Chapter X: Part 10

LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839- ), French general, was born at Besançon in 1839, and, after passing through the École Polytechnique, was appointed to the artillery as sub-lieutenant in 1858, attaining the rank of captain in 1866. He served in the army of Metz in the war of 1870. Eight years later he became major, in 1887 lieutenant-colonel and in 1888 colonel. At this time he was appointed professor of artillery at the École de Guerre, and in this post he devoted himself to working out the tactical principles of the employment of field artillery under the new conditions of armament of which he foresaw the advent. The public result of his work was the great treatise _L'Artillerie de campagne_ (1891-1892), which may still be regarded as the classic of the arm. In 1894 he became general of brigade, and in 1898 general of division. For two years after this he was the commandant of the École de Guerre at the time that the modern French strategical and tactical "doctrine" was being developed and taught. He was, however, regarded as a leader as well as a theorist, and in 1901 he was selected to command the XX. Army Corps on the German frontier, popularly called the "iron" corps. In 1902 he became a member of the Conseil supérieur de la Guerre, consisting of senior generals marked out for the higher commands in war. He retired from the active list in 1904 on reaching the age limit, and devoted himself with the greatest energy to critical military literature. In 1907 he began the publication of a monthly journal of military art and history, the _Revue militaire générale_. The most important of his other works are _Enseignements de deux guerres recentes_ and _Conséquences tactiques du progrès de l'armement_.

LANGPORT, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Somersetshire, England, 13½ m. E. of Taunton by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 890. It lies on the right (east) bank of the river Parret, near the point where that river debouches from the hills on to the plain through which it flows to the Bristol Channel. The main street leads up a slope from the river to the fine Perpendicular church of All Saints. Close to this an archway crosses the road, bearing a Perpendicular building known as the hanging chapel. After serving this purpose it housed first the grammar-school (founded 1675), then the Quekett museum, named after John Thomas Quekett (1815-1861) the histologist, a native of the town, whose father was master of the school. The hanging chapel afterwards became a masonic hall. Not far distant is the church of Huish Episcopi, with one of the finest of the Perpendicular towers for which Somersetshire is noted. Langport has a considerable general and agricultural trade.

Langport (_Llongborth_, _Langeberga_, _Langeport_) owed its origin to
its defensible position on a hill, and its growth to its facilities
for trade on the chief river of Somerset. It occupies the site of the
British town of Llongborth, and was important during the Roman
occupation. It was a royal borough in Saxon times, and in 1086 had 34
resident burgesses. The first charter, given by Elizabeth in 1562,
recognized that Langport was a borough of great antiquity, which had
enjoyed considerable privileges, being governed by a portreve. It was
incorporated by James I. in 1617, but the corporation was abolished in
1883. Langport was represented in parliament in 1304 and 1306. The
charter of 1562 granted three annual fairs to Langport, on the 28th of
June, the 11th of November and the second Monday in Lent. One fair
only is now held, on the 3rd of September, which is a horse and cattle
fair. A Saturday market was held under the grant of 1562, but in the
19th century the market day was changed to Tuesday.

LANGREO, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo, in very hilly country, on the left bank of the river Nalon, and on a branch railway from Oviedo to Labiana. Pop. (1900) 18,714. In the neighbourhood large quantities of wheat, hemp, fruit and cider are produced; and there are important coal and iron mines, foundries, and factories for the manufacture of coarse cloth.

LANGRES, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Haute-Marne, 22 m. S.S.E. of Chaumont on the eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1906) town, 6663; commune, 9803. Langres stands at a height of some 1550 ft. on a jutting promontory of the tableland known as the plateau de Langres, and overlooks eastward and westward respectively the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the Bonnelle. From the cathedral tower and the ramparts which surround the town there is an extensive view over the valley of the Marne, the Vosges and the Côte d'Or, and in clear weather Mt Blanc (160 m. distant) is visible. The cathedral of St Mammès, for the most part in the Transitional style of the 12th century, has a west front in the Graeco-Roman style of the 18th century and a fine Renaissance chapel. The church of St Martin (13th, 15th and 18th centuries) possesses a figure of Christ of the 16th century, one of the finest wood carvings known. The ramparts are protected by several towers, most of which date from the 16th century. The Gallo-Roman gate, one of four entrances in the Roman period, is preserved, but is walled up. The Porte des Moulins (17th century) is the most interesting of the other gates. The town possesses a museum rich in Gallo-Roman antiquities, a picture gallery and an important library. The birth of Denis Diderot here is commemorated by a statue. Langres is the seat of a bishop and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a higher ecclesiastical seminary and communal colleges for both sexes. It manufactures well-known cutlery and grind-stones. Trade is in grain and other farm-produce, live stock, wine, &c.

Langres, the ancient _Andematunum_, was capital of the _Lingones_. Under Roman rule it was at first to some extent autonomous, but was reduced to the rank of colony after the revolt of the chief Sabinus in A.D. 71. The bishopric was founded about 200 and in the middle ages its holders became peers of the realm and enjoyed the temporal power in the town. In 301 the Alemanni were defeated at Langres by the Romans, but in the next century it was burnt by the Vandals and by Attila.

The "plateau of Langres" appears frequently in the military history of
the 18th and 19th centuries as a dominant strategic point, though its
importance as such has appealed chiefly to the advocates of wars of
positions and passive defence. The modern fortifications of Langres,
which serves as a second line fortress, consist of (a) Fort St Menge
or Ligniville on high ground above the confluence of the Marne and the
Neuilly brook, about 5 m. N. by W. of the town; (b) the west front,
comprising Humes battery (2¼ m. N.W. of Langres), Fort de la Pointe de
Diamant, and the redoubts of Perrancey, Le Fays and Noidant (the last
4 m. S.W. of the town), overlooking the deep valley of the Mouche
brook (this front was attacked in the mock siege of August 1907); (c)
the south front, comprising Fort de la Bonnelle or Décrès (2 m. S.S.W.
of the town), a small work commanding the Chalon-Langres road, Le Mont
and Le Pailly batteries, Fort Vercingetorix, the last, 5 m. S.W. of
the place, standing on a steep and narrow spur of the main plateau,
and in second line the old fort de la Marnotte, and the large
bastioned citadel (the town enceinte is "déclassée"); (d) the east
front, marked by Forts Montlandon and Plesnoy at the north and south
ends respectively of a long steep ridge, 6 m. E. of Langres, the
bridges over the Marne leading to these works being commanded by Fort
Peigney, a work about half a mile east of the town; (e) Fort
Dampierre, 8 m. N.E. of the town, which commands all the main
approaches from the north, and completes the circle by crossing its
fire with that of Fort St Menge.

LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307), English chronicler, took his name from the village of Langtoft in Yorkshire, and was a canon of the Augustinian priory in Bridlington. His name is also given as Langetoft and Langetost. He wrote in French verse a _Chronicle_ dealing with the history of England from the earliest times to the death of Edward I. in 1307. It consists of three parts and contains about 9000 rhyming verses. The earlier part of the _Chronicle_ is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth and other writers; for the period dealing with the reign of Edward I. Langtoft is a contemporary and valuable authority, especially for affairs in the north of England and in Scotland. Langtoft's _Chronicle_ seems to have enjoyed considerable popularity in the north, and the latter part of it was translated into English by Robert Mannyng, sometimes called Robert of Brunne, about 1330. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by T. Wright (1866-1868).

See Wright's preface, and also O. Preussner, _Robert Mannyng of
Brunne's Übersetzung von Pierre de Langtofts Chronicle und ihr
Verhältniss zum Originale_ (Breslau, 1891).

LANGTON, JOHN (d. 1337), chancellor of England and bishop of Chichester, was a clerk in the royal chancery, and became chancellor in 1292. He obtained several ecclesiastical appointments, but owing to the resistance of Pope Boniface VIII. he failed to secure the bishopric of Ely in 1298, although he was supported by Edward I. and visited Rome to attain his end. Resigning his office as chancellor in 1302, he was chosen bishop of Chichester in 1305, and again became chancellor shortly after the accession of Edward II. in 1307. Langton was one of the "ordainers" elected in 1310, and it was probably his connexion with this body that led to his losing the office of chancellor about this time. He continued, however, to take part in public affairs; mediating between the king and Earl Thomas of Lancaster in 1318, and attempting to do so between Edward and his rebellious barons in 1321. He died in June or July 1337. Langton built the chapterhouse at Chichester, and was a benefactor of the university of Oxford.

LANGTON, STEPHEN (d. 1228), cardinal and archbishop of Canterbury, was the son of English parents; but the date and place of his birth are unknown. Since he became early in his career a prebendary of York, and since his brother Simon (d. 1248) was elected[1] to that see in 1215, we may suppose the family to have been of northern extraction. Stephen, however, migrated to Paris, and having graduated in that university became one of its most celebrated theologians. This was probably the time when he composed his voluminous commentaries (many of which still exist in manuscript) and divided the Bible into chapters. At Paris also he contracted the friendship with Lothar of Segni, the future Innocent III., which played so important a part in shaping his career. Upon becoming pope, Innocent summoned Langton to Rome, and in 1206 designated him as cardinal-priest of S. Chrysogonus. Immediately afterwards Langton was drawn into the vortex of English politics.

Archbishop Hubert Walter had died in 1205, and the election of his successor had raised thorny questions. The suffragans of Canterbury claimed a share in choosing the new primate, although that right had been exclusively reserved to the monks of Canterbury by a papal privilege; and John supported the bishops since they were prepared to give their votes for his candidate, John de Gray, bishop of Norwich. A party of the younger monks, to evade the double pressure of the king and bishops, secretly elected their sub-prior Reginald and sent him to Rome for confirmation. The plot leaked out; the rest of the monks were induced to elect John de Gray, and he too was despatched to Rome. After hearing the case Innocent declared both elections void; and with John's consent ordered that a new election should be made in his presence by the representatives of the monks. The latter, having confessed that they had given John a secret pledge to elect none but the bishop of Norwich, were released from the promise by Innocent; and at his suggestion elected Stephen Langton, who was consecrated by the pope on the 17th of June 1207. On hearing the news the king banished the monks of Canterbury and lodged a protest with the pope, in which he threatened to prevent any English appeals from being brought to Rome. Innocent replied by laying England under an interdict (March 1208), and excommunicating the king (November 1209). As John still remained obstinate, the pope at length invited the French king Philip Augustus to enter England and depose him. It was this threat which forced John to sue for a reconciliation; and the first condition exacted was that he should acknowledge Langton as archbishop. During these years Langton had been residing at Pontigny, formerly the refuge of Becket. He had addressed to the English people a dignified protest against the king's conduct, and had at last pressed the pope to take extreme measures. But he had consistently adopted towards John as conciliatory an attitude as his duty to the church would allow, and had more than once entered upon negotiations for a peaceful compromise. Immediately after entering England (July 1213) he showed his desire for peace by absolving the king. But, unlike the pope, he gave ear to the popular cry for redress of political grievances; and persisted in associating with the baronial opposition, even after he was ordered by Innocent to excommunicate them as disturbers of the peace. Langton encouraged the barons to formulate their demands, and is said to have suggested that they should take their stand upon the charter of Henry I. It is uncertain what further share he took in drafting Magna Carta. At Runnymede he appeared as a commissioner on the king's side, and his influence must therefore be sought in those clauses of the Charter which differ from the original petitions of the barons. Of these the most striking is that which confirms the "liberties" of the church; and this is chiefly remarkable for its moderation.

Soon after the issue of the charter the archbishop left England to attend the Fourth Lateran Council. At the moment of his departure he was suspended by the representatives of Innocent for not enforcing the papal censures against the barons. Innocent confirmed the sentence, which remained in force for two years. During this time the archbishop resided at Rome. He was allowed to return in 1218, after the deaths of Innocent and John. From that date till his death he was a tower of strength to the royal party. Through his influence Pandulf was recalled to Rome (1221) and Honorius III. promised that no legate should be sent to reside in England during the archbishop's lifetime. In 1222, in a synod held at Oseney, he promulgated a set of Constitutions still recognized as forming a part of the law of the English Church. Beyond this little is recorded of his latter years. He died on the 9th of July 1228, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral, where his tomb, unless tradition errs, may still be seen.

The authorities are mainly those for the reign of John. No
contemporary biography has come down to us. Some letters, by Langton
and others, relating to the quarrel over his election are preserved in
a Canterbury Chronicle (ed. W. Stubbs in the "Rolls" edition of
_Gervase of Canterbury_, vol. ii.). There are many references to him
in the correspondence of Innocent III. (Migne's _Patrologia Latina_,
vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii.). Of modern works see F. Hurter, _Geschichte
Papst Innocenz III._ (Hamburg, 1841-1844); W. F. Hook, _Lives of the
Archbishops of Canterbury_ (London, 1860-1876), and W. Stubbs's
preface to the second volume of _Walter of Coventry_ ("Rolls" ed.),
which devotes special attention to Langton. The MSS. of Langton's
writings are noticed in J. Bale's _Index Britanniae scriptorum_ (ed.
R. L. Poole, 1902); his Constitutions are printed in D. Wilkin's
_Concilia_, vol. ii. (London, 1737). (H. W. C. D.)

Another English prelate who bore the name of Langton was THOMAS
LANGTON, bishop of Winchester, chaplain to Edward IV. In 1483 he was
chosen bishop of St Davids; in 1485 he was made bishop of Salisbury
and provost of Queen's College, Oxford, and he became bishop of
Winchester in 1493. In 1501 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury,
but he died on the 27th of January 1501, before his election had been
confirmed.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Pope Innocent, however, would not confirm this election, and the
disappointed candidate threw himself into the contest between the
English barons on the one side and King John and the pope on the
other. Later Simon made peace with Henry III. and was appointed
archdeacon of Canterbury; he was consulted by Pope Gregory IX. and
was sent to France on diplomatic business by Henry III.

LANGTON, WALTER (d. 1321), bishop of Lichfield and treasurer of England, was probably a native of Langton West in Leicestershire. Appointed a clerk in the royal chancery, he became a favourite servant of Edward I., taking part in the suit over the succession to the Scottish throne in 1292, and visiting France more than once on diplomatic business. He obtained several ecclesiastical preferments, became treasurer in 1295, and in 1296 bishop of Lichfield. Having become unpopular, the barons in 1301 vainly asked Edward to dismiss him; about the same time he was accused of murder, adultery and simony. Suspended from his office, he went to Rome to be tried before Pope Boniface VIII., who referred the case to Winchelsea, archbishop of Canterbury; the archbishop, although Langton's lifelong enemy, found him innocent, and this sentence was confirmed by Boniface in 1303. Throughout these difficulties, and also during a quarrel with the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward II., the treasurer was loyally supported by the king. Visiting Pope Clement V. on royal business in 1305, Langton appears to have persuaded Clement to suspend Winchelsea; after his return to England he was the chief adviser of Edward I., who had already appointed him the principal executor of his will. His position, however, was changed by the king's death in July 1307. The accession of Edward II. and the return of Langton's enemy, Piers Gaveston, were quickly followed by the arrest of the bishop and his removal from office. His lands, together with a great hoard of movable wealth, were seized, and he was accused of misappropriation and venality. In spite of the intercession of Clement V. and even of the restored archbishop, Winchelsea, who was anxious to uphold the privileges of his order, Langton, accused again by the barons in 1309, remained in prison after Edward's surrender to the "ordainers" in 1310. He was released in January 1312 and again became treasurer; but he was disliked by the "ordainers," who forbade him to discharge the duties of his office. Excommunicated by Winchelsea, he appealed to the pope, visited him at Avignon, and returned to England after the archbishop's death in May 1313. He was a member of the royal council from this time until his dismissal at the request of parliament in 1315. He died in November 1321, and was buried in Lichfield cathedral, which was improved and enriched at his expense. Langton appears to have been no relation of his contemporary, John Langton, bishop of Chichester.

LANGTRY, LILLIE (1852- ), English actress, was the daughter of the Rev. W. C. le Breton, dean of Jersey, and married in 1874 Edward Langtry (d. 1897). For many years she was famous as one of the most beautiful women in England. It was not till 1881 that she definitely went on the stage, appearing from that time under her own management both in London and in America. In 1899 she married Sir Hugo de Bathe, Bart.

LANGUAGE (adapted from the Fr. _langage_, from _langue_, tongue, Lat. _lingua_), the whole body of words and combinations of words as used in common by a nation, people or race, for the purpose of expressing or communicating their thoughts; also, more widely, the power of expressing thought by verbal utterance. See generally under PHILOLOGY, PHONETICS, VOICE, WRITING, GRAMMAR, &c.; and the articles on the various languages, or under headings of countries and races.

LANGUEDOC, one of the old provinces of France, the name of which dates from the end of the 13th century. In 1290 it was used to refer to the country in whose tongue (_langue_) the word for "yes" was _oc_, as opposed to the centre and north of France, the _langue d'oil_ (the _oui_ of to-day). Territorially Languedoc varied considerably in extent, but in general from 1360 until the French Revolution it included the territory of the following departments of modern France: part of Tarn et Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariège, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales, Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche and Haute-Loire. The country had no natural geographical unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the valleys of the upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper Garonne on the west, it reached the Pyrenees on the south and the rolling hills along the Rhone on the east. Its unity was entirely a political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state of the Midi, the representative of its culture and, to some degree, the defence of its peculiar civilization. Its climate, especially in Hérault (Montpellier), is especially delightful in spring and early summer, and the scenery still holds enough ruined remains of Roman and feudal times to recall the romance and the tragedy of its history.

Although the name is of comparatively late medieval origin, the history of Languedoc, which had little in common with that of northern France, begins with the Roman occupation. Toulouse was an important place as early as 119 B.C.; the next year Narbonne, the seaport, became a Roman colony. By the time of Julius Caesar the country was sufficiently Romanized to furnish him with men and money, and though at first involved in the civil wars which followed, it prospered under Roman rule as perhaps no other part of the empire did. While it corresponded exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire, it was approximately the territory included in _Gallia Narbonensis_, one of the seventeen provinces into which the empire was divided at the death of Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, crowded with great and densely populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of rhetoric and poetry still vigorous in the 5th century; theatres, amphitheatres and splendid temples. In the 5th century this high culture was an open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned under Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This was the foundation of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dismembered in 507, leaving the Visigoths only Septimania--the country of seven cities, Narbonne, Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, Maguelonne, Lodève and Agde--that is, very nearly the area occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the council of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews--of whom there were a great many--Syrians and Greeks. The repulse of the Arabs by Charles Martel in 732 opened up the country for the Frankish conquest, which was completed by 768. Under the Carolingians Septimania became part of the kingdom of Aquitaine, but became a separate duchy in 817.

Until the opening of the 13th century there is no unity in the history of Languedoc, the great houses of Toulouse and Carcassonne and the swarm of warlike counts and barons practically ignoring the distant king of France, and maintaining a chronic state of civil war. The feudal régime did not become at all universal in the district, as it tended to become in the north of France. Allodial tenures survived in sufficient numbers to constitute a considerable class of non-vassal subjects of the king, with whose authority they were little troubled. By the end of the 11th century the house of the counts of Toulouse began to play the predominant rôle; but their court had been famous almost a century before for its love of art and literature and its extravagance in dress and fashions, all of which denoted its wealth. Constance, wife of King Robert II. and daughter of the count of Toulouse, gave great offence to the monks by her following of gallant gentlemen. They owed their tastes, not only to their Roman blood, and the survival of their old love for rhetoric and poetry, but also to their intercourse with the Mahommedans, their neighbours and enemies, and their friends when they were not fighting. Under Raymond of Saint Gilles, at the end of the 11th century, the county of Toulouse began its great career, but Raymond's ambition to become an Oriental prince, which led him--and the hundred thousand men who, according to the chroniclers, followed him--away on the first crusade, left a troubled heritage to his sons Bertrand and Alphonse Jourdain. The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona that part of Provence between the Drôme and the Durance. The reign of Alphonse lasted from 1109 to 1148. By the opening of the 13th century the sovereignty of the counts of Toulouse was recognized through about half of Provence, and they held the rich cities of the most cultured and wealthiest portion of France, cities which had a high degree of local independence. Their local governments, with their consuls at the head, show, at least in name, the influence of Roman ideas. It is still an open question how much of their autonomy had remained untouched by the barbarian invasions from the Roman period. The citizens of these free cities were in continual intercourse with Saracens of Palestine and Moors of Spain; they had never entirely abandoned pagan customs; their poetry--the poetry of the troubadours--taught them the joys of life rather than the fear of death, the licence of their chivalry with its courts of love led to the other extreme of asceticism in such as were of religious temperament; all things combined to make Languedoc the proper soil for heresy. The Church never had the hold upon the country that it had in the north, the people of the Midi were always lukewarm in the faith; there was no noteworthy ecclesiastical literature in Languedoc from the end of the Carolingian period until after the Albigensian crusade, no theological centre like Paris, Bec or Laon. Yet Languedoc furnished the most heroic martyrs for the ascetic Manichaean creed. The era of heresy began with the preaching of Peter de Brueys and his follower, Henry of Lausanne, who emptied the churches and taught contempt for the clergy. Saint Bernard himself was able to make but temporary headway against this rebellion from a sacramental and institutionalized Christianity. In the first decade of the 13th century came the inevitable conflict. The whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, Foix, Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession from the Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean or Cathar religion was the end of the brilliant culture of Languedoc. (See ALBIGENSES, CATHARS, INQUISITION.) The crusade against the Albigenses, as the Cathars were locally termed, in 1209, resulted in the union to the crown of France in 1229 of all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhone, thus dividing Languedoc into two. The western part left to Raymond VII., by the treaty of 1229, included the Agenais, Quercy, Rouergue, the Toulousain and southern Albigeois. He had as well the Venaissin across the Rhone. From 1229 to his death in 1249 Raymond VII. worked tirelessly to bring back prosperity to his ruined country, encouraging the foundation of new cities, and attempting to gain reconciliation with the Church. He left only a daughter, Jeanne, who was married to Alphonse of Poitiers. Alphonse, a sincere Catholic, upheld the Inquisition, but, although ruling the country from Paris, maintained peace. Jeanne died without heirs four days after her husband, upon their return from the crusade in Africa, in 1271, and although she attempted by will to prevent the reversion of her lands to the crown, they were promptly seized by King Philip III., who used the opposition of Roger Bernard, count of Foix, as an excuse to appear with a formidable army, which had little to do to secure entire submission. Thus the county of Toulouse passed to the crown, though Philip III. turned over the Agenais to Edward I. of England in 1279. In 1274 he ceded the county of Venaissin to Pope Gregory X., the papacy having claimed it, without legal grounds, since the Albigensian crusade (see AVIGNON).

Such was the fate of the reduced county of Toulouse. At the division of Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhone. This royal Languedoc was at first subject to much trickery on the part of northern speculators and government officials. In 1248 Louis IX. sent royal _enquêteurs_, much like Charlemagne's _missi dominici_, to correct all abuses, especially to inquire concerning peculation by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the king issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the administration of the province. Two _sénéchaussées_ were created--one at Nîmes, the other at Carcassonne--each with its lesser divisions of _vigueries_ and _bailliages_. During the reign of Philip III. the _enquêteurs_ were busily employed securing justice for the conquered, preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279 a supreme court of justice was established at Toulouse. In 1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of Languedoc, but in the century which followed they were less an instrument for self-government than one for securing money, thus aiding the _enquêteurs_, who during the Hundred Years' War became mere revenue hunters for the king. In 1355 the Black Prince led a savage plundering raid across the country to Narbonne. After the battle of Poitiers, Languedoc supported the count of Armagnac, but there was no enthusiasm for a national cause. Under Charles V., Louis of Anjou, the king's brother, was governor of Languedoc, and while an active opponent of the English, he drained the country of money. But his extortions were surpassed by those of another brother, the duc de Berry, after the death of Charles V. In 1382 and 1383 the infuriated peasantry, abetted by some nobles, rose in a rebellion--known as the Tuchins--which was put down with frightful butchery, while still greater sums were demanded from the impoverished country. In the anarchy which followed brigandage increased. Redress did not come until 1420, when the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., came to Languedoc and reformed the administration. Then the country he saved furnished him with the means for driving out the English in the north. For the first time, in the climax of its miseries, Languedoc was genuinely united to France. But Charles VII. was not able to drive out the brigands, and it was not until after the English were expelled in 1453 that Languedoc had even comparative peace. Charles VII. united Comminges to the crown; Louis XI. Roussillon and Cerdagne, both of which were ceded to Aragon by Charles VIII. as the price of its neutrality during his expedition into Italy. From the reign of Louis XI. until 1523 the governorship of Languedoc was held by the house cf Bourbon. After the treason of the constable Bourbon it was held by the Montmorency family with but slight interruption until 1632.

The Reformation found Languedoc orthodox. Persecution had succeeded. The Inquisition had had no victims since 1340, and the cities which had been centres of heresy were now strongly orthodox. Toulouse was one of the most fanatically orthodox cities in Europe, and remained so in Voltaire's day. But Calvinism gained ground rapidly in the other parts of Languedoc, and by 1560 the majority of the population was Protestant. It was, however, partly a political protest against the misrule of the Guises. The open conflict came in 1561, and from that until the edict of Nantes (1598) there was intermittent civil war, accompanied with iconoclasm on the one hand, massacres on the other and ravages on both.

The main figure in this period is that of Henri de Montmorency, seigneur de Damville, later duc de Montmorency, governor of the province from 1563, who was, at first, hostile to the Protestants, then from 1574 to 1577, as leader of the "_Politiques_," an advocate of compromise. But peace was hardly ever established, although there was a yearly truce for the ploughing. By the edict of Nantes, the Protestants were given ten places of safety in Languedoc; but civil strife did not come to an end, even under Henry IV. In 1620 the Protestants in Languedoc rose under Henri, duc de Rohan (1579-1638), who for two years defied the power of Louis XIII. When Louis took Montpellier in 1622, he attempted to reconcile the Calvinists by bribes of money and office, and left Montauban as a city of refuge. Richelieu's extinction of Huguenotism is less the history of Languedoc than of the Huguenots (q.v.). By 1629 Protestantism was crushed in the Midi as a political force. Then followed the tragic episode of the rebellion of Henri II., duc de Montmorency, son of the old governor of Languedoc. As a result, Languedoc lost its old provincial privilege of self-assessment until 1649, and was placed under the governorship of Marshal Schomberg. During Louis XIV.'s reign Languedoc prospered until the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Industries and agriculture were encouraged, roads and bridges were built, and the great canal giving a water route from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean increased the trade of its cities. Colbert especially encouraged its manufactures. The religious persecutions which accompanied the revocation of the edict of Nantes bore hardest on Languedoc, and resulted in a guerilla warfare known as the rebellion of the Camisards (q.v.). On the eve of the Revolution some of the brightest scenes of contentment and prosperity which surprised Arthur Young, the English traveller in France, were those of the grape harvests in Languedoc vineyards.

In 1790 Languedoc disappeared from the map of France, with the other old provinces; and the departments mentioned took its place. But the peculiar characteristics of the men of the Midi remain as clearly distinct from those of the north as the Scottish type is distinct from the English. The "peaceful insurrection" of the Languedoc vine-growers in the summer of 1907 revealed to the astonished Parisians the same spirit of independence as had underlain the resistance to Simon de Montfort and Richelieu.

The one monumental history of Languedoc is that of the Benedictines,
Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J. Vaissete, _Histoire générale de la
province de Languedoc_ (5 vols., Paris, 1730-1745). This has been
re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important
monographs, to 15 volumes (Toulouse, 1872-1892). It is the great
library of sources, critical apparatus and bibliographies concerning
Languedoc, and carries the history up to 1790. The fine article
"Languedoc" in _La Grande Encyclopédie_ is by A. Molinier, perhaps the
greatest modern authority on Languedoc. (J. T. S.*)

LANGUET, HUBERT (1518-1581), French Huguenot writer and diplomat, was born at Vitteaux in Burgundy, of which town his father was governor. He received his early education from a distinguished Hellenist, Jean Perelle, and displayed remarkable ability in Greek and Latin. He studied law, theology and science at the university of Poitiers from 1536 to 1539; then, after some travel, attended the universities of Bologna and Padua, receiving the doctorate from the latter in 1548. At Bologna he read Melanchthon's _Loci communes theologiae_ and was so impressed by it that in 1549 he went to Wittenberg to see the author, and shortly afterwards became a Protestant. He made his headquarters at Wittenberg until the death of Melanchthon in 1560, although during that period, as well as throughout the rest of his life, he travelled extensively in France, Italy, Spain, Germany, Sweden, and even Finland and Lapland. In 1557 he declined the invitation of Gustavus I. to enter the service of Sweden, but two years later accepted a similar invitation of Augustus I., elector of Saxony. He showed great ability in diplomacy, particularly in organizing the Protestants. He represented the elector at the French court from 1561 to 1572 except when the religious and political troubles in France occasionally compelled him temporarily to withdraw. He performed many minor diplomatic missions for the elector, and in 1567 accompanied him to the siege of Gotha. He delivered a violent harangue before Charles IX. of France in 1570 on behalf of the Protestant princes, and escaped death on St Bartholomew's Day (1572) only through the intervention of Jean de Morvilliers, the moderate and influential bishop of Orleans. He represented the elector of Saxony at the imperial court from 1573 to 1577. Financial embarrassment and disgust at the Protestant controversies in which he was forced to participate caused him to seek recall from the imperial court. His request being granted, Languet spent the last years of his life mainly in the Low Countries, and though nominally still in the service of the elector, he undertook a mission to England for John Casimir of Bavaria and was a valuable adviser to William the Silent, prince of Orange. Languet died at Antwerp on the 30th of September 1581.

His correspondence is important for the history of the 16th century.
Three hundred and twenty-nine letters to Augustus of Saxony dating
from the 17th of November 1565 to the 8th of September 1581, and one
hundred and eleven letters to the chancellor Mordeisen dating from
November 1559 to the summer of 1565, are preserved in MS. in the Saxon
archives, and were published by Ludovicus at Halle in 1699 under the
title _Arcana seculi decimi sexti_. One hundred and eight letters to
Camerarius were published at Groningen in 1646 under the title
_Langueti Epistolae ad Joach. Camerarium, patrem et filium_; and
ninety-six to his great friend Sir Philip Sidney, dating from the 22nd
of April 1573 to the 28th of October 1580, appeared at Frankfort in
1633 and have been translated into English by S. A. Pears (London,
1845). The _Historica Descriptio_ of the siege and capture of Gotha
appeared in 1568 and has been translated into French and German. The
authorship of the work by which Languet is best known has been
disputed. It is entitled _Vindiciae contra tyrannos, sive de principis
in populum populique in principem legitima potestate, Stephano Junio
Bruto Celta auctore_, and is thought to have been published at Basel
(1579) although it bears the imprint of Edinburgh. It has been
attributed to Beza, Hotman, Casaubon and Duplessis-Mornay, by divers
writers on various grounds--to the last-named on the very respectable
authority of Grotius. The authorship of Languet was supported by Peter
Bayle (for reasons stated in the form of a supplement to the
_Dictionnaire_) and confirmed by practically all later writers. The
work has been frequently reprinted, the Leipzig edition (1846)
containing a life of Languet by Treitschke. A French translation
appeared in 1581 and an English translation in 1689. The work upholds
the doctrine of resistance, but affirms that resistance must come from
properly constituted authorities and objects to anything which savours
of anabaptism or other extreme views. The _Apologie ou défence du très
illustre Prince Guillaume contre le ban et l'édit du roi d'Espagne_
(Leiden, 1581) is sometimes attributed to Languet. There seems little
doubt, however, that it was really the work of the prince himself,
with the help either of Languet (Groen van Prinsterer, _Archives_) or
of Pierre de Villiers (Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_; and Blok,
_History of the People of the Netherlands_).

See Ph. de la Mare, _Vie d'Hubert Languet_ (Halle, 1700); E. and E.
Haag, _La France protestante_; H. Chevreul, _Hubert Languet_ (Paris,
1852); J. Blasel, _Hubert Languet_ (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, _Hubert
Languet als kursächsischer Berichterstatter u. Gesandter in Frankreich
während 1560-1572_ (Halle, 1875); G. Touchard, _De politica Huberti
Langueti_ (Paris, 1898). There is a good article on Languet by P.
Tschackert in Hauck's _Real-Encyklopädie_, 3rd ed., xi. 274-280.

LANGUR, one of the two Hindu names (the other being _hanuman_) of the sacred Indian monkey scientifically known as _Semnopithecus entellus_, and hence sometimes called the entellus monkey. A prodigiously long tail, beetling eyebrows with long black hairs, black ears, face, feet and hands, and a general greyish-brown colour of the fur are the distinctive characteristics of the langur. These monkeys roam at will in the bazaars of Hindu cities, where they help themselves freely from the stores of the grain-dealers, and they are kept in numbers at the great temple in Benares. In a zoological sense the term is extended to embrace all the monkeys of the Asiatic genus _Semnopithecus_, which includes a large number of species, ranging from Ceylon, India and Kashmir to southern China and the Malay countries as far east as Borneo and Sumatra. These monkeys are characterized by their lank bodies, long slender limbs and tail, well-developed thumbs, absence of cheek-pouches, and complex stomachs. They feed on leaves and young shoots. (R. L.*)

LANG VON WELLENBURG, MATTHÄUS (1469-1540), German statesman and ecclesiastic, was the son of a burgher of Augsburg. He afterwards assumed the name of Wellenburg from a castle that came into his possession. After studying at Ingolstadt, Vienna and Tübingen he entered the service of the emperor Frederick III. and quickly made his way to the front. He was also one of the most trusted advisers of Frederick's son and successor Maximilian I., and his services were rewarded in 1500 with the provostship of the cathedral at Augsburg and in the following year with the bishopric of Gurk. In 1511 he was made a cardinal by Pope Julius II., and in 1514 he became coadjutor to the archbishop of Salzburg, whom he succeeded in 1519. He also received the bishopric of Cartagena in Murcia in 1521, and that of Albano in 1535. Lang's adherence to the older faith, together with his pride and arrogance, made him very unpopular in his diocese of Salzburg; in 1523 he was involved in a serious struggle with his subjects, and in 1525, during the Peasants' War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own. He was one of the chief ministers of Charles V.; he played an important part in the tangled international negotiations of his time; and he was always loyal to his imperial masters. Not without reason has he been compared with Cardinal Wolsey. He died on the 30th of March 1540.

LANIER, SIDNEY (1842-1881), American poet, was born at Macon, Georgia, on the 3rd of February 1842. He was of Huguenot descent on his father's side, and of Scottish and Virginian on his mother's. From childhood he was passionately fond of music. His subsequent mastery of the flute helped to support him and greatly increased his reputation. At the age of fourteen he entered Oglethorpe College, where, after graduating with distinction, he held a tutorship. He enlisted in the Confederate army in April 1861, serving first in Virginia, and finding opportunities to continue his studies. After the Seven Days' battles around Richmond, he was transferred to the signal service. About this time the first symptoms of consumption appeared. He subsequently served in a blockade-runner, but his vessel was captured, and he was confined for five months in a Federal prison, his flute proving the best of companions. Exchanged early in 1865, he started home on foot, arriving in a state of exhaustion that led to a severe illness. In 1867 he visited New York in connexion with his novel _Tiger Lilies_--an immature work, dealing in part with his war experiences, and now difficult to obtain. Later in the same year he took charge of a country school in Alabama, and was married to Miss Mary Day of his native town. The next year he returned to Macon in low health, and began to study and practise law with his father. In 1872 he went to Texas for his health, but was forced to return, and he secured an engagement as first flute in the Peabody concerts at Baltimore (December 1873). He wrote a guide-book to Florida (1876), and tales for boys from Froissart, Malory, the Mabinogion and Percy's _Reliques_ (1878-1882). He now made congenial friends, such as Bayard Taylor, his reputation gradually increased, and he was enabled to study music and literature, especially Anglo-Saxon poetry. In 1876 he wrote his ambitious cantata for the Centennial Exhibition, and brought his family north. A small volume of verse appeared in the next year. In 1879 he was made lecturer on English literature at Johns Hopkins University. His lectures became the basis of his _Science of English Verse_ (1880)--his most important prose work, and an admirable discussion of the relations of music and poetry--and also of his _English Novel_ (New York, 1883), which, devoted largely to George Eliot, is suggestive, but one-sided. Work had to be abandoned on account of growing feebleness, and in the spring of 1881 he was carried to Lynn, North Carolina, to try camp life, and died there on the 7th of September. Since his death his fame has grown steadily and greatly, an enlarged and final edition (1884) of his poems, prepared by his wife, his _Letters, 1866-1881_ (1899), and several volumes of miscellaneous prose having assisted in keeping his name before the public. A posthumous work on _Shakspere and his Forerunners_ (London, 2 vols., 1902) was edited by H. W. Lanier. Among his more noteworthy poems are "Corn," "The Revenge of Hamish," "Song of the Chattahoochee" and "The Marshes of Glynn." By some his genius is regarded as musical rather than poetic, and his style is considered hectic; by others he is held to be one of the most original and most talented of modern American poets. He is considered the leading writer of the New South, the greatest Southern poet since Poe, and a man of heroic and exquisite character.

See a "Memorial," by William Hayes Ward, prefixed to the _Poems_
(1884); _Letters of Sidney Lanier 1866-1881_ (1899), edited by H. W.
Lanier and Mrs Sidney Lanier; E. Mims, _Sidney Lanier_ (1905). There
is a bibliography of Lanier's scattered writings in _Select Poems_
(New York, 1896; Toronto, 1900) edited by Morgan Callaway.
(W. P. T.)

LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS, COMTE (1753-1827), French politician, was born at Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) on the 12th of March 1753. After a brilliant college career, which made him doctor of laws and a qualified barrister at nineteen, he was appointed counsel to the Breton estates and in 1775 professor of ecclesiastical law at Rennes. At this period he wrote two important works which, owing to the distracted state of public affairs, remained unpublished, _Institutiones juris ecclesiastici_ and _Praelectiones juris ecclesiastici_. He had begun his career at the bar by pleading against the feudal _droit du colombier_, and when he was sent by his fellow-citizens to the states-general of 1789 he demanded the abolition of nobility and the substitution of the title of king of the French and the Navarrese for king of France and Navarre, and helped to establish the civil constitution of the clergy. Returned to the Convention in September 1792 he developed moderate, even reactionary views, becoming one of the fiercest opponents of the Mountain, though he never wavered in his support of republican principles. He refused to vote for the death of Louis XVI., alleging that the nation had no right to despatch a vanquished prisoner. His daily attacks on the Mountain resulted, on the 15th of April 1793, in a demand by the commune for his exclusion from the assembly, but, undaunted, when the Parisian populace invaded the Chamber on the 2nd of June, Lanjuinais renewed his defiance of the victorious party. Placed under arrest with the Girondins, he escaped to Rennes where he drew up a pamphlet denouncing the constitution of 1793 under the curious title _Le Dernier Crime de Lanjuinais_ (Rennes, 1793). Pursued by J. B. Carrier, who was sent to stamp out resistance in the west, he lay hidden until some time after the revolution of Thermidor (July 1794), but he was readmitted to the Convention on the 8th of March 1795. He maintained his liberal and independent attitude in the Conseil des Anciens, the Senate and the Chamber of Peers, being president of the upper house during the Hundred Days. Together with G. J. B. Target, J. E. M. Portalis and others he founded under the empire an academy of legislation in Paris, himself lecturing on Roman law. Closely associated with oriental scholars, and a keen student of oriental religions, he entered the Academy of Inscriptions in 1808. After the Bourbon restoration Lanjuinais consistently defended the principles of constitutional monarchy, but most of his time was given to religious and political subjects. Besides many contributions to periodical literature he wrote, among other works, _Constitutions de la nation française_ (1819); _Appréciation du projet de loi relatif aux trois concordats_ (1806, 6th ed. 1827), in defence of Gallicanism; and _Études biographiques et littéraires sur Antoine Arnauld, P. Nicole et Jacques Necker_ (1823). He died in Paris on the 13th of January 1827.

His son, VICTOR AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE LANJUINAIS (1802-1869), was also a politician, becoming a deputy in 1838. His interests lay chiefly in financial questions and in 1849 he became minister of commerce and agriculture in the cabinet of Odilon Barrot. He wrote a _Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages du comte de Lanjuinais_, which was prefixed to an edition of his father's _Oeuvres_ (4 vols., 1832).

For the life of the comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G.
Cougny, _Dictionnaire des parlementaires_, vol. ii. (1890); and F. A.
Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Législative et de la Convention_ (Paris,
1885-1886). For a bibliography of his works see J. M. Quérard, _La
France littéraire_, vol. iii. (1829).

LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850- ), American Sanskrit scholar, was born in Norwich, Connecticut, on the 8th of July 1850. He graduated at Yale in 1871, was a graduate student there (1871-1873) under James Hadley and W. D. Whitney, and in Germany (1873-1876) studied Sanskrit under Weber and Roth and philology under Georg Curtius and Leskien. He was professor of Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins University in 1876-1880 and subsequently at Harvard University. In 1889 he travelled in India and bought for Harvard University Sanskrit and Prakrit books and manuscripts, which, with those subsequently bequeathed to the university by Fitzedward Hall, make the most valuable collection of its kind in America, and made possible the _Harvard Oriental Series_, edited by Professor Lanman. In 1879-1884 he was secretary and editor of the _Transactions_, and in 1889-1890 president of the American Philological Association, and in 1884-1894 he was corresponding secretary of the American Oriental Society, in 1897-1907 vice-president, and in 1907-1908 president. In the _Harvard Oriental Series_ he translated (vol. iv.) into English Rajaçekhara's Karpura-Mañjari (1900), a Prakrit drama, and (vols. vii. and viii.) revised and edited Whitney's translation of, and notes on, the _Atharva-Veda Samhita_ (2 vols., 1905); he published _A Sanskrit Reader, with Vocabulary and Notes_ (2 vols., 1884-1888); and he wrote on early Hindu pantheism and contributed the section on Brahmanism to _Messages of the World's Religions_.