of the crime, which was afterwards brought home to another man, Duboscq, and this terrible judicial error proved to be the result of the extraordinary likeness between the two men. Another curious case is to be found in American records, when a man was indicted for bigamy as James Hoag, who averred that he was really Thomas Parker. There was a marvellous conflict of testimony, even wives and families and personal friends being misled, and there was a narrow escape of mis-identification. The leading modern case in England is that of Adolf Beck (1905). Beck (who eventually died at the end of 1909) was arrested on the complaint of a number of women who positively swore to his identity as Smith, a man who had defrauded them. An ex-policeman who had originally arrested Smith also swore that Beck was the same man. There was a grave miscarriage of justice. Beck was sentenced to penal servitude, and although a closer examination of the personal marks showed that Beck could not possibly be Smith, it was only after a scandalous delay, due to the obstinacy of responsible officials, that relief was afforded. It has to be admitted that evidence as to identity based on personal impressions is perhaps of all classes of evidence the least to be relied upon.

Such elements of uncertainty cannot easily be eliminated from any system of jurisprudence, but some improvements in the methods of identification have been introduced in recent years. The first was in the adoption of anthropometry (q.v.), which was invented by the French savant, A. Bertillon. The reasons that led to its general supersession may be summed up in its costliness, the demand for superior skill in subordinate agents and the liability to errors not easy to trace and correct. A still more potent reason remained, the comparative failure of results. It was found in the first four years of its use in England and Wales that an almost inappreciable number of identifications were effected by the anthropometric system; namely, 152 in 1898, 243 in 1899, 462 in 1900, and 503 in 1901, the year in which it was supplemented by the use of "finger prints" (q.v.). The figures soon increased by leaps and bounds. In 1902 the total number of searches among the records were 6826 and the identifications 1722 for London and the provinces; in 1903 the searches were 11,919, the identifications 3642; for the first half of 1904 the searches were 6697 and the identifications 2335. In India and some of the colonies the results were still more remarkable; the recognitions in 1903 were 9512, and 17,289 in 1904. Were returns available from other countries very similar figures would no doubt be shown. Among these countries are Ireland, Australasia, Ceylon, South Africa, and many great cities of the United States; and the system is extending to Germany, Austria-Hungary and other parts of Europe.

The record of finger prints in England and Wales is kept by the Metropolitan police at New Scotland Yard. They were at first limited to persons convicted at courts at quarter sessions and assizes and to all persons sentenced at minor courts to more than a month without option of fine for serious offences. The finger prints when taken by prison warders are forwarded to London for registration and reference on demand. The total number of finger-print slips was 70,000 in 1904, and weekly additions were being made at the rate of 350 slips. The advantages of the record system need not be emphasized. By its means identification is prompt, inevitable and absolutely accurate. By forwarding the finger prints of all remanded prisoners to New Scotland Yard, their antecedents are established beyond all hesitation.

In past times identification of criminals who had passed through the hands of the law was compassed by branding, imprinting by a hot iron, or tattooing with an indelible sign, such as a crown, fleur de lys or initials upon the shoulder or other part of the body. This practice, long since abandoned, was in a measure continued in the British army, when offenders against military law were ordered by sentence of court-martial to be marked with "D" for deserter and "B.C." bad character; this ensured their recognition and prevented re-enlistment; but all such penalties have now disappeared. (A. G.)

IDEOGRAPH (Gr. [Greek: idea], idea, and [Greek: graphein], to write), a symbol or character painted, written or inscribed, representing ideas and not sounds; such a form of writing is found in Chinese and in most of the Egyptian hieroglyphs (see WRITING).

IDIOBLAST (Gr. [Greek: idios], peculiar, and [Greek: blastos], a shoot), a botanical term for an individual cell which is distinguished by its shape, size or contents, such as the stone-cells in the soft tissue of a pear.

IDIOM (Gr. [Greek: idiôma], something peculiar and personal; [Greek: idios], one's own, personal), a form of expression whether in words, grammatical construction, phraseology, &c., which is peculiar to a language; sometimes also a special variety of a particular language, a dialect.

IDIOSYNCRASY (Gr. [Greek: idiosynkrasia], peculiar habit of body or temperament; [Greek: idios], one's own, and [Greek: synkrasis], blending, tempering, from [Greek: sygkerannusthai], to put together, compound, mix), a physical or mental condition peculiar to an individual usually taking the form of a special susceptibility to particular stimuli; thus it is an idiosyncrasy of one individual that abnormal sensations of discomfort should be excited by certain odours or colours, by the presence in the room of a cat, &c.; similarly certain persons are found to be peculiarly responsive or irresponsive to the action of particular drugs. The word is also used, generally, of any eccentricity or peculiarity of character, appearance, &c.

IDOLATRY, the worship (Gr. [Greek: latreia]) of idols (Gr. [Greek: eidôlon]), i.e. images or other objects, believed to represent or be the abode of a superhuman personality. The term is often used generically to include such varied, forms as litholatry, dendrolatry, pyrolatry, zoolatry and even necrolatry. In an age when the study of religion was practically confined to Judaism and Christianity, idolatry was regarded as a degeneration from an uncorrupt primeval faith, but the comparative and historical investigation of religion has shown it to be rather a stage of an upward movement, and that by no means the earliest. It is not found, for instance, among Bushmen, Fuegians, Eskimos, while it reached a high development among the great civilizations of the ancient world in both hemispheres.[1] Its earliest stages are to be sought in naturism and animism. To give concreteness to the vague ideas thus worshipped the idol, at first rough and crude, comes to the help of the savage, and in course of time through inability to distinguish subjective and objective, comes to be identified with the idea it originally symbolized. The degraded form of animism known as fetichism is usually the direct antecedent of idolatry. A fetich is adored, not for itself, but for the spirit who dwells in it and works through it. Fetiches of stone or wood were at a very early age shaped and polished or coloured and ornamented. A new step was taken when the top of the log or stone was shaped like a human head; the rest of the body soon followed. The process can be followed with some distinctness in Greece. Sometimes, as in Babylonia and India, the representation combined human and animal forms, but the human figure is the predominant model; man makes God after his own image.

Idols may be private and personal like the teraphim of the Hebrews or the little figures found in early Egyptian tombs, or--a late development, public and tribal or national. Some, like the ancestral images among the Maoris, are the intermittent abodes of the spirits of the dead.

As the earlier stages in the development of the religious consciousness persist and are often manifest in idolatry, so in the higher stages, when men have attained loftier spiritual ideas, idolatry itself survives and is abundantly visible as a reactionary tendency. The history of the Jewish people whom the prophets sought, for long in vain, to wean from worshipping images is an illustration: so too the vulgarities of modern popular Hinduism contrasted with the lofty teaching of the Indian sacred books.

In the New Testament the word [Greek: eidôlolatreia] (_idololatria_, afterwards shortened occasionally to [Greek: eidolatreia], _idolatria_) occurs in all four times, viz. in 1 Cor. x. 14; Gal. v. 20; 1 Peter iv. 3; Col. iii. 5. In the last of these passages it is used to describe the sin of covetousness or "mammon-worship." In the other places it indicates with the utmost generality all the rites and practices of those special forms of paganism with which Christianity first came into collision. It can only be understood by reference to the LXX., where [Greek: eidôlon] (like the word "idol" in A.V.) occasionally translates indifferently no fewer than sixteen words by which in the Old Testament the objects of what the later Jews called "strange worship" (Hebrew: avoda zara) are denoted (see _Encyclopaedia Biblica_). In the widest acceptation of the word, idolatry in any form is absolutely forbidden in the second commandment, which runs "Thou shalt not make unto thee a graven image; [and] to no visible shape in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth, shalt thou bow down or render service" (see DECALOGUE). For some account of the questions connected with the breaches of this law which are recorded in the history of the Israelites see the article JEWS; those differences as to the interpretation of the prohibition which have so seriously divided Christendom are discussed under the head of ICONOCLASTS.

In the ancient church, idolatry was naturally reckoned among those _magna crimina_ or great crimes against the first and second commandments which involved the highest ecclesiastical censures. Not only were those who had gone openly to heathen temples and partaken in the sacrifices (_sacrificati_) or burnt incense (_thurificati_) held guilty of this crime; the same charge, in various degrees, was incurred by those whose renunciation of idolatry had been private merely, or who otherwise had used unworthy means to evade persecution, by those also who had feigned themselves mad to avoid sacrificing, by all promoters and encouragers of idolatrous rites, and by idol makers, incense sellers and architects or builders of structures connected with idol worship. Idolatry was made a crime against the state by the laws of Constantius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. 10. 4, 6), forbidding all sacrifices on pain of death, and still more by the statutes of Theodosius (_Cod. Theod._ xvi. 10. 12) enacted in 392, in which sacrifice and divination were declared treasonable and punishable with death; the use of lights, incense, garlands and libations was to involve the forfeiture of house and land where they were used; and all who entered heathen temples were to be fined. See Bingham, _Antiqq._ bk. xvi. c. 4.

See also IMAGE-WORSHIP; and on the whole question, RELIGION.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] According to Varro the Romans had no animal or human image of a
god for 170 years after the founding of the city; Herodotus (i. 131)
says the Persians had no temples or idols before Artaxerxes I.;
Lucian (_De sacrif._ 11) bears similar testimony for Greece and as to
idols (_Dea Syr._ 3) for Egypt. Eusebius (_Praep. Evang._ i. 9) sums
up the theory of antiquity in his statement "the oldest peoples had
no idols." Images of the gods indeed presuppose a definiteness of
conception and powers of discrimination that could only be the result
of history and reflection. The iconic age everywhere succeeded to an
era in which the objects of worship were aniconic, e.g. wooden posts,
stone steles, cones.

IDOMENEUS, in Greek legend, son of Deucalion, grandson of Minos and Pasiphaë, and king of Crete. As a descendant of Zeus and famous for his beauty, he was one of the suitors of Helen; hence, after her abduction by Paris, he took part in the Trojan War, in which he distinguished himself by his bravery. He is mentioned as a special favourite of Agamemnon (_Iliad_, iv. 257). According to Homer (_Odyssey_, iii. 191), he returned home safely with all his countrymen who had survived the war, but later legend connects him with an incident similar to that of Jephtha's daughter. Having been overtaken by a violent storm, to ensure his safety he vowed to sacrifice to Poseidon the first living thing that met him when he landed on his native shore. This proved to be his son, whom he slew in accordance with his vow; whereupon a plague broke out in the island, and Idomeneus was driven out. He fled to the district of Sallentum in Calabria, and subsequently to Colophon in Asia Minor, where he settled near the temple of the Clarian Apollo and was buried on Mount Cercaphus (Virgil, _Aeneid_, iii. 121, 400, 531, and Servius on those passages). But the Cretans showed his grave at Cnossus, where he was worshipped as a hero with Meriones (Diod. Sic. v. 79).

IDRIA, a mining town in Carniola, Austria, 25 m. W. of Laibach. Pop. (1900) 5772. It is situated in a narrow Alpine valley, on the river Idria, an affluent of the Isonzo, and owes its prosperity to the rich mines of quicksilver which were accidentally discovered in 1497. Since 1580 they have been under the management of the government. The mercurial ore lies in a bed of clay slate, and is found both mingled with schist and in the form of cinnabar. A special excellence of the ore is the greatness of the yield of pure metal compared with the amount of the refuse. As regards the quantity annually extracted, the mines of Idria rank second to those of Almaden in Spain, which are the richest in the world.

IDRIALIN, a mineral wax accompanying the mercury ore in Idria. According to Goldschmidt it can be extracted by means of xylol, amyl alcohol or turpentine; also without decomposition, by distillation in a current of hydrogen, or carbon dioxide. It is a white crystalline body, very difficultly fusible, boiling above 440° C. (824° F.), of the composition C40H28O. Its solution in glacial acetic acid, by oxidation with chromic acid, yielded a red powdery solid and a fatty acid fusing at 62° C., and exhibiting all the characters of a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids.

IDRISI, or EDRISI [Abu Abdallah Mahommed Ibn Mahommed Ibn Abdallah Ibn Idrisi, c. A.D. 1099-1154], Arabic geographer. Very little is known of his life. Having left Islamic lands and become the courtier and panegyrist of a Christian prince, though himself a descendant of the Prophet, he was probably regarded by strict Moslems as a scandal, whose name should not, if possible, be mentioned. His great-grandfather, Idrisi II., "Biamrillah," a member of the great princely house which had reigned for a time as caliphs in north-west Africa, was prince of Malaga, and likewise laid claim to the supreme title (Commander of the Faithful). After his death in 1055, Malaga was seized by Granada (1057), and the Idrisi family then probably migrated to Ceuta, where a freedman of theirs held power. Here the geographer appears to have been born in A.H. 493 (A.D. 1099). He is said to have studied at Cordova, and this tradition is confirmed by his elaborate and enthusiastic description of that city in his geography. From this work we know that he had visited, at some period of his life before A.D. 1154, both Lisbon and the mines of Andalusia. He had also once resided near Morocco city, and once was at (Algerian) Constantine. More precisely, he tells us that in A.D. 1117 he went to see the cave of the Seven Sleepers at Ephesus; he probably travelled extensively in Asia Minor. From doubtful readings in his text some have inferred that he had seen part of the coasts of France and England. We do not know when Roger II. of Sicily (1101-1154) invited him to his court, but it must have been between 1125 and 1150. Idrisi made for the Norman king a celestial sphere and a disk representing the known world of his day--both in silver. These only absorbed one-third of the metal that had been given him for the work, but Roger bestowed on him the remaining two-thirds as a present, adding to this 100,000 pieces of money and the cargo of a richly-laden ship from Barcelona. Roger next enlisted Idrisi's services in the compilation of a fresh description of the "inhabited earth" from observation, and not merely from books. The king and his geographer chose emissaries whom they sent out into various countries to observe, record and design; as they returned, Idrisi inserted in the new geography the information they brought. Thus was gradually completed (by the month of Shawwal, A.H. 548 = mid-January, A.D. 1154), the famous work, best known, from its patron and originator, as _Al Rojari_, but whose fullest title seems to have been, _The going out of a Curious Man to explore the Regions of the Globe, its Provinces, Islands, Cities and their Dimensions and Situation_. This has been abbreviated to _The Amusement of him who desires to traverse the Earth_, or _The Relaxation of a Curious Mind_. The title of _Nubian Geography_, based upon Sionita and Hezronita's misreading of a passage relating to Nubia and the Nile, is entirely unwarranted and misleading. The _Rogerian Treatise_ contains a full description of the world as far as it was known to the author. The "inhabited earth" is divided into seven "climates," beginning at the equinoctial line, and extending northwards to the limit at which the earth was supposed to be rendered uninhabitable by cold. Each climate is then divided by perpendicular lines into eleven equal parts, beginning with the western coast of Africa and ending with the eastern coast of Asia. The whole world is thus formed into seventy-seven equal square compartments. The geographer begins with the first part of the first climate, including the westernmost part of the Sahara and a small (north-westerly) section of the Sudan (of which a vague knowledge had now been acquired by the Moslems of Barbary), and thence proceeds eastward through the different divisions of this climate till he finds its termination in the Sea of China. He then returns to the first part of the second climate, and so proceeds till he reaches the eleventh part of the seventh climate, which terminates in north-east Asia, as he conceives that continent. The inconveniences of the arrangement (ignoring all divisions, physical, political, linguistic or religious, which did not coincide with those of his "climates") are obvious.

Though Idrisi was in such close relations with one of the most civilized of Christian courts and states, we find few traces of his influence on European thought and knowledge. The chief exception is perhaps in the delineation of Africa in the world-maps of Marino Sanuto (q.v.) and Pietro Vesconte. His account of the voyage of the _Maghrurin_ or "Deceived Men" of Lisbon in the Atlantic (a voyage on which they seem to have visited Madeira and one of the Canaries) may have had some effect in stimulating the later ocean enterprise of Christian mariners; but we have no direct evidence of this. Idrisi's Ptolemaic leanings give a distinctly retrograde character to certain parts of his work, such as east Africa and south Asia; and, in spite of the record of the Lisbon Wanderers, he fully shares the common Moslem dread of the black, viscous, stormy and wind-swept waters of the western ocean, whose limits no one knew, and over which thick and perpetual darkness brooded. At the same time his breadth of view, his clear recognition of scientific truths (such as the roundness of the world) and his wide knowledge and intelligent application of preceding work (such as that of Ptolemy, Masudi and Al Jayhani) must not be forgotten. He also preserves and embodies a considerable amount of private and special information--especially as to Scandinavia (in whose delineation he far surpasses his predecessors), portions of the African coast, the river Niger (whose name is perhaps first to be found, after Ptolemy's doubtful Nigeir, in Idrisi), portions of the African coast, Egypt, Syria, Italy, France, the Adriatic shore-lands, Germany and the Atlantic islands. No other Arabic work contains a larger assortment of valuable geographical facts; unfortunately the place-names are often illegible or hopelessly corrupted in the manuscripts. Idrisi's world-map, with all its shortcomings, is perhaps the best product of that strangely feeble thing--the Mahommedan cartography of the middle ages.

Besides the _Rojari_, Idrisi wrote another work, largely geographical, cited by Abulfida as _The Book of Kingdoms_, but apparently entitled by its author _The Gardens of Humanity and the Amusement of the Soul_. This was composed for William the Bad (1154-1166), son and successor of Roger II., but is now lost. He likewise wrote, according to Ibn Said, on _Medicaments_, and composed verses, which are referred to by the Sicilian Mahommedan poet Ibn Bashrun.

Two manuscripts of Idrisi exist in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris,
and other two in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. One of the English
MSS., brought from Egypt by Greaves, is illustrated by a map of the
known world, and by thirty-three sectional maps (for each part of the
first three climates). The second manuscript, brought by Pococke from
Syria, bears the date of A.H. 906, or A.D. 1500. It consists of 320
leaves, and is illustrated by one general and seventy-seven particular
maps, the latter consequently including all the parts of every
climate. The general map was published by Dr Vincent in his _Periplus
of the Erythraean Sea_. A copy of Idrisi's work in the Escorial was
destroyed by the fire of 1671.

An epitome of Idrisi's geography, in the original Arabic, was printed,
with many errors, in 1592 at the Medicean press in Rome, from a MS.
preserved in the Grand Ducal library at Florence (_De geographia
universali. Hortulus cultissimus ..._ ). Even the description of Mecca
is here omitted. Pococke supplied it from his MS. In many
bibliographical works this impression has been wrongly characterized
as one of the rarest of books. In 1619 two Maronite scholars, Gabriel
Sionita, and Joannes Hezronita, published at Paris a Latin translation
of this epitome (_Geographia Nubiensis, id est, accuratissima totius
orbis in VII. climata divisi descriptio_). Besides its many
inaccuracies of detail, this edition, by its unlucky title of _Nubian
Geography_, started a fresh and fundamental error as to Idrisi's
origin; this was founded on a misreading of a passage where Idrisi
describes the Nile passing into Egypt through Nubia--not "_terram
nostram_," as this version gives, but "_terram illius_" is here the
true translation. George Hieronymus Velschius, a German scholar, had
prepared a copy of the Arabic original, with a Latin translation,
which he purposed to have illustrated with notes; but death
interrupted this design, and his manuscript remains in the university
library of Jena. Casiri (_Bib. Ar. Hisp._ ii. 13) mentions that he had
determined to re-edit this work, but he appears never to have executed
his intention. The part relating to Africa was ably edited by Johann
Melchior Hartmann (_Commentatio de geographia Africae Edrisiana_,
Göttingen, 1791, and _Edrisii Africa_, Göttingen, 1796), Here are
collected the notices of each region in other Moslem writers, so as to
form, for the time, a fairly complete body of Arabic geography as to
Africa. Hartmann afterwards published Idrisi's Spain (_Hispania_,
Marburg, 3 vols., 1802-1818).

An (indifferent) French translation of the whole of Idrisi's geography
(the only complete version which has yet appeared), based on one of
the MSS. of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, was published by Amédée
Jaubert in 1836-1840, and forms volumes v. and vi. of the _Recueil de
voyages_ issued by the Paris Société de Géographie; but a good and
complete edition of the original text is still a desideratum. A number
of Oriental scholars at Leiden determined in 1861 to undertake the
task. Spain and western Europe were assigned to Dozy; eastern Europe
and western Asia to Engelmann; central and eastern Asia to Defrémery;
and Africa to de Goeje. The first portion of the work appeared in
1866, under the title of _Description de l'Afrique et de l'Espagne par
Edrisi, texte arabe, publié avec une traduction, des notes et un
glossaire par R. Dozy et M. J. de Goeje_ (Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1866);
but the other collaborators did not furnish their quota. Other parts
of Idrisi's work have been separately edited; e.g. "Spain"
(_Descripcion de España de ... Aledris_), by J. A. Condé, in Arabic
and Spanish (Madrid, 1799); "Sicily" (_Descrizione della Sicilia ...
di Elidris_), by P. D. Magri and F. Tardia (Palermo, 1764); "Italy"
(_Italia descritta nel "libro del Re Ruggero," compilato da Edrisi_),
by M. Amari and C. Schiaparelli, in Arabic and Italian (Rome, 1883);
"Syria" (_Syria descripta a ... El Edrisio ..._ ), by E. F. C.
Rosenmüller, in Arabic and Latin, 1825, and (_Idrisii ... Syria_), by
J. Gildemeister (Bonn, 1885) (the last a Beilage to vol. viii. of the
_Zeitschrift d. deutsch. Palästina-Vereins_). See also M. Casiri,
_Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana Escurialensis_ (2 vols., Madrid,
1760-1770); V. Lagus, "Idrisii notitiam terrarum Balticarum ex
commerciis Scandinavorum et Italorum ... ortam esse" in _Atti del IV°
Congresso internaz. degli orientalisti in Firenze_, p. 395 (Florence,
1880); R. A. Brandel "Om och ur den arabiske geografen Idrisi," _Akad.
afhand._ (Upsala, 1894). (C. R. B.)

IDUMAEA ([Greek: 'Idoumaia]), the Greek equivalent of Edom ([Hebrew: Edom]), a territory which, in the works of the Biblical writers, is considered to lie S.E. of the Dead Sea, between the land of Moab and the Gulf of Akaba. Its name, which is connected with the root meaning "red," is probably applied in reference to the red sandstone ranges of the mountains of Petra.[1] This etymology, however, is not certain. The apparently theophorous name Obed-Edom (2 Sam. vi. 10) shows that Edom is the name of a divinity. Of this there is other evidence; a Leiden papyrus names Etum as the wife of the Semitic fire-god Reshpu.

The early history of Edom is hidden in darkness. The Egyptian references to it are few, and do not give us much light regarding its early inhabitants. In the early records of the Pentateuch, the country is often referred to by the name of Seir, the general name for the whole range of mountains on the east side of the Jordan-Araba depression south of the Dead Sea. These mountains were occupied, so early as we can find any record, by a cave-dwelling aboriginal race known as Horites, who were smitten by the much-discussed king Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv. 6) and according to Deut. ii. 22 were driven out by the Semitic tribes of Esau's descendants. The Horites are to us little more than a name, though the discovery of cave-dwellers of very early date at Gezer in the excavations of 1902-1905 has enabled us to form some idea as to their probable culture-status and physical character.

The occupants of Edom during practically the whole period of Biblical history were the Bedouin tribes which claimed descent through Esau from Abraham, and were acknowledged by the Israelites (Deut. xxiii. 7) as kin. That they intermarried with the earlier stock is suggested by the passage in Gen. xxxvi. 2, naming, as one of the wives of Esau, Oholibamah, daughter of Zibeon the Horite (corrected by verse 20). Among the peculiarities of the Edomites was government by certain officials known as [Hebrew: alufim][2] which the English versions (by too close a reminiscence of the Vulgate _duces_) translate "dukes." The now naturalized word "sheikhs" would be the exact rendering. In addition to this Bedouin organization there was the curious institution of an elective monarchy, some of whose kings are catalogued in Gen. xxxvi. 31-39 and 1 Chron. i. 43-54. These kings reigned at some date anterior to the time of Saul. No deductions as to their chronology can be based on the silence regarding them in Moses' song, Exodus xv. 15. There was a king in Edom (Num. xx. 14) who refused passage to the Israelites in their wanderings.

The history of the relations of the Edomites and Israelites may be briefly summarized. Saul, whose chief herdsman, Doeg, was an Edomite (1 Sam. xxi. 7), fought successfully against them (1 Sam. xiv. 47). Joab (1 Kings xi. 16) or Abishai, as his deputy (1 Chron. xviii. 11, 13), occupied Edom for six months and devastated it; it was garrisoned and permanently held by David (2 Sam. viii. 14). But a refugee named Hadad, who escaped as a child to Egypt and grew up at the court of the Egyptian king, returned in Solomon's reign and made a series of reprisal raids on the Israelite territory (1 Kings xi. 14). This did not prevent Solomon introducing Edomites into his harem (1 Kings xi. 1) and maintaining a navy at Ezion-geber, at the head of the Gulf of Akaba (1 Kings ix. 26). Indeed, until the time of Jehoram, when the land revolted (2 Kings viii. 20, 22), Edom was a dependency of Judah, ruled by a viceroy (1 Kings xxii. 47). An attempt at recovering their independence was temporarily quelled in a campaign by Amaziah (2 Kings xiv. 7), and Azariah his successor was able to renew the sea trade of the Gulf of Akaba (2 Kings xiv. 22) which had probably languished since the wreck of Jehoshaphat's ships (1 Kings xxii. 48); but the ancient kingdom had been re-established by the time of Ahaz, and the king's name, Kaush-Malak, is recorded by Tiglath Pileser. He made raids on the territory of Judah (2 Chron. xxviii. 17). The kingdom, however, was short-lived, and it was soon absorbed into the vassalage of Assyria.

The later history of Edom is curious. By the constant westward pressure of the eastern Arabs, which (after the restraining force of the great Mesopotamian kingdoms was weakened) assumed irresistible strength, the ancient Edomites were forced across the Jordan-Araba depression, and with their name migrated to the south of western Palestine. In 1 Maccabees v. 65 we find them at Hebron, and this is one of the first indications that we discover of the cis-Jordanic Idumaea of Josephus and the Talmud.

Josephus used the name Idumaea as including not only Gobalitis, the original Mount Seir, but also Amalekitis, the land of Amalek, west of this, and Akrabatine, the ancient Acrabbim, S.W. of the Dead Sea. In _War_ IV. viii. 1, he mentions two villages "in the very midst of Idumaea," named Betaris and Caphartobas. The first of these is the modern Beit Jibrin (see ELEUTHEROPOLIS), the second is Tuffuh, near Hebron. Jerome describes Idumaea as extending from Beit Jibrin to Petra, and ascribes the great caves at the former place to cave-dwellers like the aboriginal Horites. Ptolemy's account presents us with the last stage, in which the name Idumaea is entirely restricted to the cis-Jordanic district, and the old trans-Jordanic region is absorbed in Arabia.

The Idumaean Antipater was appointed by Julius Caesar procurator of Judaea, Samaria and Galilee, as a reward for services rendered against Pompey. He was the father of Herod the Great, whose family thus was Idumaean in origin. (See PALESTINE.) (R. A. S. M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] A curious etymological speculation connects the name with the
story of Esau's begging for Jacob's pottage, Gen. xxv. 30.

[2] The same word is used in the anonymous prophecy incorporated in
the book of Zachariah (xii. 5), and in one or two other places as
well, of _Hebrew_ leaders.

IDUN, or IDUNA, in Scandinavian mythology, the goddess of youth and spring. She was daughter of the dwarf Svald and wife of Bragi. She was keeper of the golden apples, the eating of which preserved to the gods their eternal youth. Loki, the evil spirit, kidnapped her and the apples, but was forced by the gods to restore her liberty. Idun personifies the year between March and September, and her myth represents the annual imprisonment of spring by winter.

IDYL, or IDYLL (Gr. [Greek: eidyllion], a descriptive piece, from [Greek: eidos], a shape or style; Lat. _idyllium_), a short poem of a pastoral or rural character, in which something of the element of landscape is preserved or felt. The earliest commentators of antiquity used the term to designate a great variety of brief and homely poems, in which the description of natural objects was introduced, but the pastoral idea came into existence in connexion with the Alexandrian school, and particularly with Theocritus, Bion and Moschus, in the 3rd century before Christ. It appears, however, that [Greek: eidyllion] was not, even then, used consciously as the name of a form of verse, but as a diminutive of [Greek: eidos], and merely signified "a little piece in the style of" whatever adjective might follow. Thus the idyls of the pastoral poets were [Greek: eidyllia aipolika], little pieces in the goatherd style. We possess ten of the so-called "Idyls" of Theocritus, and these are the type from which the popular idea of this kind of poem is taken. But it is observable that there is nothing in the technical character of these ten very diverse pieces which leads us to suppose that the poet intended them to be regarded as typical. In fact, if he had been asked whether a poem was or was not an idyl he would doubtless have been unable to comprehend the question. As a matter of fact, the first of his poems, the celebrated "Dirge for Daphnis," has become the prototype, not of the modern idyl, but of the modern elegy, and the not less famous "Festival of Adonis" is a realistic mime. It was the six little epical romances, if they may be so called, which started the conception of the idyl of Theocritus. It must be remembered, however, that there is nothing in ancient literature which justifies the notion of a form of verse recognized as an "idyl." In the 4th century after Christ the word seems to have become accepted in Latin as covering short descriptive poems of very diverse characters, for the early MSS. of Ausonius contain a section of "Edyllia," which embraces some of the most admirable of the miscellaneous pieces of that writer. But that Ausonius himself called his poems "idyls" is highly doubtful. Indeed, it is not certain that the heading is not a mistake for "Epyllia." The word was revived at the Renaissance and applied rather vaguely to Latin and Greek imitations of Theocritus and of Virgil. It was also applied to modern poems of a romantic and pastoral character published by such writers as Tasso in Italy, Montemayor in Portugal and Ronsard in French. In 1658 the English critic, Edward Phillips, defined an "idyl" as "a kind of eclogue," but it was seldom used to describe a modern poem. Mme Deshoulières published a series of seven _Idylles_ in 1675, and Boileau makes a vague reference to the form. The sentimental German idyls of Salomon Gessner (in prose, 1758) and Voss (in hexameters, 1800) were modelled on Theocritus. Goethe's _Alexis und Dora_ is an idyl. It appears that the very general use, or abuse, of the word in the second half of the 19th century, both in English and French, arises from the popularity of two works, curiously enough almost identical in date, by two eminent and popular poets. The _Idylles héroïques_ (1858) of Victor de Laprade and the _Idylls_ of the King (1859) of Tennyson enjoyed a success in either country which led to a wide imitation of the title among those who had, perhaps, a very inexact idea of its meaning. Among modern Germans, Berthold Auerbach and Jeremias Gotthelf have been prominent as the composers of sentimental idyls founded on anecdotes of village-life. On the whole, it is impossible to admit that the idyl has a place among definite literary forms. Its character is vague and has often been purely sentimental, and our conception of it is further obscured by the fact that though the noun carries no bucolic idea with it in English, the adjective ("idyllic") has come to be synonymous with pastoral and rustic. (E. G.)

IFFLAND, AUGUST WILHELM (1759-1814), German actor and dramatic author, was born at Hanover on the 19th of April 1759. His father intended his son to be a clergyman, but the boy preferred the stage, and at eighteen ran away to Gotha in order to prepare himself for a theatrical career. He was fortunate enough to receive instruction from Hans Ekhof, and made such rapid progress that he was able in 1779 to accept an engagement at the theatre in Mannheim, then rising into prominence. He soon stood high in his profession, and extended his reputation by frequently playing in other towns. In 1796 he settled in Berlin, where he became director of the national theatre of Prussia; and in 1811 he was made general director of all representations before royalty. Iffland produced the classical works of Goethe and Schiller with conscientious care; but he had little understanding for the drama of the romantic writers. The form of play in which he was most at home, both as actor and playwright, was the domestic drama, the sentimental play of everyday life. His works are almost entirely destitute of imagination; but they display a thorough mastery of the technical necessities of the stage, and a remarkable power of devising effective situations. His best characters are simple and natural, fond of domestic life, but too much given to the utterance of sentimental commonplace. His best-known plays are _Die Jäger_, _Dienstpflicht_, _Die Advokaten_, _Die Mündel_ and _Die Hagestolzen_. Iffland was also a dramatic critic, and German actors place high value on the reasonings and hints respecting their art in his _Almanach für Theater und Theaterfreunde_. In 1798-1802 he issued his _Dramatischen Werke_ in 16 volumes, to which he added an autobiography (_Meine theatralische Laufbahn_). In 1807-1809 Iffland brought out two volumes of _Neue dramatische Werke_. Selections from his writings were afterwards published, one in 11 (Leipzig, 1827-1828), the other in 10 volumes (Leipzig, 1844, and again 1860). As an actor, he was conspicuous for his brilliant portrayal of comedy parts. His fine gentlemen, polished men of the world, and distinguished princes were models of perfection, and showed none of the traces of elaborate study which were noticed in his interpretation of tragedy. He especially excelled in presenting those types of middle-class life which appear in his own comedies. Iffland died at Berlin on the 22nd of September 1814. A bronze portrait statue of him was erected in front of the Mannheim theatre in 1864.

See K. Duncker, _Iffland in seinen Schriften als Künstler, Lehrer, und
Direktor der Berliner Bühne_ (1859); W. Koffka, _Iffland und Dalberg_
(1865); and Lampe, _Studien über Iffland als Dramatiker_ (Celle,
1899). Iffland's interesting autobiography, _Meine theatralische
Laufbahn_, was republished by H. Holstein in 1885.

IGLAU (Czech _Jihlava_), a town of Austria, in Moravia, 56 m. N.W. of Brünn by rail. Pop. (1900) 24,387, of whom 4200 are Czechs and the remainder Germans. Iglau is situated on the Iglawa, close to the Bohemian frontier, and is one of the oldest towns in Moravia, being the centre of a German-speaking enclave. Among the principal buildings are the churches of St Jakob, St Ignatius, St John and St Paul, the town-hall, and the barracks formed from a monastery suppressed under the emperor Joseph II. There is also a fine cemetery, containing some remarkable monuments. It has the principal tobacco and cigar factory of the state monopoly, which employs about 2500 hands, and has besides a large and important textile and glass industry, corn and saw-mills, pottery and brewing. Fairs are periodically held in the town; and the trade in timber, cereals, and linen and woollen goods is generally brisk.

Iglau is an old mining town where, according to legend, the silver mines were worked so early as 799. King Ottakar I. (1198-1230) established here a mining-office and a mint. At a very early date it enjoyed exceptional privileges, which were confirmed by King Wenceslaus I. in the year 1250. The town-hall contains a collection of municipal and mining laws dating as far back as 1389. At Iglau, on the 5th of July 1436, the treaty was made with the Hussites, by which the emperor Sigismund was acknowledged king of Bohemia. A granite column near the town marks the spot where Ferdinand I., in 1527, swore fidelity to the Bohemian states. During the Thirty Years' War Iglau was twice captured by the Swedes. In 1742 it fell into the hands of the Prussians, and in December 1805 the Bavarians under Wrede were defeated near the town.

IGLESIAS, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia in the province of Cagliari, from which it is 34 m. W.N.W. by rail, 620 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,436 (town), 20,874 (commune). It is finely situated among the mountains in the S.W. portion of the island, and is chiefly important as the centre of a mining district; it has a government school for mining engineers. The minerals are conveyed by a small railway via Monteponi (with its large lead and zinc mine) to Portovesme (15 m. S.W. of Iglesias in the sheltered gulf of Carloforte), near Portoscuso, where they are shipped. The total amount of the minerals extracted in Sardinia in 1905 was 170,236 tons and their value £765,054 (chiefly consisting of 99,749 tons of calamine zinc, 26,051 of blende zinc, 24,798 tons of lead and 15,429 tons of lignite): the greater part of them--118,009 tons--was exported from Portoscuso by sea and most of the rest from Cagliari, the zinc going mainly to Antwerp, and in a less proportion to Bordeaux and Dunkirk, while the lead is sent to Pertusola near Spezia, to be smelted. At Portoscuso is also a tunny fishery.

The cathedral of Iglesias, built by the Pisans, has a good façade (restored); the interior is late Spanish Gothic. San Francesco is a fine Gothic church with a gallery over the entrance, while Sta Chiara and the church of the Capuchins (the former dating from 1285) show a transition between Romanesque and Gothic. The battlemented town walls are well preserved and picturesque; the castle, built in 1325, now contains a glass factory. The church of Nostra Signora del Buon Cammino above the town (1080 ft.) commands a fine view.