Chapter III: THE SOUTHERN ZONE.--Characterized by absence of Cyprinidae and (10)

With the exception of the two artists named, and in a minor degree of Thomas Stothard and John Flaxman, who also produced original illustrations, the period from the end of the 18th century till about the middle of the 19th was less notable for the work of the designer than of the engraver. The delicate plates to Rogers's _Italy_ were done from drawings which Turner had not produced for purposes of illustration; and the admirable lithographs of Samuel Prout and Richard Bonington were merely studies of architecture and landscape made in a material that admitted of indefinite multiplication. It is true that Géricault came over to England about the year 1820 to draw the English race-horse and other studies of country life, which were published in London in 1821, and that other fine work in lithography was done by James Ward, G. Cattermole, and somewhat later by J. F. Lewis. But illustration proper, subject-illustration applied to literature, was mainly in the hands of the wood-engravers; and these, forming a really fine school founded on the lines which Bewick had laid down, had for about thirty years to content themselves with rendering the works of ephemeral artists, among whom Benjamin R. Haydon and John Martin stand out as the chief lights. It must not be forgotten, however, that while the day of a serious English school of illustration had not yet come, Great Britain possessed an indigenous tradition of gross and lively caricature; a tradition of such robust force and vulgarity that, by the side of some choicer specimens of James Gillray and Henry W. Bunbury, the art of Rowlandson appears almost refined. This was the school in which George Cruikshank, John Leech, and the Dickens illustrators had their training, from which they drew more and more away; until, with the help of _Punch_, just before the middle of the 19th century, English caricaturists had learned the secret of how to be apposite and amusing without scurrility and without libel. (See CARICATURE.)

Influence of Wood-engraving.

Under NEWSPAPERS will be found some account of the rise of _illustrated journalism_. It was in about the year 1832 that the illustrated weekly paper started on its career in England, and almost by accident determined under what form a great national art was to develop itself. While in France the illustrators were making their triumphs by means of lithography, English illustration was becoming more and more identified with wood-engraving. The demand for a method of illustration, easy to produce and easy to print, for books and magazines of large circulation and moderate price, forced the artist before long into drawing upon the wood itself; and so soon as the artist had asserted his preference for facsimile over "tint," the school which came to be called "of the 'sixties" was in embryo, and waited only for artistic power to give it distinction. The engraver's translation of the artist's painting or wash-drawing into "tint" had largely exalted the individuality of the engraver at the expense of the artist. But from the moment when the designer began to put his own lines upon the wood, new conditions shaped themselves; and though the artist at times might make demands which the engraver could not follow, or the engraver inadequately fulfil the expectation of the artist, the general tendency was to bring designer and engraver into almost ideal relations--an ideal which nothing short of the artist being his own engraver could have equalled. Out of an alliance cemented by their common use and understanding of the material on which they worked came the school of facsimile or partial-facsimile engraving which flourished during the 'sixties, and lasted just so long as its conditions were unimpaired--losing its flavour only at the moment when "improved" mechanical appliances enabled the artist once more to dissociate himself from the conditions which bound the engraver in his craft.

Pre-Raphaelite movement.

Influence of Millais.

Before the fortunate circumstances which governed the work of the 'sixties became decisive, illustrations of a transitional character, but tending to the same end, had been produced by John Tenniel, John Gilbert, Birket Foster, Harrison Weir, T. Creswick, W. Mulready and others; but their methods were too vague and diffuse to bear as yet the mark of a school; no single influence gave a unity to their efforts. On some of them Adolf von Menzel's illustrations to Kügler's _Frederick the Great_, published in England in 1844, may have left a mark; Gilbert certainly shows traces of the influence of Delacroix and Bonington in the free, loose method of his draughtsmanship, independent of accurate modelling, and with here and there a paint-like dab of black to relieve a generally colourless effect; while Tenniel, with cold, precise lines of wire-drawn hardness, remained the representative of the past academic style, influencing others by the dignity of his fine technique, but with his own feeling quite untouched by the Pre-Raphaelite and romantic movement which was soon to occupy the world of illustration. In greater or less degree it may be said of the work of all these artists that, as it antedates, so to the end does it stand somewhat removed in character from, the school with which for a time it became contemporary. The year which decisively marked the beginning of new things in illustration was 1857, the year of the Moxon _Tennyson_ and of Wilmott's _Poets of the Nineteenth Century_, with illustrations by Rossetti, Millais, Holman Hunt and Ford Madox Brown. In these artists we get the germ of the movement which afterwards came to have so wide a popularity. At the beginning, Pre-Raphaelite in name, poetic and literary in its choice of subjects, the school quickly expanded to an acceptance of those open-air and everyday subjects which one connects with the names of Frederick Walker, Arthur B. Houghton, G. F. Pinwell and M. North. The illustrations of the Pre-Raphaelites were eminently thoughtful, full of symbolism, and with a certain pressure of interest to which the epithet of "intense" came to be applied. As an example of their method of thought-transference from word to form, Madox Brown's drawing for the Dalziel Bible of "Elijah and the Widow's Son" may be taken. The restoration of life to a dead body, of a child to its mother, is there conveyed with many illustrative touches and asides, which become clumsy when stated in words. The hen bearing her chicken between her wings is a perfectly direct and appropriate pictorial symbol, but a far more imaginative stroke is the shadow on the wall of a swallow flying back to the clay bottle where it has made its nest. Here is illustration full of literary symbolism, yet wholly pictorial in its means; and in this it is entirely characteristic of Pre-Raphaelite feeling, with its method of suggesting, through externals, consideration as opposed to mere outlook. Of this phase Rossetti must be accounted the leader, but it was Millais who, by the sheer weight of his personality, carried English illustration along with him from Pre-Raphaelitism to the freer romanticism and naturalistic tendencies of the 'sixties. Rossetti, with his poetic enthusiasm, his strong personal magnetism and dramatic power of composition, may be said to have brought about the awakening; it was Millais who, by his rapid development of style, his original and daring technique, turned it into a movement. When he started, there were many influences behind him and his fellow-workers--among older foreign contemporaries, those of Menzel and Rethel; and behind these again something of the old masters. But through a transitional period, represented by his twelve drawings of "The Parables," which appeared first in _Good Words_, Millais emerged in to the perfect independence of his illustrations to Trollope's novels, _Framley Parsonage_, and _The_ _Small House at Allington_, his own master and the master of a new school. Depicting the ugly fashions of his day with grave dignity and distinction, and with a broad power of rendering type in work which had the aspect of genre, he drew the picture of his age in a summary so embracing that his illustrations attain the rank almost of historical art. For art of this sort the symbolism of the Pre-Raphaelites lost its use: the realization in form of a character conveyed by an author's words, the happy suggestion of a locality helping to fix the writer's description, the verisimilitudes of ordinary life, even to trivial detail, carried out with real pictorial conviction, were the things most to be aimed at. Pictorial conviction was the great mark of the illustrative school of the 'sixties. The work of its artists has absorbed so completely the interest and reality of the letterpress that the results are a model of what faithful yet imaginative illustration should be. In the illustrated magazines of this period, _Once a Week_, _Good Words_, _Cornhill_, _London Society_, _The Argosy_, _The Leisure Hour_, _Sunday at Home_, _The Quiver_ and _The Churchman's Family Magazine_, as well as others, is to be found the best work of this new school of illustrators; and with the greater number of them it cannot be mistaken that Millais is the prevailing force.

By their side other men were working, more deeply influenced by the old masters, and by the minuteness and hard, definite treatment of form which the Pre-Raphaelite school had inculcated. Foremost of these was Frederick Sandys. His illustrations, scattered through nearly all the magazines which have been named, show always a decorative power of design and are full of fine drawing and fine invention, but remain resolutely cold in handling and lacking in imaginative ardour. The few illustrations done by Burne-Jones at this period show a whole-hearted following of Rossetti, but a somewhat struggling technique; and the same qualities are to be found in the work of Arthur Hughes, whose illustrations in _Good Words for the Young_ (1869) have a charm of tender poetic invention showing through the faults and persistent uncertainty of his draughtsmanship. The illustrations of Frederick Shields to Defoe's _History of the Plague_ have a certain affinity to the work of Sandys; but, with less power over form, they show a more dramatic sense of light and shade, and at their best can claim real and original beauty. The formality of feeling and composition, and the strained, stiff quality of line in Lord Leighton's designs to _Romola_ (1863), do a good deal to mar one's enjoyment of their admirable draughtsmanship. Many fine drawings done at this period by Leighton, Poynter, Henry Armstead and Burne-Jones did not appear until the year 1880 in the "Dalziel Bible Gallery," when the methods of which they were the outcome had fallen almost out of use.

"The 'sixties."

Deeply influenced by the broad later phases of Millais's black-and-white work were those artists whose tendency lay in the direction of idyllic naturalism and popular romance, the men to whom more particularly is given the name of the period and school "the 'sixties," and whose more immediate leader, as far as popular estimation goes, was Frederick Walker. With his, one may roughly group the names of Pinwell, Houghton, North, Charles Keene, Lawless, Matthew J. Mahoney, Morten and, with a certain reservation, W. Small and G. du Maurier. In no very separate category stand two other artists whose contributions to illustration were but incidental, John Pettie and J. M'Neill Whistler. The broad characteristics of this variously related group were a loose, easy line suggestive of movement, a general fondness for white spaces and open-air effects, and in the best of them a thorough sense of the serious beauty of domestic and rural life. They treated the present with a feeling rather idyllic than realistic; when they touched the past it was with a courteous sort of realism, and a wonderful inventiveness of detail which carried with it a charm of conviction. Walker's method shows a broad and vivid use of black and white, with a fine sense of balance, but very little preoccupation for decorative effect. Pinwell had a more delicate fancy, but less freedom in his technique--less ease, but more originality of composition. In Houghton's work one sees a swift, masterful technique, full of audacity, noble in its economy of means, sometimes rough and careless. His temperament was dramatic, passionate, satiric and witty. Some of his best work, his "Scenes from American Life," appeared in the pages of the _Graphic_ as late as the years 1873-1874. There are indications in the work of Lawless that he might have come close to Millais in his power of infusing distinction into the barest materials of everyday life, but he died too soon for his work to reach its full accomplishment. North was essentially a landscape illustrator. The delicate sense of beauty in du Maurier's early work became lost in the formal but graceful conventions of his later _Punch_ drawings. It was in the pages of _Punch_ that Keene secured his chief triumphs. The two last-named artists outstayed the day which saw the break-up of the school of which these are the leading names. It ran its course through a period when illustrated magazines formed the staple of popular consumption, before the illustrated newspapers, with their hungry rush for the record of latest events, became a weekly feature. Its waning influence may be plainly traced through the early years of the _Graphic_, which started in 1869 with some really fine work, done under transitional conditions before the engraver's rendering of tone-drawings once more ousted facsimile from its high place in illustration.

In connexion with this transitional period, drawings for the _Graphic_ by Houghton, Pinwell, Sir Hubert von Herkomer, E. J. Gregory, H. Woods, Charles Green, H. Paterson (Mrs Allingham) and William Small deserve honourable mention. Yet it was the last-named who was mainly instrumental in bringing about the change from line-work to pigment, which depressed the artistic value of illustration during the 'seventies and the 'eighties to almost absolute mediocrity. Several artists of great ability practised illustration during this period: in addition to those _Graphic_ artists already mentioned there were Luke Fildes, Frank Holl, S. P. Hall, Paul Renouard and a few others of smaller merit. But the interest was for the time shifting from black-and-white work and turning to colour. Kate Greenaway began to produce her charming idyllic renderings of children in mob-caps and long skirts. Walter Crane on somewhat similar lines designed his illustrated nursery rhymes; while Randolph Caldecott took the field with his fresh and breezy scenes of hunting life and carousal in the times most typical of the English squirearchy. Working with a broad outline, suggestive of the brush by its easy freedom, and adding washes of conventional colour for embellishment, he was one of the first in England to show the beginnings of Japanese influence. Even more dependent upon colour were his illustrated books for children; while in black and white, in his illustrations to _Bracebridge Hall_ (1876), for instance, pen and ink began to replace the pencil, and to produce a new and more independent style of draughtsmanship. This style was taken up and followed by many artists of ability, by Harry Furniss, Hugh Thomson and others, till the influence of E. A. Abbey's more mobile and more elaborate penmanship came to produce a still further development in the direction of fineness and illusion, and that of Phil May, with Linley Sambourne for his teacher, to simplify and make broad for those who aimed rather at a journalistic and shorthand method of illustration. (See also CARICATURE and CARTOON.)

Under the absolutely liberating conditions of "process reproduction"
(see PROCESS) the latest developments in illustration on its lighter
and more popular side are full of French influences, or ready to
follow the wind in any fresh direction, whether to America or Japan;
but on the graver side they show a strong leaning towards the older
traditions of the 'sixties and of Pre-Raphaelitism. The founding by
William Morris of the Kelmscott Press in 1891, through which were
produced a series of decorated and illustrated books, aimed frankly at
a revival of medieval taste. In Morris's books decorative effect and
sense of material claimed mastery over the whole scheme, and subdued
the illustrations to a sort of glorious captivity into which no breath
of modern spirit could be breathed. The illustrations of Burne-Jones
filled with a happy touch of archaism the decorative borders of
William Morris; and only a little less happy, apart from their
imaginative inferiority, were the serious efforts of Walter Crane and
one or two others. Directly under the Morris influence arose the
"Birmingham school," with an entire devotion to decorative methods and
still archaic effects which tended sometimes to rather inane
technical results. Among its leaders may be named Arthur Gaskin, C. M.
Gere and E. H. New; while work not dissimilar but more independent in
spirit had already been done by Selwyn Image and H. P. Horne in the
_Century Guild Hobby-Horse_. But far greater originality and force
belonged to the work of a group, known for a time as the
neo-Pre-Raphaelites, which joined to an earnest study of the past a
scrupulously open mind towards more modern influences. Its earliest
expression of existence was the publication of an occasional
periodical, the _Dial_ (1889-1897), but before long its influence
became felt outside its first narrow limits. The technical influence
of Abbey, but still more the emotional and intellectual teaching of
Rossetti and Millais, together with side-influences from the few great
French symbolists, were, apart from their own originality, the forces
which gave distinction to the work of C. S. Ricketts, C. H. Shannon,
R. Savage and their immediate following. Beauty of line, languorous
passion, symbolism full of literary allusions, and a fondness for the
life of any age but the present, are the characteristics of the
school. Their influence fell very much in the same quarters where
Morris found a welcome; but an affinity for the Italian rather than
the German masters (shown especially in the "Vale Press"
publications), and a studied note of world-weariness, kept them
somewhat apart from the sturdy medievalism of Morris, and linked them
intellectually with the decadent school initiated by the wayward
genius of Aubrey Beardsley. But though broadly men may be classed in
groups, no grouping will supply a formula for all the noteworthy work
produced when men are drawn this way and that by current influences.
Among artists resolutely independent of contemporary coteries may be
named W. Strang, whose grave, rugged work shows him a pupil, through
Legros, of Dürer and others of the old masters; T. Sturge Moore, an
original engraver of designs which have an equal affinity for Blake,
Calvert and Hokusai; W. Nicholson, whose style shows a dignified
return to the best part of the Rowlandson tradition; and E. J.
Sullivan. In the closing years of the 19th century Aubrey Beardsley
became the creator of an entirely novel style of decorative
illustration. Drawing inspiration from all sources of European and
Japanese art, he produced, by the force of a vivid personality and
extraordinary technical skill, a result which was highly original and
impressive. To a genuine liking for analysis of repulsive and vicious
types of humanity he added an exquisite sense of line, balance and
mass; and partly by _succès de scandale_, partly by genuine artistic
brilliance, he gathered round him a host of imitators, to whom, for
the most part, he was able to impart only his more mediocre qualities.

United States.

In America, until a comparatively recent date, illustration bowed the
knee to the superior excellence of the engraver over the artist. Not
until the brilliant pen-drawing of E. A. Abbey carried the day with
the black-and-white artists of England did any work of real moment
emanate from the United States, unless that of Elihu Vedder be
regarded as an exception. Howard Pyle is a brilliant imitator of
Dürer; he has also the ability to adapt himself to draughtsmanship of
a more modern tendency. C. S. Reinhart was an artist of directness and
force, in a style based upon modern French and German examples; while
of greater originality as a whole, though derivative in detail, is the
fanciful penmanship of Alfred Brennan. Other artists who stand in the
front rank of American illustrators, and whose works appear chiefly in
the pages of _Scribner's_, _Harper's_ and the _Century Magazine_, are
W. T. Smedley, F. S. Church, R. Blum, Wenzell, A. B. Frost, and in
particular C. Dana Gibson, the last of whom gained a reputation in
England as an American du Maurier.

France.

The record of modern French illustration goes back to the day when
political caricature and the Napoleonic legend divided between them
the triumphs of early lithography. The illustrators of France at that
period were also her greatest artists. Of the historical and romantic
school were D. Raffet, Nicholas J. Charlet, Géricault, Delacroix, J.
B. Isabey and Achille Devéria, many of whose works appeared in
_L'Artiste_, a paper founded in 1831 as the official organ of the
romanticists; while the realists were led in the direction of
caricature by two artists of such enormous force as Gavarni and Honoré
Daumier, whose works, appearing in _La Lithographie Mensuelle_, _Le
Charivari_ and _La Caricature_, ran the gauntlet of political
interference and suppression during a troubled period of French
politics--which was the very cause of their prosperity. Behind these
men lay the influence of the great Spanish realist Goya. Following
upon the harsh satire and venomous realism of this famous school of
pictorial invective, the influence of the Barbizon school came as a
milder force; but the power of its artists did not show in the
direction of original lithography, and far more value attaches to the
few woodcuts of J. F. Millet's studies of peasant life. In these we
see clearly the tendency of French illustrative art to keep as far as
possible the authentic and sketch-like touch of the artist; and it was
no doubt from this tendency that so many of the great French
illustrators retained lithography rather than commit themselves to the
middleman engraver. Nevertheless, from about the year 1830 many French
artists produced illustrations which were interpreted upon the wood
for the most part by English engravers. Cunier's editions of _Paul et
Virginie_ and _La Chaumière Indienne_, illustrated by Huet, Jacque,
Isabey, Johannot and Meissonier, were followed by Meissonier's more
famous illustrations to _Contes rémois_. After Meissonier came J. B.
E. Detaille and Alphonse M. de Neuville and, with a voluminous style
of his own, L. A. G. Doré. By the majority of these artists the
drawing for the engraver seems to have been done with the pen; and the
tendency to penmanship was still more accentuated when from Spain came
the influence of M. J. Fortuny's brilliant technique; while after him,
again, came Daniel Vierge, to make, as it were, the point of the pen
still more pointed. During the middle period of the 19th century the
best French illustration was serious in character; but among the later
men, when we have recognized the grave beauty of Grasset's _Les Quatre
Fils d'Aymon_ (in spite of his vicious treatment of the page by
flooding washes of colour through the type itself), and the delicate
grace of Boutet de Monvel's _Jeanne d'Arc_, also in colours, it is to
the illustrators of the comic papers that we have to go for the most
typical and most audacious specimens of French art. In the pages of
_Gil Blas_, _Le Pierrot_, _L'Écho de Paris_, _Le Figaro Illustré_, _Le
Courrier Français_, and similar publications, are to be found,
reproduced with a dexterity of process unsurpassed in England, the
designs of J. L. Forain, C. L. Léandre, L. A, Willette and T. A.
Steinlen, the leaders of a school enterprising in technique, and with
a mixture of subtlety and grossness in its humour. Caran d'Ache also
became celebrated as a draughtsman of comic drama in outline.

Germany.

Among illustrators of Teutonic race the one artist who seems worthy of
comparison with the great Menzel is Hans Tegner, if, indeed, he be not
in some respects his technical superior; but apart from these two, the
illustrators respectively of Kügler's _Frederick the Great_ and
Holberg's _Comedies_, there is no German, Danish or Dutch illustrator
who can lay claim to first rank. Max Klinger, A. Böcklin, W. Trübner,
Franz Stück and Hans Thoma are all symbolists who combine in a
singular degree force with brutality; the imaginative quality in their
work is for the most part ruined by the hard, braggart way in which it
is driven home. The achievements and tendency of the later school of
illustration in Germany are best seen in the weekly illustrated
journal, _Jugend_, of Munich. Typical of an older German school is the
work of Adolf Oberländer, a solid, scientific sort of caricaturist,
whose illustrations are at times so monumental that the humour in them
seems crushed out of life. Others who command high qualities of
technique are W. Dietz, L. von Nagel, Hermann Vogel, H. Lüders and
Robert Haug. Behind all these men in greater or less degree lies the
influence of Menzel's coldly balanced and dry-lighted realism; but
wherever the influence of Menzel ceases, the merit of German
illustration for the most part tends to disappear or become mediocre.

AUTHORITIES.--W. J. Linton, _The Masters of Wood Engraving_ (London,
1889); C. G. Harper, _English Pen Artists of To-day_ (London, 1892);
Joseph Pennell, _Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ (London, 1894),
_Modern Illustration_ (London, 1895); Walter Crane, _The Decorative
Illustration of Books_ (London, 1896); Gleeson White, _English
Illustration: "The 'Sixties": 1855-1870_ (Westminster, 1897); W. A.
Chatto, _A Treatise on Wood Engraving_ (London, n.d.); Bar-le-Duc,
_Les Illustrations du XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1882); T. Kutschmann,
_Geschichte der deutschen Illustration vom ersten Auftreten des
Formschnittes bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Berlin, 1899). (L. Ho.)

_Technical Developments._

The history of illustration, apart from the merits of individual artists, during the period since the year 1875, is mainly that of the development of what is called Process (q.v.), the term applied to methods of reproducing a drawing or photograph which depend on the use of some mechanical agency in the making of the block, as distinguished from such products of manual skill as steel or wood-engraving, lithography and the like. There is good reason to believe that the art of stereotyping--the multiplication of an already existing block by means of moulds and casts--is as old as the 15th century; and the early processes were, in a measure, a refinement upon this: with the difference that they aimed at the making of a metal block by means of a cast of the lines of the drawing itself, the background of which had been cut away so as to leave the design in a definite relief. Experiments of this nature may be said to have assumed practical shape from the time of the invention of Palmer's process called at first _Glyphography_, about the year 1844; this was afterwards perfected and used to a considerable extent under the name of _Dawson's Typographic Etching_, and its results were in many cases quite admirable, and often appear in books and periodicals of the first part of the period with which we are now concerned. The _Graphic_, for instance, published its first process block in 1876, and the _Illustrated London News_ also made similar experiments at about the same time.

From this time begins the gradual application of photography to the
uses of illustration, the first successful line blocks made by its
help being probably those of Gillot, at Paris, in the early 'eighties.
The next stage was to be the invention of some means of reproducing
wash drawings. To do this it was necessary for the surface of the
block to be so broken up that every tone of the drawing should be
represented thereon by a grain holding ink enough to reproduce it.
This was finally accomplished by the insertion of a screen, in the
camera, between the lens and the plate--the effect of which was to
break up the whole surface of the negative into dots, and so secure,
when printed on a zinc plate and etched, an approximation to the
desired result. Half-tone blocks (as they were called) of this nature
(see PROCESS) were used in the _Graphic_ from 1884 and the
_Illustrated London News_ from 1885 onwards, the methods at first in
favour being those of Meisenbach and Boussod Valadon and Co.'s
phototype. Lemercier and Petit of Paris, Angerer and Göschl of Vienna,
and F. Ives of Philadelphia also perfected processes giving a similar
result, a block by the latter appearing in the _Century_ magazine as
early as 1882. Processes of this description had, however, been used
for some years before by Henry Blackburn in his _Academy Notes_.

During the decade 1875-1885, however, the main body of illustration
was accomplished by wood-engraving, which a few years earlier had
achieved such splendid results. Its artistic qualities were now at a
rather low ebb, although good facsimile engravings of pen-drawings
were not infrequent. The two great illustrated periodicals already
referred to during that period relied more upon pictorial than
journalistic work. An increasing tendency towards the illustration of
the events of the day was certainly shown, but the whole purpose of
the journal was not, as at present, subordinated thereto. The chief
illustrated magazines of the time, _Harper's_, the _Century_, the
_English Illustrated_, were also content with the older methods, and
are filled with wood-engravings, in which, if the value of the simple
line forming the chief quality of the earlier work has disappeared, a
most astonishing delicacy and success were obtained in the
reproduction of tone.

Perhaps the most notable and most characteristic production of the
time in England was colour-printing. The _Graphic_ and the
_Illustrated London News_ published full-page supplements of high
technical merit printed from wood-blocks in conjunction with metal
plates, the latter sometimes having a relief aquatint surface which
produced an effect of stipple upon the shading; metal was also used in
preference to wood for the printing of certain colours. The children's
books illustrated by Randolph Caldecott, Walter Crane and Kate
Greenaway at this time are among the finest specimens of
colour-printing yet seen outside of Japan; in them the use of flat
masses of pleasant colour in connexion with a bold and simple outline
was carried to a very high pitch of excellence. These plates were
generally printed by Edmund Evans. In 1887 the use of process was
becoming still more general; but its future was by no means adequately
foreseen, and the blocks of this and the next few years are anything
but satisfactory. This, it soon appeared, was due to inefficient
printing on the one hand, and, on the other, to a want of recognition
by artists of the special qualities of drawing most suitable for
photographic reproduction. The publication of Quevedo's _Pablo de
Segovia_ with illustrations by Daniel Vierge in 1882, although hardly
noticed at the time, was to be a revelation of the possibilities of
the new development; and a serious study of pen-drawing from this
point of view was soon inaugurated by the issue of Joseph Pennell's
_Pen Drawing and Pen Draughtsmen_ in 1889, followed in by C. G.
Harper's _English Pen Artists of To-day_ and in 1896 by Walter Crane's
_Decorative Illustration of Books_. At this time also the influence of
Aubrey Beardsley made itself strongly felt, not merely as a matter of
style, but, by the use of simple line or mass of solid black, as an
almost perfect type of the work most suitable to the needs of process.
Wider experience of printing requirements, and finer workmanship in
the actual making of the blocks, in Paris, Vienna, New York and
London, soon brought the half-tone process into great vogue. The
spread of education has enormously increased the demand for ephemeral
literature, more especially that which lends itself to pictorial
illustration; and the photograph or drawing in wash reproduced in
half-tone has of late to a great extent ousted line work from the
better class of both books and periodicals.

Improvements in machinery have made it possible to print illustrations
at a very high speed; and the facility with which photographs can now
be taken of scenes such as the public delight to see reproduced in
pictures has brought about an almost complete change in pictorial
journalism. In addition, reference must be made to an extraordinary
increase in the numbers and circulation of cheap periodical
publications depending to a very large extent for popularity on their
illustrations. Several of these, printed on the coarsest paper, from
rotary machines, sell to the extent of hundreds of thousands of copies
per week. It was inevitable that this cheapening process should not be
permitted to develop without opposition, and the _Dial_ (1889-1897)
must be looked on as a protest by the band of artists who promoted it
against the unintelligent book-making now becoming prevalent. Much
more effective and far-reaching in the same direction was the
influence of William Morris, as shown in the publications of the
Kelmscott Press (dating from 1891). In these volumes the aim was to
produce illustrations and ornaments which were of their own nature
akin to, and thus able to harmonize with the type, and to do this by
pure handicraft work. As a result, a distinct improvement is to be
found in the mere book-making of Great Britain; and although the main
force of the movement soon spent itself in somewhat uninspired
imitations, there can be no doubt of the survival of a taste for
well-produced volumes, in which the relationship of type, paper,
illustration and binding has been a matter of careful and artistic
consideration. Under this influence, a notable feature has been the
re-issue, in an excellent form, of illustrated editions of the works
of most of the famous writers.

In France the general movement has proceeded upon lines on the whole
very similar. Process--especially what was called "Gillotage"--was
adopted earlier, and used at first with greater liberality than in
England, although wood-engraving has persisted effectively even up to
our own time. In the various types of periodicals of which the _Revue
Illustrée_, _Figaro Illustré_ and _Gil Blas Illustré_ may be taken as
examples, the most noticeable feature is a use of colour-printing,
which is far in advance of anything generally attempted in Great
Britain. A favourite and effective process is that employed for the
reproduction of chalk drawings (as by Steinlen), which consists of the
application of a surface-tint of colour from a metal plate to a print
from an ordinary process block.

In Germany, _Jugend_, _Simplicissimus_, and other publications devoted
to humour and caricature, employ colour-printing to a great extent
with success. The organ of the artists of the younger German schools,
Pan (1895), makes use of every means of illustration, and has
especially cultivated lithography and wood-cuts, using these arts
effectively but with some eccentricity. Holland has also employed
coloured lithography for a remarkable series of children's books
illustrated by van Hoytema and others. The Viennese _Kunst und
Kunsthandwerk_ is an art publication which is exceptionally well
produced and printed.

Illustration in the United States has some few characteristics which
differentiate it from that of other countries. The later school of
fine wood-engraving is even yet in existence. American artists also
introduced an effective use of the process block, namely, the
engraving or working over of the whole or certain portions of it by
hand. This is generally done by an engraver, but in certain cases it
has been the work of the original draughtsman, and its possibilities
have been foreseen by him in making his drawing. The only other
variant of note is the use of half-tone blocks superimposed for
various colours. (E. F. S.)

ILLUSTRES, the Latin name given to the highest magistrates of the later Roman Empire. The designation was at first informal, and not strictly differentiated from other marks of honour. From the time of Valentinian I. it became an official title of the consuls, the chief praefecti or ministers, and of the commanders-in-chief of the army. Its usage was eventually extended to lower grades of the imperial service, and to pensionaries from the order of the _spectabiles_. The Illustres were privileged to be tried in criminal cases by none but the emperor or his deputy, and to delegate procuratores to represent them in the courts.

See O. Hirschfeld in _Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie_ (1901),
p. 594 sqq.; and T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (Oxford, 1892),
i. 603-617.

ILLYRIA, a name applied to part of the Balkan Peninsula extending along the eastern shore of the Adriatic from Fiume to Durazzo, and inland as far as the Danube and the Servian Morava. This region comprises the modern provinces or states of Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro, with the southern half of Croatia-Slavonia, part of western Servia, the sanjak of Novibazar, and the extreme north of Albania. As the inhabitants of Illyria never attained complete political unity its landward boundaries were never clearly defined. Indeed, the very name seems originally to have been an ethnological rather than a geographical term; the older Greek historians usually wrote of "the Illyrians" ([Greek: hoi Illyrioi]), while the names Illyris ([Greek: Illyris]) or less commonly Illyria ([Greek: Illyria]) came subsequently to be used of the indeterminate area inhabited by the Illyrian tribes, i.e. a region extending eastward from the Adriatic between Liburnia on the N. and Epirus on the S., and gradually shading off into the territories of kindred peoples towards Thrace. The Latin name Illyricum was not, unless at a very early period, synonymous with Illyria; it also may originally have signified the land inhabited by the Illyrians, but it became a political expression, and was applied to various divisions of the Roman Empire, the boundaries of which were frequently changed and often included an area far larger than Illyria properly so called. Vienna and Athens at different times formed part of Illyricum, but no geographer would ever have included these cities in Illyria.

_Ethnology._--Little can be learned from written sources of the origin and character of the Illyrians. The Greek legend that Cadmus and Harmonia settled in Illyria and became the parents of Illyrius, the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people, has been interpreted as an indication that the Greeks recognized some affinity between themselves and the Illyrians; but this inference is based on insufficient data. Herodotus and other Greek historians represent the Illyrians as a barbarous people, who resembled the ruder tribes of Thrace. Both are described as tattooing their persons and offering human sacrifices to their gods. The women of Illyria seem to have occupied a high position socially and even to have exercised political power. Queens are mentioned among their rulers. Fuller and more trustworthy information can be obtained from archaeological evidence. In Bosnia the lake-dwellings at Butmir, the cemeteries of Jezerine and Glasinac and other sites have yielded numerous stone and horn implements, iron and bronze ornaments, weapons, &c., and objects of more recent date fashioned in silver, tin, amber and even glass. These illustrate various stages in the development of primitive Illyrian civilization, from the neolithic age onward. The Hallstatt and La Tène cultures are especially well represented. (See W. Ridgeway, _The Early Age of Greece_, 1901; R. Munro, _Bosnia-Herzegovina and Dalmatia_, Edinburgh, 1900; and W. Radimský, _Die neolithische Station von Butmir_, Vienna, 1895-1898.) Similar discoveries have been made in Dalmatia, as among the tumuli on the Sabbioncello promontory, and in Croatia-Slavonia. H. Kiepert ("Über den Volkstamm der Leleges," in _Monatsber. Berl. Akad._, 1861, p. 114) sought to prove that the Illyrians were akin to the Leleges; his theory was supported by E. Schrader, but is not generally accepted. In Dalmatia there appears to have been a large Celtic element, and Celtic place-names are common. The ancient Illyrian languages fall into two groups, the northern, closely connected with Venetic, and the southern, perhaps allied to Messapian and now probably represented by Albanian.

See K. Brugmann, _Kurze vergleichende Grammatik der Indogermanischen
Sprachen_ (Strassburg, 1904); and his larger _Grundriss der
vergleichenden Grammatik_ (2nd ed., Strassburg, 1897), with the
authorities there quoted, especially P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die
Geschichte der Griechischen Sprachen_ (Göttingen, 1896): see also
ALBANIA.

_History._--Greek colonization on the Illyrian seaboard probably began late in the 7th century B.C. or early in the 6th century. The most important settlements appear to have been at Epidamnus (Durazzo), Tragurium (Traù), Rhizon (near Cattaro), Salona (near Spalato), Epidaurum (Ragusavecchia), Zara and on the islands of Curzola, Lesina and Lissa. There is a collection of Greek coins from Illyria in the museum at Agram, and the researches of Professor F. Bulié and others at Salona (see Spalato) have brought to light Greek inscriptions, Greek pottery, &c. dating from 600 B.C. But Greek influence seems never to have penetrated far into the interior, and even on the coast it was rapidly superseded by Latin civilization after the 3rd century B.C. Until then the Illyrian tribes appear to have lived in a state of intermittent warfare with their neighbours and one another. They are said by Herodotus (ix. 43) to have attacked the temple of Delphi. Brasidas with his small army of Spartans was assaulted by them on his march (424 B.C.) across Thessaly and Macedonia to attack the Athenian colonies in Thrace. The earlier history of the Macedonian kings is one constant struggle against the Illyrian tribes. The migrations of the Celts at the beginning of the 4th century disturbed the country between the Danube and the Adriatic. The Scordisci and other Celtic tribes settled there, and forced the Illyrians towards the south. The necessities of defence seem to have united the Illyrians under a chief Bardylis (about 383 B.C.) and his son Clitus. Bardylis nearly succeeded in destroying the rising kingdom of Macedonia; King Amyntas II was defeated, and a few years later Perdiccas was defeated and slain (359). But the great Philip crushed the Illyrians completely, and annexed part of their country. During the next century we hear of them as pirates. Issuing from the secluded harbours of the coast, they ravaged the shores of Italy and Greece, and preyed on the commerce of the Adriatic. The Greeks applied to Rome for help. Teuta, the Illyrian queen, rejected the Roman demands for redress, and murdered the ambassadors; but the two Illyrian Wars (229 and 219 B.C.) ended in the submission of the Illyrians, a considerable part of their territory being annexed by the conquerors. Illyria, however, remained a powerful kingdom with its capital at Scodra (Scutari in Albania), until 180 B.C., when the Dalmatians declared themselves independent of Gentius or Genthius, the king of Illyria, and founded a republic with its capital at Delminium (see DALMATIA: _History_, on the site of Delminium). In 168 Gentius came into conflict with the Romans, who conquered and annexed his country. Dalmatia was invaded by a Roman army under Gaius Marcius Figulus in 156, but Figulus was driven back to the Roman frontier, and in Dalmatia the Illyrians were not finally subdued until 165 years afterwards. Publius Scipio Nasica, who succeeded Figulus, captured Delminium, and in 119 L. Caecilius Metellus overran the country and received a triumph and the surname _Dalmaticus_. But in 51 a Dalmatian raid on Liburnia led to a renewal of hostilities; the Roman armies were often worsted, and although in 39 Asinius Pollio gained some successes (see Horace, _Odes_ ii. 1. 15) these appear to have been exaggerated, and it was not until Octavian took the field in person that the Dalmatians submitted in 33. (For an account of the war see Appian, _Illyrica_, 24-28; Dio Cassius xlix. 38; Livy, _Epit._ 131, 132). They again revolted in 16 and 11, and in A.D. 6-9 joined the rebel Pannonians. Suetonius (_Tiberius_, 16) declares that they were the most formidable enemies with whom the Romans had had to contend since the Punic Wars. In A.D. 9, however, Tiberius entirely subjugated them, for which he was awarded a triumph in 12 (Dio Cass. lv. 23-29, lvi. 11-17; Vell. Pat. ii. 110-115). Thenceforward Dalmatia, Iapydia and Liburnia were united as the province of Illyricum.

Latin civilization spread rapidly, the cultivation of the vine was introduced, gold-mining was carried on in Bosnia, and flourishing commercial cities arose along the coast. Illyria became one of the best recruiting grounds for the Roman legions; and in troubled times many Illyrian soldiers fought their way up from the ranks to the imperial purple. Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and Maximian were all sons of Illyrian peasants. It is probable, however, that most of the highland tribes now represented by the Albanians remained almost unaffected by Roman influence. The importance of Illyricum caused its name to be extended to many neighbouring districts; in the 2nd century A.D. the _Illyricus Limes_ included Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia and Thrace. In the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian (285) the diocese of Illyricum was created; it comprised Pannonia, Noricum and Dalmatia, while Dacia and Macedonia, together called Eastern Illyricum, were added later. Either Diocletian or after him Constantine made Illyricum one of the four prefectures, each governed by a _praefectus praetorio_, into which the empire was divided. This prefecture included Pannonia, Noricum, Crete and the entire Balkan peninsula except Thrace, which was attached by Constantine to the prefecture of the East. From the partition of the empire in 285 until 379 Illyricum was included in the Western Empire, but thenceforward Eastern Illyricum was annexed to the Eastern Empire; its frontier was almost identical with the line of demarcation between Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking peoples, and roughly corresponded to the boundary which now severs Latin from Greek Christianity in the Balkan peninsula. The whole peninsula except Thrace was still known as Illyricum, but was subdivided into Illyris Barbara or Romana and Illyris Graeca (Eastern Illyricum with Greece and Crete). The Via Egnatia, the great line of road which connected Rome with Constantinople and the East, led across Illyricum from Dyrrachium to Thessalonica.

In the 5th century began a series of invasions which profoundly modified the ethnical character and the civilization of the Illyrians. In 441 and 447 their country was ravaged by the Huns. In 481 Dalmatia was added to the Ostrogothic kingdom, which already included the more northerly parts of Illyricum, i.e. Pannonia and Noricum. Dalmatia was partially reconquered by Justinian in 536, but after 565 it was devastated by the Avars, and throughout the century bands of Slavonic invaders had been gradually establishing themselves in Illyria, where, unlike the earlier barbarian conquerors, they formed permanent settlements. Between 600 and 650 the main body of the immigrants occupied Illyria (see SERVIA: _History_; and SLAVS). It consisted of Croats and Serbs, two groups of tribes who spoke a single language and were so closely related that the origin of the distinction between them is obscure. The Croats settled in the western half of Illyria, the Serbs in the eastern; thus the former came gradually under the influence of Italy and Roman Catholicism, the latter under the influence of Byzantium and the Greek Church. Hence the distinction between them became a marked difference of civilization and creed, which has always tended to keep the Illyrian Slavs politically disunited.

The Croats and Serbs rapidly absorbed most of the Latinized Illyrians. But the wealthy and powerful city-states on the coast were strong enough to maintain their independence and their distinctively Italian character. Other Roman provincials took refuge in the mountains of the interior; these Mavrovlachi, as they were called (see DALMATIA: _Population_; and VLACHS), preserved their language and nationality for many centuries. The Illyrian tribes which had withstood the attraction of Roman civilization remained unconquered among the mountains of Albania and were never Slavonized. With these exceptions Illyria became entirely Serbo-Croatian in population, language and culture.

The name of Illyria had by this time disappeared from history. In literature it was preserved, and the scene of Shakespeare's comedy, _Twelfth Night_, is laid in Illyria. Politically the name was revived in 1809, when the name Illyrian Provinces was given to Carniola, Dalmatia, Istria, Fiume, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, with parts of Carinthia and Croatia; these territories were ceded by Austria to Italy at the peace of Schönnbrun (14th Oct. 1809). The Illyrian Provinces were occupied by French troops and governed in the interest of Napoleon; the republic of Ragusa was annexed to them in 1811, but about the end of 1813 the French occupation ceased to be effective and the provinces reverted to Austria. The kingdom of Illyria, which was constituted in 1816 out of the crown-lands of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Görz and Gradisca, and Trieste, formed until 1849 a kingdom of the Austrian crown. For the political propaganda known as Illyrism, see CROATIA-SLAVONIA: _History_.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--In addition to the authorities quoted above, see G.
Zippel, _Die römische Herrschaft in Illyrien bis auf Augustus_
(Leipzig, 1877); P. O. Bahn, _Der Ursprung der römischen Provinz
Illyrien_ (Grimma, 1876); J. Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_,
i. (1881), p. 295; E. A. Freeman, "The Illyrian Emperors and their
Land" (_Historical Essays_, series 3, 1879); C. Patsch in
Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyklopädie_, iv. pt. 2 (1901); Th. Mommsen,
_The Provinces of the Roman Empire_ (ed. F. Haverfield, 1909).

ILMENAU, a town and summer resort of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, at the north foot of the Thuringian Forest, on the river Ilm, 30 m. by rail south of Erfurt. Pop. (1905) 11,222. The town, which stands picturesquely among wooded hills, is much frequented by visitors in the summer. It was a favourite resort of Goethe, who wrote here his _Iphigenie_, and often stayed at Gabelbach in the neighbourhood. It has a grand-ducal palace, a Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a sanatorium for nervous disorders, and several educational establishments. Its chief manufactures are glass and porcelain, toys, gloves and chemicals, and the town has tanneries and saw-mills. Formerly a part of the county of Henneberg, Ilmenau came in 1631 into the possession of electoral Saxony, afterwards passing to Saxe-Weimar.

See R. Springer, _Die klassischen Stätten von Jena und Ilmenau_
(Berlin, 1869); Pasig, _Goethe und Ilmenau_ (2nd ed., Weimar, 1902);
and Fils, _Bad Ilmenau und seine Umgebung_ (Hildburghausen, 1886).

ILMENITE, a mineral known also as titanic iron, formerly regarded as an iron and titanium sesquioxide (Fe, Ti)2O3 isomorphous with haematite (Fe2O3), but now generally considered to be an iron titanate FeTiO3 isomorphous with pyrophanite (MnTiO3) and geikielite (MgTiO3). It crystallizes in the parallel-faced hemihedral class of the rhombohedral system, thus having the same degree of symmetry as phenacite and pyrophanite, but differing from that of haematite. The angles between the faces are very nearly the same as between the corresponding faces of haematite; but it is to be noted that the rhombohedral angle (94° 29´) of ilmenite is not intermediate between that of haematite (94° 0´) and of the artificially prepared crystals of titanium sesquioxide (92° 40´), which should be the case if the three substances were isomorphous. Analyses show wide variations in chemical composition, and there is a gradation from normal ilmenite FeTiO3 (with titanium dioxide 52.7, and ferrous oxide 47.3%) to titaniferous haematite and titaniferous magnetite. Frequently also, magnesia and manganous oxide are present in small amounts, the former reaching 16%. The formula (Fe, Mg)TiO3 is then analogous to those of geikielite and pyrophanite. Many analyses show the presence of TiO2 and (Fe, Mg)O in this ratio of 1:1, yet there is often an excess of ferric oxide to be accounted for; this may perhaps be explained by the regular intergrowth on a minute scale of ilmenite with haematite, like the intergrowth of such substances as calcite and sodium nitrate, which are similar crystallographically but not chemically.

In many of its external characters ilmenite is very similar to haematite; the crystals often have the same tabular or lamellar habit; the twin-laws are the same, giving rise to twin-lamellae and planes of parting parallel to the basal plane and the primitive rhombohedron; the colour is iron-black with a submetallic lustre; finally, the conchoidal fracture is the same in both minerals. Ilmenite has a black streak; it is opaque, but in very thin scales sometimes transparent with a clove-brown colour. It is slightly magnetic, but without polarity. The hardness is 5½, and the specific gravity varies with the chemical composition from 4.3 to 5.0.

Owing to the wide variations in composition, which even yet are not properly understood, several varieties of the mineral have been distinguished by special names. Crichtonite occurs as small and brilliant crystals of acute rhombohedral habit on quartz at Le Bourg d'Oisans in Dauphiné; it agrees closely in composition with the formula FeTiO3 and has a specific gravity of 4.7. Manaccanite (or Menaccanite) is a black sandy material, first found in 1791 in a stream at Manaccan near Helston in Cornwall. Iserite, from Iserwiese in the Iser Mountains, Bohemia, is a similar sand, but containing some octahedral crystals, possibly of titaniferous magnetite. Washingtonite is found as large tabular crystals at Washington, Connecticut. Uddevallite is from Uddevalla in Sweden. Picrotitanite or picroilmenite (Gr. [Greek: pikros], "bitter") is the name given to varieties containing a considerable amount of magnesia. Other varieties are kibdelophane, hystatite, &c. The name ilmenite, proposed by A. T. Kupffer in 1827, is after the Ilmen Mountains in the southern Urals, whence come the best crystals of the mineral. The largest crystals, sometimes as much as 16 lb. in weight, are from Kragerö and Arendal in Norway.

Ilmenite occurs, often in association with magnetite, in gneisses and schists, sometimes forming beds of considerable extent, but of little or no economic value. It is a common accessory constituent of igneous rocks of all kinds, more especially basic rocks such as gabbro, diabase and basalt. In these rocks it occurs as platy crystals, and is frequently represented by a white, opaque alteration product known as leucoxene. (L. J. S.)