Chapter VIII: Part 8

_Other British Colonies._--In the other British colonies private
investigation of title, plus registration of deeds, is the prevailing
system, but registration of title has been introduced in one or two
instances.

_Germany and Austria-Hungary._--By far the most important examples of
registration of _title_ at present existing--because they show how the
system works when applied to large European communities, with all the
intricacies and complications of modern civilized life--are to be
found in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In some parts of these countries
registration of title has been established for several
centuries--notably in Bohemia; in most parts it has existed for the
greater part of the 19th century; in some districts, again, notably
Tirol and the Rhine Provinces, it is still in course of introduction.
In all cases it appears to have been preceded by a system of deed
registration, which materially facilitated its introduction. In some
cases, Prussia, for instance, the former registers were kept in such a
way as to amount in themselves to little short of a registry of title.
Very low scales of fees suffice to pay all official expenses. In
Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £1;
at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 7s. 3d.; at £1000 it is £1,
10s.; at £5000, £4, 5s., and so on. In case of error, the officials
are personally liable; failing these, the state. Other states are very
similar. In 1894, 1,159,995 transactions were registered in Prussia.
In 1893, 938,708 were registered in Austria. Some idea of the extent
to which small holdings prevail in these countries may be gathered
from the fact that 36% of the sales and mortgages in Austria were for
under £8, 6s. 8d. value--74% were for under £50. Owing to the ease and
simplicity of the registers, it is not always necessary to employ
professional help. When such help is required, the fees are low. In
Vienna £1 is a very usual fee for the purchaser's lawyer. £10 is
seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In Austria it is
open to public inspection. In these registers may be found examples of
large estates in the country with numerous charges and encumbrances
and dealings therewith; peasants' properties, in numerous scattered
parcels, acquired and disposed of at different times, and variously
mortgaged; town and suburban properties, flats, small farms, rights to
light and air, rights of way, family settlements, and dealings of all
sorts--inheritances and wills, partitions, bankruptcies, mortgages,
and a great variety of dealings therewith. The Continental systems are
usually administered locally in districts, about 20 to 30 m. across,
attached to the local law courts. In Baden and Württemberg every
parish (commune) has its own registry. All ordinary dealings are
transacted with the greatest expedition. Security is absolute.[3]

_The United States._--Up to a late date the ordinary English system,
with registration of _deeds_, was universal in the United States. The
registries appear to go back practically to the original settlement of
the country. Registration is by full copy. It is said that in the
large towns the name indexes were often much overgrown owing to the
want of subdivision into smaller areas corresponding to the parishes
into which the Middlesex and Yorkshire indexes are divided. In the New
York registry not many years ago 25,000 deeds were registered
annually. At the same time 35,000 were registered in Middlesex.
Complaints are made by American lawyers of want of accuracy in the
indexes also. In 1890 an act was passed in New York for splitting the
indexes into "blocks," which is believed to have given much relief.
The average time and cost of an examination of title, as estimated by
a committee of the Bar Association of New York in 1887, was about
thirty days and 150 dollars (about £30). A later State Commission in
Illinois estimates the law costs of a sale there at about 25 dollars
(£5); the time may run into many months. Allusion has already been
made to the insurance of title companies. The rates of insurance are
substantial, e.g. 65 dollars (£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600),
and 5 dollars (£1) on each additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would
amount to £20 on £2000 value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The
guarantee given is very ample, and may be renewed to subsequent owners
at one-third of the fee. Registration of title has lately been
introduced, on a voluntary basis, into the states of California,
Oregon, Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota and Colorado, and also into
Hawaii and the Philippines.

_France._--In France registration of _deeds_ is universal. Sales,
mortgages, gifts and successions; easements, leases of over eighteen
years, and transactions affecting the land to the extent of three
years' rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be
registered. Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. Purchase
deeds are registered by filing full copies. Registries are established
in all the considerable towns. The duty on sales amounts to the high
figure of about 6½% on the value. Part of this is allocated to
registration, in addition to which a fixed fee of one franc, and
stationers' charges averaging 6 francs are also chargeable. The title
can usually be fully investigated from the documents in the registry.
Official searches for mortgages are commonly resorted to, at a cost of
about 5 francs. Under the monarchy the land system was practically
copyhold tenure, but greater validity was attached to the Court Rolls
than was the case in England. The present system was established by a
law of 1790 after the abolition of seigniorial institutions in 1789.
This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further perfected by a law
of 1855. The average value of transactions in France is very small.
Probably at the present time four-fifths of the properties are of
under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs (£8) would be
about as follows: Duty, 13 fr.; Notary (1%), 2 fr.; expenses, 12
fr.--total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost about 110 fr.
Taking all values, the cost of conveyance and duty reaches the high
figure of 10% in the general run of transactions. The vendor as a rule
has no costs. _Indefeasible_ title is not obtainable, but frauds are
almost unknown. A day or two usually suffices for all formalities. On
large sales a further process known as the "purge" is undergone, which
requires a few weeks and more expense, in order to guard against
possible claims against which the deed registries afford no
protection, such as dowries of wives, claims under guardianships, &c.
A commission (Commission Extraparlementaire du Cadastre), appointed in
1891 to consider the revision of the government cadastral maps (which
are in very serious arrear) and the establishment of registration of
title, collected, in nine volumes of Comptes Rendus, a great mass of
most interesting particulars relating to land questions in France, and
in 1905 reported in favour of the general establishment of a register
of title, with a draft of the necessary enactment.

AUTHORITIES.--A very complete list of some 114 English publications
from 1653 to 1895 will be found in R. Burnet Morris, _Land
Registration_ (1895); Parliamentary Publications: _Second Report of
the Real Property Commissioners_ (1831); _Report of the Registration
and Conveyancing Commission_ (1850); _Report of the Registration of
Title Commission_ (1857); _Report of the Land Transfer Commission_
(1870); _Reports on Registration of Title in Australasian Colonies_
(1871 and 1881); _Report on Registration of Title in Germany and
Austria-Hungary_ (1896); _The Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906 on
the Formation of a Register in London; Royal Commission on the Land
Transfer Acts, Minutes of Evidence_ (1909). General reviews of land
registration in the British Isles, the Colonies, and in foreign
countries: R. Burnet Morris, as above, and C. F. Brickdale, _Land
Transfer in Various Countries_ (1894). Books on practice:
England--Brickdale and Sheldon, _The Land Transfer Acts_ (2nd ed.,
1905); Cherry and Marigold, _The Land Transfer Acts_ (1898); Hay,
_Land Registration under the Land Transfer Acts_ (1904); _Land
Transfer, &c._ (1901); C. F. Brickdale, _Registration in Middlesex_
(1892). _Australia--The Australian Torrens System_; Hogg, _The
Transfer of Land Act 1890_ (Melbourne). Prussia--Oberneck, _Die
Preussischen Grundbuchgesetze_ (Berlin). Austria--_Das allgemeine
Grundbuchsgesetz_, &c. (Vienna); Bartsch, _Das Oesterreichische
allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz in seiner practischen Anwendung_ (Vienna).
Saxony--Siegmann, _Sächsische Hypothekenrecht_ (Leipzig).
Statistics--_Oesterreichische Statistik_ (_Grundbuchs-ämter_) (Vienna,
annually). (C. F.-Br.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In Prussia all conveyances are verbal, made in person or by
attorney before the registrar, who forthwith notes them in his books.

[2] This summary is an abridgement (with permission) of pp. 7 to 26
of Mr R. Burnet Morris's book referred to at the end of this article.

[3] Full information as to the German and Austrian systems is to be
found in a Parliamentary Report of 1896 (C.--8139) on the subject.

LANDSBERG AM LECH, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the river Lech, 38 m. by rail W. by S. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 6505. It has eight Roman Catholic churches, among them the Liebfrauen Kirche dating from 1498, several monasteries, and a fine medieval town-hall, with frescoes by Karl von Piloty and a painting by Hubert von Herkomer. Here also are a fine gateway, the Bayer-Tor, an agricultural and other schools. Brewing, tanning and the manufacture of agricultural machinery are among the principal industries.

See Schober, _Landsberg am Lech und Umgebung_ (1902); and Zwerger,
_Geschichte Landsbergs_ (1889).

LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Warthe and the Kladow, 80 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1905) 36,934. It has important engine and boiler works and iron-foundries; there are also manufactures of tobacco, cloth, carriages, wools, spirits, jute products and leather. An active trade is carried on in wood, cattle and the produce of the surrounding country. Landsberg obtained civic privileges in 1257, and later was besieged by the Poles and then by the Hussites.

See R. Eckert, _Geschichte von Landsberg-Warthe_ (1890).

LANDSBERG BEI HALLE, a town in Prussia on the Strengbach, on the railway from Berlin to Weissenfels. Pop. (1905) 1770. Its industries include quarrying and malting, and the manufacture of sugar and machinery. Landsberg was the capital of a small margraviate of this name, ruled in the 12th century by a certain Dietrich, who built the town. Later it belonged to Meissen and to Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1814.

LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY (1802-1873), English painter, third son of John Landseer, A.R.A., a well-known engraver and writer on art, was born at 71 Queen Anne Street East (afterwards 33 Foley Street), London, on March 7th 1802. His mother was Miss Potts, who sat to Sir Joshua Reynolds as the reaper with a sheaf of corn on her head, in "Macklin's Family Picture," or "The Gleaners."[1] Edwin Henry Landseer began his artistic education under his father so successfully that in his fifth year he drew fairly well, and was familiar with animal character and passion. Drawings of his, at South Kensington, dated by his father, attest that he drew excellently at eight years of age; at ten he was an admirable draughtsman and his work shows considerable sense of humour. At thirteen he drew a majestic St Bernard dog so finely that his brother Thomas engraved and published the work. At this date (1815) he sent two pictures to the Royal Academy, and was described in the catalogue as "Master E. Landseer, 33 Foley Street." Youth forbade his being reckoned among practising artists, and caused him to be considered as the "Honorary Exhibitor" of "No. 443, Portrait of a Mule," and "No. 584, Portraits of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy." Adopting the advice of B. R. Haydon, he studied the Elgin Marbles, the animals in the Tower of London and Exeter 'Change, and dissected every animal whose carcass he could obtain. In 1816 Landseer was admitted a student of the Royal Academy schools. In 1817 he sent to the Academy a portrait of "Old Brutus," a much-favoured dog, which, as well as its son, another Brutus, often appeared in his later pictures. Even at this date Landseer enjoyed considerable reputation, and had more work than he could readily perform, his renown having been zealously fostered by his father in James Elmes's _Annals of the Fine Arts_. At the Academy he was a diligent student and a favourite of Henry Fuseli's, who would look about the crowded antique school and ask, "Where is my curly-headed dog-boy?" Although his pictures sold easily from the first, the prices he received at this time were comparatively small. In 1818 Landseer sent to the Society of Painters in Oil and Water Colours, which then held its exhibitions in Spring Gardens, his picture of "Fighting Dogs getting Wind." The sale of this work to Sir George Beaumont vastly enhanced the fame of the painter, who soon became "the fashion." This picture illustrates the prime strength of Landseer's earlier style. Unlike the productions of his later life, it displays not an iota of sentiment. Perfectly drawn, solidly and minutely finished, and carefully composed, its execution attested the skill acquired during ten years' studies from nature. Between 1818 and 1825 Landseer did a great deal of work, but on the whole gained little besides facility of technical expression, a greater zest for humour and a larger style. The work of this stage ended with the production of the painting called "The Cat's Paw," which was sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous sensation. The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled Landseer to set up for himself in the house No. 1 St John's Wood Road, where he lived nearly fifty years and in which he died. During this period Landseer's principal pictures were "The Cat Disturbed"; "Alpine Mastiffs reanimating a Distressed Traveller," a famous work engraved by his father; "The Ratcatchers"; "Pointers to be"; "The Larder Invaded"; and "Neptune," the head and shoulders of a Newfoundland dog. In 1824 Landseer and C. R. Leslie made a journey to the Highlands--a momentous visit for the former, who thenceforward rarely failed annually to repeat it in search of studies and subjects.

In 1826 Landseer was elected an A.R.A. In 1827 appeared "The Monkey who has seen the World," a picture which marked the growth of a taste for humorous subjects in the mind of the painter that had been evoked by the success of the "Cat's Paw." "Taking a Buck" (1825) was the painter's first Scottish picture. Its execution marked a change in his style which, in increase of largeness, was a great improvement. In other respects, however, there was a decrease of solid qualities; indeed, finish, searching modelling, and elaborate draughtsmanship rarely appeared in Landseer's work after 1823. The subject, as such, soon after this time became a very distinct element in his pictures; ultimately it dominated, and in effect the artist enjoyed a greater degree of popularity than technical judgment justified, so that later criticism has put Landseer's position in art much lower than the place he once occupied. Sentiment gave new charm to his works, which had previously depended on the expression of animal passion and character, and the exhibition of noble qualities of draughtsmanship. Sentimentality ruled in not a few pictures of later dates, and _quasi_-human humour, or pathos, superseded that masculine animalism which rioted in its energy, and enabled the artist to rival Snyders, if not Velazquez, as a painter of beasts. After "High Life" and "Low Life," now in the Tate Gallery, London, Landseer's dogs, and even his lions and birds, were sometimes more than half civilized. It was not that these later pictures were less true to nature than their forerunners, but the models were chosen from different grades of animal society. As Landseer prospered he kept finer company, and his new patrons did not care about rat-catching and dog-fighting, however vigorously and learnedly those subjects might be depicted. It cannot be said that the world lost much when, in exchange for the "Cat Disturbed" and "Fighting Dogs getting Wind," came "Jack in Office," "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner," and "The Swannery invaded by Eagles," three pictures which are types of as many diverse moods of Landseer's art, and each a noble one.

Landseer was elected a Royal Academician in 1831. "Chevy Chase" (1826), which is at Woburn, "The Highland Whisky Still" (1829), "High Life" (1829) and "Low Life" (1829), besides other important works, had appeared in the interval. Landseer had by this time attained such amazing mastery that he painted "Spaniel and Rabbit" in two hours and a half, and "Rabbits," which was at the British Institution, in three-quarters of an hour; and the fine dog-picture "Odin" (1836) was the work of one sitting, i.e. painted within twelve hours. But perhaps the most wonderful instance of his rapid but sure and dexterous brush-handling was "The Cavalier's Pets" (1845), the picture of two King Charles's spaniels in the National Gallery, which was executed in two days. Another remarkable feat consisted in drawing, simultaneously, a stag's head with one hand and a head of a horse with the other. "Harvest in the Highlands," and that masterpiece of humour, "Jack in Office," were exhibited in 1833. In 1834 a noble work of sentiment was given to the world in "Suspense," which is now at South Kensington, and shows a dog watching at the closed door of his wounded master. Many think this to be Landseer's finest work, others prefer "The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner" (1837). The over-praised and unfortunate "Bolton Abbey in the Olden Time," a group of portraits in character, was also shown in 1834, and was the first picture for which the painter received £400. A few years later he sold "Peace" and "War" for £1500, and for the copyrights alone obtained £6000. In 1881 "Man proposes, God Disposes" (1864) was resold for 6300 guineas, and a cartoon of "The Chase" (1866) fetched 5000 guineas. "A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society," a dog reclining on a quay wall (1838), was succeeded by "Dignity and Impudence" (1839). The "Lion Dog of Malta," and "Laying down the Law" appeared in 1840. In 1842 was finished the capital "Highland Shepherd's Home" (Sheepshanks Gift), together with the beautiful "Eos," a portrait of Prince Albert's most graceful of greyhounds, to which Thomas Landseer added an ineffable charm and solidity not in the painting. The "Rout of Comus" was painted in the summerhouse of Buckingham Palace garden in 1843. The "Challenge" was accompanied (1844) by "Shoeing the Bay Mare" (Bell Gift), and followed by "Peace" and "War," and the "Stag at Bay" (1846). "Alexander and Diogenes," and a "Random Shot," a dead kid lying in the snow, came forth in 1848. In 1850 Landseer received a national commission to paint in the Houses of Parliament three subjects connected with the chase. Although they would have been worth three times as much money, the House of Commons refused to grant £1500 for these pictures, and the matter fell through, more to the artist's profit than the nation's gain. The famous "Monarch of the Glen" (1851) was one of these subjects. "Night" and "Morning," romantic and pathetic deer subjects, came in due order (1853). For "The Sanctuary" (1842) the Fine Arts jury of experts awarded to the artist the great gold medal of the Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1855.

The "Dialogue at Waterloo" (1850), which he afterwards regarded with strong disapproval, showed how Landseer, like nearly all English artists of original power and considerable fertility, owed nothing to French or Italian training. In the same year he received the honour of knighthood. Next came "Geneva" (1851), "Titania and Bottom" (1851), which comprises a charming queen of the fairies, and the "Deer Pass" (1852), followed by "The Children of the Mist" (1853), "Saved" (1856), "Braemar," a noble stag, "Rough and Ready," and "Uncle Tom and his Wife for Sale" (1857). "The Maid and the Magpie" (1858), the extraordinarily large cartoon called "Deer Browsing" (1857), "The Twa Dogs" (1858), and one or two minor paintings were equal to any previously produced by the artist. Nevertheless, signs of failing health were remarked in "Doubtful Crumbs" and a "Kind Star" (1859). The immense and profoundly dramatic picture called "A Flood in the Highlands" (1860) more than reinstated the painter before the public, but friends still saw ground for uneasiness. Extreme nervous excitability manifested itself in many ways, and in the choice (1864) of the dreadful subject of "Man Proposes, God Disposes," bears clumsily clambering among relics of Sir John Franklin's party, there was occult pathos, which some of the artist's intimates suspected, but did not avow. In 1862 and 1863 Landseer produced nothing; but "A Piper and a Pair of Nutcrackers" (1864) revealed his old power. He declined the presidentship of the Royal Academy in 1865, in succession to Sir Charles Eastlake. In 1867 the four lions which he had modelled for the base of the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar Square, London, were unveiled, and with "The Swannery invaded by Eagles" (1869) he achieved his last triumph. After four years more, full of suffering, mainly of broken art and shattered mental powers, Sir Edwin Landseer died on the 1st of October 1873, and was buried, ten days later, in St Paul's Cathedral. Those who would see the full strength of Landseer's brush should examine his sketches and the like in the Victoria and Albert Museum and similar works. In these he shows himself endowed with the strength of Paul Potter.

See Algernon Graves's _Catalogue of the Works of the late Sir Edwin
Landseer_, R.A. (London, n.d.); Frederic G. Stephens's _Sir Edwin
Landseer_ (1880); W. Cosmo Monkhouse's _The Studies of Sir Edwin
Landseer, R.A., with a History of his Art-Life_ (London, n.d.); W. P.
Frith's _My Autobiography and Reminiscences_ (1887); Vernon Heath's
_Recollections_ (1892); and James A. Manson's "Sir Edwin Landseer,
R.A.," _The Makers of British Art_ (London, 1902).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] John Landseer died February 29, 1852, aged ninety-one (or
eighty-three, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin's eldest
brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose
interpretations of his junior's pictures have made them known
throughout the world, was born in 1795, and died January 20, 1880.
Charles Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second
brother, was born in 1799, and died July 22, 1879. John Landseer's
brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to
Australia.

LAND'S END, a promontory of Cornwall, forming the western most point of England. It is a fine headland of granite, pierced by a natural arch, on a coast renowned for its cliff scenery. Dangerous reefs lie off the point, and one group a mile from the mainland is marked by the Longships Lighthouse, in 50° 4´ N. 5° 43´ W. The Land's End is the westernmost of the granite masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from Dartmoor. The phenomenon of a raised beach may be seen here, but indications of a submerged forest have also been discovered in the neighbourhood.

LANDSHUT, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the right bank of the Isar, 40 m. N.E. of Munich on the main line of railway to Regensburg. Pop. (1905) 24,217. Landshut is still a quaint, picturesque place; it consists of an old and a new town and of four suburbs, one part of it lying on an island in the Isar. It contains a fine street, the Altstadt, and several interesting medieval buildings. Among its eleven churches the most noteworthy are those of St Martin, with a tower 432 ft. high, of St Jodocus, and of the Holy Ghost, or the Hospital church, all three begun before 1410. The former Dominican convent, founded in 1271, once the seat of the university, is now used as public offices. The post-office, formerly the meeting-house of the Estates, a building adorned with old frescoes; the royal palace, which contains some very fine Renaissance work; and the town-hall, built in 1446 and restored in 1860, are also noteworthy. The town has monuments to the Bavarian king, Maximilian II., and to other famous men; it contains a botanical garden and a public park. On a hill overlooking Landshut is the castle of Trausnitz, called also Burg Landshut, formerly a stronghold of the dukes of Lower Bavaria, whose burial-place was at Seligenthal also near the town. The original building was erected early in the 13th century, but the chapel, the oldest part now existing, dates from the 14th century. The upper part of the castle has been made habitable. The industries of Landshut are not important; they include brewing, tanning and spinning, and the manufacture of tobacco and cloth. Market gardening and an extensive trade in grain are also carried on.

Landshut was founded about 1204, and from 1255 to 1503 it was the principal residence of the dukes of Lower Bavaria and of their successors, the dukes of Bavaria-Landshut. During the Thirty Years' War it was captured several times by the Swedes and in the 18th century by the Austrians. In April 1809 Napoleon defeated the Austrians here and the town was stormed by his troops. From 1800 to 1826 the university, formerly at Ingolstadt and now at Munich, was located at Landshut. Owing to the three helmets which form its arms the town is sometimes called "Dreihelm Stadt."

See Staudenraus, _Chronik der Stadt Landshut_, (Landshut 1832);
Wiesend, _Topographische Geschichte von Landshut_ (Landshut, 1858);
Rosenthal, _Zur Rechtsgeschichte der Städte Landshut und Straubing_
(Würzberg, 1883); Kalcher, _Führer durch Landshut_ (Landshut, 1887);
Haack, _Die gotische Architektur und Plastik der Stadt Landshut_
(Munich, 1894); and _Geschichte der Stadt Landshut_ (Landshut, 1835).

LANDSKNECHT, a German mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. The name (German for "man of the plains") was given to mark the contrast between the force of these soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian I. about the end of the 15th century, and the Swiss, the "men of the mountains," at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After the battles of Marignan and Pavia, where the military reputation of the Swiss had been broken, the Swabian _landsknechte_ came to be considered the best fighting troops in Europe. Though primarily a German force and always the mainstay of imperial armies, they served in organized bodies as mercenaries elsewhere in Europe; in France they fought for the League and for the Protestants indiscriminately. In fact _landsknecht_, and more particularly its French corruption _lansquenet_, became in western Europe a general term for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing to the _lange Spiesse_ (long pike or lance), the typical weapon with which they were armed, that the corrupted French form, as well as a German form, _lanzknecht_, and an English "lance-knight" came into use.

The landsknechts were raised by colonels (_Oberst_), to whom the emperor issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English "indents"; they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieut.-colonel and regimental staff, with a varying number of companies, "colours" (_Fähnlein_), commanded by captains (_Hauptmann_); subaltern officers were lieutenants and ensigns (_Fähnrich_). In thus defining the titles and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern military system on a regimental basis (see further ARMY).

LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the east side of the Sound, 15 m. N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop. (1900) 14,399. The harbour is excellent, giving a depth of 35 ft., with 15 ft. beside the quays. The town is among the first twelve manufacturing centres of Sweden in value of output, the principal industries being tanning and sugar manufacture and refining from beetroot. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite the town, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of Uranienborg in the second half of the 16th century. Landskrona, originally called Landora or Landör, owed its first importance to King Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany in 1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. During the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries it played too conspicuous a part for its own prosperity. On the 24th of July 1677 a great naval battle was fought in the neighbourhood in which the Swedes defeated the Danes.

LANDSTURM, the German equivalent of the _levée en masse_, or general levy of all men capable of bearing arms and not included in the other regularly organized forces, standing army or its second line formations, of Continental nations.

LANDWEHR, a German word meaning "defence of the country"; but the term as applied to an insurrectional militia is very ancient, and "lantveri" are mentioned in _Baluzii Capitularia_, as quoted in Hallam's _Middle Ages_, i. 262, 10th ed. The landwehr in Prussia was first formed by a royal edict of the 17th of March 1813, which called up all men capable of bearing arms between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and not serving in the regular army, for the defence of the country. After the peace of 1815 this force was made an integral part of the Prussian army, each brigade being composed of one line and one landwehr regiment. This, however, retarded the mobilization and diminished the value of the first line, and by the re-organization of 1859 the landwehr troops were relegated to the second line. In Austria the landwehr is a totally different organization. It is in reality a _cadre_ force existing alongside the regular army, and to it are handed over such recruits as, for want of vacancies, cannot be placed in the latter. In Switzerland the landwehr is a second line force, in which all citizens serve for twelve years, after passing twelve in the "Auszug" or field army.

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM (1801-1876), English Arabic scholar, son of Dr Theophilus Lane, prebendary of Hereford, was born on the 17th of September 1801. He was educated at Bath and Hereford grammar schools, where he showed marked mathematical ability, and was designed for Cambridge and the church, but this purpose was abandoned, and for some time he studied the art of engraving. Failure of health compelled him to throw aside the burin, and in 1825 he started for Egypt, where he spent three years, twice ascended the Nile, proceeding as far as the second cataract, and composed a complete description of Egypt, with a portfolio of one hundred and one drawings. This work was never published, but the account of the modern Egyptians, which formed a part of it, was accepted for separate publication by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. To perfect this work Lane again visited Egypt in 1833-1835, residing mainly in Cairo, but retiring to Luxor during the plague of 1835. Lane took up his residence in the Mahommedan quarter, and under the name of Mansur Effendi lived the life of an Egyptian scholar. He was fortunate in the time when he took up his work, for Cairo had not then become a modern city, and he was thus able to describe aspects of Arabian life that no longer exist there. Perfected by the additional observations collected during these years, the _Modern Egyptians_ appeared in 1836, and at once took the place which it has never lost as the best description of Eastern life and an Eastern country ever written. It was followed from 1838 to 1840 by a translation of the _Arabian Nights_, with notes and illustrations, designed to make the book a sort of encyclopaedia of Eastern manners. The translation itself is an admirable proof of scholarship, but is characterized by a somewhat stilted mannerism, which is not equally appropriate to all parts of the motley-coloured original. The character of some of the tales and the tedious repetitions of the same theme in the Arabic collection induced Lane to leave considerable parts of the work untranslated. The value of his version is increased by the exhaustive notes on Mahommedan life and customs. In 1840 Lane married a Greek lady. A useful volume of _Selections from the Kur-an_ was published in 1843, but before it passed through the press Lane was again in Egypt, where he spent seven years (1842-1849) collecting materials for a great Arabic lexicon, which the munificence of Lord Prudhoe (afterwards duke of Northumberland) enabled him to undertake. The most important of the materials amassed during this sojourn (in which he was accompanied by his wife and by his sister, Mrs Poole, authoress of the _Englishwoman in Egypt_, with her two sons, afterwards well known in Eastern letters) was a copy in 24 thick quarto volumes of Sheikh Murtada's great lexicon, the _Taj el 'Arus_, which, though itself a compilation, is so extensive and exact that it formed the main basis of Lane's subsequent work. The author, who lived in Egypt in the 18th century, used more than a hundred sources, interweaving what he learned from them with the _al-Qamus_ of Fairuzabadi in the form of a commentary. By far the larger part of this commentary was derived from the _Lisan el 'Arab_ of Ibn Mokarram, a work of the 13th century, which Lane was also able to use while in Cairo.

Returning to England in 1849, Lane devoted the remaining twenty-seven years of his life to digesting and translating his Arabic material in the form of a great thesaurus of the lexicographical knowledge of the Arabs. In spite of weak health he continued this arduous task with unflagging diligence till a few days before his death at Worthing on the 10th of August 1876. Five parts appeared during his lifetime (1863-1874), and three posthumous parts were afterwards edited from his papers by S. Lane-Poole. Even in its imperfect state the _Lexicon_ is an enduring monument, the completeness and finished scholarship with which it is executed making each article an exhaustive monograph. Two essays, the one on Arabic lexicography and the other on Arabic pronunciation, contributed to the magazine of the German Oriental Society, complete the record of Lane's publications. His scholarship was recognized by many learned European societies. He was a member of the German Oriental Society, a correspondent of the French Institute, &c. In 1863 he was awarded a small civil list pension, which was after his death continued to his widow. Lane was not an original mind; his powers were those of observation, industry and sound judgment. His personal character was elevated and pure, his strong sense of religious and moral duty being of the type that characterized the best circles of English evangelicalism in the early part of the 19th century.

A Memoir, by his grand-nephew, S. Lane-Poole, was prefixed to part vi.
of the _Lexicon_. It was published separately in 1877.

LANE, GEORGE MARTIN (1823-1897), American scholar, was born at Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 24th of December 1823. He graduated in 1846 at Harvard, and in 1847-1851 studied at the universities of Berlin, Bonn, Heidelberg and Göttingen. In 1851 he received his doctor's degree at Göttingen for his dissertation _Smyrnaeorum Res Gestae et Antiquitates_, and on his return to America he was appointed University Professor of Latin in Harvard College. From 1869 until 1894, when he resigned and became professor emeritus, he was Pope Professor of Latin in the same institution. His _Latin Pronunciation_, which led to the rejection of the English method of Latin pronunciation in the United States, was published in 1871. He died on the 30th of June 1897. His _Latin Grammar_, completed and published by Professor M. H. Morgan in the following year, is of high value. Lane's assistance in the preparation of Harper's Latin lexicons was also invaluable. English light verse he wrote with humour and fluency, and his song _Jonah_ and the _Ballad of the Lone Fishball_ were famous.

LANE, JAMES HENRY (1814-1866), American soldier and politician, was born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, on the 22nd of June 1814. He was the son of Amos Lane (1778-1849), a political leader in Indiana, a member of the Indiana House of Representatives in 1816-1818 (speaker in 1817-1818), in 1821-1822 and in 1839-1840, and from 1833 to 1837 a Democratic representative in Congress. The son received a common school education, studied law and in 1840 was admitted to the bar. In the Mexican War he served as a colonel under General Taylor, and then commanded the Fifth Indiana regiment (which he had raised) in the Southern Campaign under General Scott. Lane was lieutenant-governor of Indiana from 1849 to 1853, and from 1853 to 1855 was a Democratic representative in Congress. His vote in favour of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill ruined his political future in his own state, and he emigrated in 1855 to the Territory of Kansas, probably as an agent of Stephen A. Douglas to organize the Democratic party there. He soon joined the Free State forces, however, was a member of the first general Free State convention at Big Springs in September 1855, and wrote its "platform," which deprecated abolitionism and urged the exclusion of negroes from the Territory; and he presided over the Topeka Constitutional Convention, composed of Free State men, in the autumn of 1855. Lane was second in command of the forces in Lawrence during the "Wakarusa War"; and in the spring of 1856 was elected a United States senator under the Topeka Constitution, the validity of which, however, and therefore the validity of his election, Congress refused to recognize. In May 1856, with George Washington Deitzler (1826-1884), Dr Charles Robinson, and other Free State leaders, he was indicted for treason; but he escaped from Kansas, made a tour of the northern cities, and by his fiery oratory aroused great enthusiasm in behalf of the Free State movement in Kansas. Returning to the Territory with John Brown in August 1856, he took an active part in the domestic feuds of 1856-1857. After Kansas became a state, Lane was elected in 1861 to the United States Senate as a Republican. Immediately on reaching Washington he organized a company to guard the President; and in August 1861, having gained the ear of the Federal authorities and become intimate with President Lincoln, he went to Kansas with vague military powers, and exercised them in spite of the protests of the governor and the regular departmental commanders. During the autumn, with a brigade of 1500 men, he conducted a devastating campaign on the Missouri border, and in July 1862 he was appointed commissioner of recruiting for Kansas, a position in which he rendered faithful service, though he frequently came into conflict with the state authorities. At this time he planned a chimerical "great Southern expedition" against New Mexico, but this came to nothing. In 1864 he laboured earnestly for the re-election of Lincoln. When President Johnson quarrelled with the Radical Republicans, Lane deserted the latter and defended the Executive. Angered by his defection, certain senators accused him of being implicated in Indian contracts of a fraudulent character; and in a fit of depression following this accusation he took his own life, dying near Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, on the 11th of July 1866, ten days after he had shot himself in the head. Ambitious, unscrupulous, rash and impulsive, and generally regarded by his contemporaries as an unsafe leader, Lane was a man of great energy and personal magnetism, and possessed oratorical powers of a high order.

See the article by L. W. Spring entitled "The Career of a Kansas
Politician," in vol. iv. (October 1898) of the _American Historical
Review_; and for the commoner view, which makes him not a coward as
does Spring, but a "grim chieftain" and a hero, see John Speer, _Life
of Gen. James H. Lane_, "_The Saviour of Kansas_," (Garden City,
Kansas, 1896).

Senator Lane should not be confused with James Henry Lane (1833-1907),
who served on the Confederate side during the Civil War, attaining the
rank of brigadier-general in 1862, and after the war was professor of
natural philosophy and military tactics in the Virginia Agricultural
and Mechanical College from 1872 to 1880, and professor of civil
engineering and drawing in the Alabama Polytechnic Institute from 1882
until his death.

LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE (1843- ), French statesman and naturalist, was born at Sainte-André de Cubzac (Gironde) on the 13th of July 1843. He entered the navy in 1862, serving on the East African and Cochin-China stations in the medical department until the Franco-German War, when he resigned and volunteered for the army medical service. He now completed his studies, taking his doctorate in 1872. Elected to the Municipal Council of Paris in 1879, he declared in favour of communal autonomy and joined with Henri Rochefort in demanding the erection of a monument to the Communards; but after his election to the Chamber of Deputies for the 5th arrondissement of Paris in 1881 he gradually veered from the extreme Radical party to the Republican Union, and identified himself with the cause of colonial expansion. A government mission to the French colonies in 1886-1887, in connexion with the approaching Paris exhibition, gave him the opportunity of studying colonial questions, on which, after his return, he published three works: _La Tunisie_ (Paris, 1887); _L'Expansion coloniale de la France_ (_ib._, 1888), _L'Indo-Chine française_ (_ib._, 1889). In 1891 he was made civil and military governor of French Indo-China, where his administration, which involved him in open rupture with Admiral Fournier, was severely criticized. Nevertheless he consolidated French influence in Annam and Cambodia, and secured a large accession of territory on the Mekong river from the kingdom of Siam. He was recalled in 1894, and published an apology for his administration (_La Colonisation française en Indo-Chine_) in the following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of 1899 to 1902 he was minister of marine, and in 1901 he secured the passage of a naval programme intended to raise the French navy during the next six years to a level befitting the place of France among the great powers. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected. He was political director of the _Siècle_, and president of the French Colonization Society, and wrote, besides the books already mentioned, various works on political and biological questions.

LANFRANC (d. 1089), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Lombard by extraction. He was born in the early years of the 11th century at Pavia, where his father, Hanbald, held the rank of a magistrate. Lanfranc was trained in the legal studies for which northern Italy was then becoming famous, and acquired such proficiency that tradition links him with Irnerius of Bologna as a pioneer in the renaissance of Roman law. Though designed for a public career Lanfranc had the tastes of a student. After his father's death he crossed the Alps to found a school in France; but in a short while he decided that Normandy would afford him a better field. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at Avranches, where he taught for three years with conspicuous success. But in 1042 he embraced the monastic profession in the newly founded house of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in absolute seclusion. He was then persuaded by Abbot Herluin to open a school in the monastery. From the first he was celebrated (_totius Latinitatis magister_). His pupils were drawn not only from France and Normandy, but also from Gascony, Flanders, Germany and Italy. Many of them afterwards attained high positions in the Church; one, Anselm of Badagio, became pope under the title of Alexander II. In this way Lanfranc set the seal of intellectual activity on the reform movement of which Bec was the centre. The favourite subjects of his lectures were logic and dogmatic theology. He was therefore naturally invited to defend the doctrine of transubstantiation against the attacks of Berengar of Tours. He took up the task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been his personal friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli (1050), Tours (1054) and Rome (1059). To his influence we may attribute the desertion of Berengar's cause by Hildebrand and the more broad-minded of the cardinals. Our knowledge of Lanfranc's polemics is chiefly derived from the tract _De corpore et sanguine Domini_ which he wrote many years later (after 1079) when Berengar had been finally condemned. Though betraying no signs of metaphysical ability, his work was regarded as conclusive and became a text-book in the schools. It is the most important of the works attributed to Lanfranc; which, considering his reputation, are slight and disappointing.

In the midst of his scholastic and controversial activities Lanfranc became a political force. While merely a prior of Bec he led the opposition to the uncanonical marriage of Duke William with Matilda of Flanders (1053) and carried matters so far that he incurred a sentence of exile. But the quarrel was settled when he was on the point of departure, and he undertook the difficult task of obtaining the pope's approval of the marriage. In this he was successful at the same council which witnessed his third victory over Berengar (1059), and he thus acquired a lasting claim on William's gratitude. In 1066 he became the first abbot of St Stephen's at Caen, a house which the duke had been enjoined to found as a penance for his disobedience to the Holy See. Henceforward Lanfranc exercised a perceptible influence on his master's policy. William adopted the Cluniac programme of ecclesiastical reform, and obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition by assuming the attitude of a crusader against schism and corruption. It was Alexander II., the former pupil of Lanfranc, who gave the Norman Conquest the papal benediction--a notable advantage to William at the moment, but subsequently the cause of serious embarrassments.

Naturally, when the see of Rouen next fell vacant (1067), the thoughts of the electors turned to Lanfranc. But he declined the honour, and he was nominated to the English primacy as soon as Stigand had been canonically deposed (1070). The new archbishop at once began a policy of reorganization and reform. His first difficulties were with Thomas of Bayeux, archbishop-elect of York, who asserted that his see was independent of Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part of midland England. Lanfranc, during a visit which he paid the pope for the purpose of receiving his pallium, obtained an order from Alexander that the disputed points should be settled by a council of the English Church. This was held at Winchester in 1072. Thanks to a skilful use of forged documents, the primate carried the council's verdict upon every point. Even if he were not the author of the forgeries he can scarcely have been the dupe of his own partisans. But the political dangers to be apprehended from the disruption of the English Church were sufficiently serious to palliate the fraud. This was not the only occasion on which Lanfranc allowed his judgment to be warped by considerations of expediency. Although the school of Bec was firmly attached to the doctrine of papal sovereignty, he still assisted William in maintaining the independence of the English Church; and appears at one time to have favoured the idea of maintaining a neutral attitude on the subject of the quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs of England the archbishop showed more spiritual zeal. His grand aim was to extricate the Church from the fetters of the state and of secular interests. He was a generous patron of monasticism. He endeavoured to enforce celibacy upon the secular clergy. He obtained the king's permission to deal with the affairs of the Church in synods which met apart from the Great Council, and were exclusively composed of ecclesiastics. Nor can we doubt that it was his influence which shaped the famous ordinance separating the ecclesiastical from the secular courts (_c._ 1076). But even in such questions he allowed some weight to political considerations and the wishes of his sovereign. He acknowledged the royal right to veto the legislation of national synods. In the cases of Odo of Bayeux (1082) and of William of St Calais, bishop of Durham (1088), he used his legal ingenuity to justify the trial of bishops before a lay tribunal. He accelerated the process of substituting Normans for Englishmen in all preferments of importance; and although his nominees were usually respectable, it cannot be said that all of them were better than the men whom they superseded. For this admixture of secular with spiritual aims there was considerable excuse. By long tradition the primate was entitled to a leading position in the king's councils; and the interests of the Church demanded that Lanfranc should use his power in a manner not displeasing to the king. On several occasions when William I. was absent from England Lanfranc acted as his vicegerent; he then had opportunities of realizing the close connexion between religious and secular affairs.

Lanfranc's greatest political service to the Conqueror was rendered in 1075, when he detected and foiled the conspiracy which had been formed by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford. But this was not the only occasion on which he turned to good account his influence with the native English. Although he regarded them as an inferior race he was just and honourable towards their leaders. He interceded for Waltheof's life and to the last spoke of the earl as an innocent sufferer for the crimes of others; he lived on terms of friendship with Bishop Wulfstan. On the death of the Conqueror (1087) he secured the succession for William Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman baronage; and in 1088 his exhortations induced the English militia to fight on the side of the new sovereign against Odo of Bayeux and the other partisans of Duke Robert. He exacted promises of just government from Rufus, and was not afraid to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded. So long as he lived he was a check upon the worst propensities of the king's administration. But his restraining hand was too soon removed. In 1089 he was stricken with fever and he died on the 24th of May amidst universal lamentations. Notwithstanding some obvious moral and intellectual defects, he was the most eminent and the most disinterested of those who had co-operated with William I. in riveting Norman rule upon the English Church and people. As a statesman he did something to uphold the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he elevated the standards of clerical discipline and education. Conceived in the Hildebrandine spirit, his reforms led by a natural sequence to strained relations between Church and State; the equilibrium which he established was unstable, and depended too much upon his personal influence with the Conqueror. But of all the Hildebrandine statesmen who applied their teacher's ideas within the sphere of a particular national church he was the most successful.

The chief authority is the _Vita Lanfranci_ by Milo Crispin, who was
precentor at Bec and died in 1149. Milo drew largely upon the _Vita
Herluini_, composed by Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster. The
_Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae_, a 14th-century compilation, should
also be consulted. The first edition of these two sources, and of
Lanfranc's writings, is that of L. d'Achery, _Beati Lanfranci opera
omnia_ (Paris, 1648). Another edition, slightly enlarged, is that of
J. A. Giles, _Lanfranci opera_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). The
correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is given in the
_Monumenta Gregoriana_ (ed. P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works
A. Charma's _Lanfranc_ (Paris, 1849), H. Boehmer's _Die Fälschungen
Erzbischof Lanfranks von Canterbury_ (Leipzig, 1902), and the same
author's _Kirche und Staat in England und in der Normandie_ (Leipzig,
1899) are useful. See also the authorities cited in the articles on
WILLIAM I. and WILLIAM II. (H. W. C. D.)

LANFREY, PIERRE (1828-1877), French historian and politician, was born at Chambéry (Savoie) on the 26th of October 1828. His father had been one of Napoleon's officers. The son studied philosophy and history in Paris and wrote historical works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing tendency. These included _L'Église et les philosophes au XVIII^e siècle_ (1855; new edition, with a notice of the author by E. de Pressensé, 1879); _Essai sur la révolution française_ (1858); _Histoire politique des papes_ (1860); _Lettres d Evérard_ (1860), a novel in the form of letters; _Le Rétablissement de la Pologne_ (1863). His _magnum opus_ was his _Histoire de Napoléon I^(er)_ (5 vols., 1867-1875 and 1886; Eng. trans., 4 vols., 1871-1879), which ceased unfortunately at the end of 1811 with the preparations for the Russian campaign of 1812. This book, based on the emperor's correspondence published in 1858-1870, attempted the destruction of the legends which had grown up around his subject, and sought by a critical examination of the documents to explain the motives of his policy. In his desire to controvert current misconceptions and exaggerations of Napoleon's abilities Lanfrey unduly minimized his military and administrative genius. A stanch republican, he was elected to the National Assembly in 1871, became ambassador at Bern (1871-1873), and life senator in 1875. He died at Pau on the 15th of November 1877.

His _Oeuvres complètes_ were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and
his _Correspondance_ in 2 vols. (1885).