Chapter XI: Part 11

LANNES, JEAN, duke of Montebello (1769-1809), marshal of France, was born at Lectoure (Gers) on the 11th of April 1769. He was the son of a livery stables keeper, and was apprenticed to a dyer. He had had little education, but his great strength and proficiency in all manly sports caused him in 1792 to be elected sergeant-major of the battalion of volunteers of Gers, which he had joined on the breaking out of war between Spain and the French republic. He served through the campaigns in the Pyrenees in 1793 and 1794, and rose by distinguished conduct to the rank of _chef de brigade_. However, in 1795, on the reform of the army introduced by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He re-enlisted as a simple volunteer in the army of Italy, and in the famous campaign of 1796 he again fought his way up to high rank, being eventually made a general of brigade by Bonaparte. He was distinguished in every battle, and was wounded at Arcola. He was chosen by Bonaparte to accompany him to Egypt as commander of one of Kléber's brigades, in which capacity he greatly distinguished himself, especially on the retreat from Syria. He went with Bonaparte to France, assisted at the 18th Brumaire, and was appointed general of division, and commandant of the consular guard. He commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of the Alps in 1800, was instrumental in winning the battle of Montebello, from which he afterwards took his title, and bore the brunt of the battle of Marengo. In 1801 Napoleon sent him as ambassador to Portugal. Opinions differ as to his merits in this capacity; Napoleon never made such use of him again. On the establishment of the empire he was created a marshal of France, and commanded once more the advanced guard of a great French army in the campaign of Austerlitz. At Austerlitz he had the left of the Grand Army. In the 1806-07 campaign he was at his best, commanding his corps with the greatest credit in the march through the Thuringian Forest, the action of Saalfeld (which is studied as a model to-day at the French Staff College) and the battle of Jena. His leadership of the advanced guard at Friedland was even more conspicuous. He was now to be tried as a commander-in-chief, for Napoleon took him to Spain in 1808, and gave him a detached wing of the army, with which he won a victory over Castaños at Tudela on November 22. In January 1809 he was sent to attempt the capture of Saragossa, and by February 21, after one of the most stubborn defences in history, was in possession of the place. Napoleon then created him duc de Montebello, and in 1809, for the last time, gave him command of the advanced guard. He took part in the engagements around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps he led the French army across the Danube, and bore the brunt, with Masséna, of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling (q.v.). On the 22nd of May he had to retreat. During the retreat Lannes exposed himself as usual to the hottest fire, and received a mortal wound, to which he succumbed at Vienna on the 31st of May. As he was being carried from the field to Vienna he met the emperor hurrying to the front. It was reported that the dying man reproached Napoleon for his ambition, but this rests on little evidence save the fact that Lannes was the most blunt and outspoken of all Napoleon's marshals. He was one of the few men for whom the emperor felt a real and deep affection, and at this their last meeting Napoleon gave way to a passionate burst of grief, even in the midst of the battle. His eldest son was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII.

Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all Napoleon's
marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best exponent of
the emperor's method of making war. Hence his constant employment in
tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially
when the emperor's combinations depended upon the vigour and
self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. It was thus
with Lannes at Friedland and at Aspern as it was with Davout at
Austerlitz and Auerstädt, and Napoleon's estimate of his subordinates'
capacities can almost exactly be judged by the frequency with which he
used them to prepare the way for his own shattering blow. Routine
generals with the usual military virtue, or careful and exact troop
leaders like Soult and Macdonald, Napoleon kept under his own hand for
the final assault which he himself launched, but the long hours of
preparatory fighting against odds of two to one, which alone made the
final blow possible, he entrusted only to men of extraordinary courage
and high capacity for command. In his own words, he found Lannes a
pigmy, and lost him a giant. Lannes's place in his affections was
never filled.

See R. Périn, _Vie militaire de Jean Lannes_ (Paris, 1809).

LANNION, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Côtes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Léguer, 45 m. W.N.W. of St Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5336. Lannion is 5 m. in direct line from the mouth of the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports of agricultural produce, imports of wine, salt, timber, &c.), and there is an active fishing industry. The town contains many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries and other old buildings, the chief of which is the church of St Jean-du-Baly (16th and 17th centuries). On an eminence close to Lannion is the church of Brélevenez of the 12th century, restored in the 15th or 16th century; it has an interesting 16th-century Holy Sepulchre.

Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the château of Tonquédec (_c._ 1400) styled the "Pierrefonds of Brittany," and there are other buildings of antiquarian interest in the vicinity. The coast north of Lannion at Trégastel and Ploumanac presents curious rock formations.

Lannion is the seat of a subprefect and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Its industries include saw-milling, tanning and the manufacture of farm implements. The town was taken in 1346 by the English; it was defended against them by Geoffroy de Pontblanc whose valour is commemorated by a cross close to the spot where he was slain.

LANNOY, GUILLEBERT DE (1386-1462), Flemish diplomatist, was chamberlain to the duke of Burgundy, governor of the fort of Sluys, and a knight of the Golden Fleece. He discharged several diplomatic missions in France, England, Prussia, Poland and Lithuania, and was one of the negotiators of the treaty of Troyes (1420). In 1421 he was sent by Henry V. of England to Palestine to inquire into the possibility of reviving the kingdom of Jerusalem, and wrote an account of his travels, _Les Pèlerinages de Surye et de Egipte_, which was published in 1826 and again in 1842.

LANOLIN (Lat. _lana_, wool, and _oleum_, oil), the commercial name of the preparation styled _adeps lanae hydrosus_ in the British Pharmacopoeia, and which consists of 7 oz. of neutral wool-fat (_adeps lanae_) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat is obtained by purification of the "brown grease," "recovered grease" or dégras extracted from raw sheep's wool in the process of preparing it for the spinner. It is a translucent unctuous substance which has the property of taking up large quantities of water and forming emulsions which are very slow to separate into their constituents. Owing to the ease with which it penetrates the skin, wool-fat both in the anhydrous form and as lanolin, sometimes mixed with such substances as vaseline or fatty oils, is largely employed as a basis for ointments. It is slightly antiseptic and does not become rancid.

LA NOUE, FRANÇOIS DE (1531-1591), called Bras-de-Fer, one of the Huguenot captains of the 16th century, was born near Nantes in 1531, of an ancient Breton family. He served in Italy under Marshal Brissac, and in the first Huguenot war, but his first great exploit was the capture of Orleans at the head of only fifteen cavaliers in 1567, during the second war. At the battle of Jarnac in March 1569 he commanded the rearguard, and at Moncontour in the following October he was taken prisoner; but he was exchanged in time to resume the governorship of Poitou, and to inflict a signal defeat on the royalist troops before Rochefort. At the siege of Fontenay (1570) his left arm was shattered by a bullet; but a mechanic of Rochelle made him an iron arm (hence his sobriquet) with a hook for holding his reins. When peace was made in France in the same year, La Noue carried his sword against the Spaniards in the Netherlands, but was taken at the recapture of Mons by the Spanish in 1572. Permitted to return to France, he was commissioned by Charles IX., after the massacre of St Bartholomew, to reconcile the inhabitants of La Rochelle, the great stronghold of the Huguenots, to the king. But the Rochellois were too much alarmed to come to terms; and La Noue, perceiving that war was imminent, and knowing that his post was on the Huguenot side, gave up his royal commission, and from 1574 till 1578 acted as general of La Rochelle. When peace was again concluded La Noue once more went to aid the Protestants of the Low Countries. He took several towns and captured Count Egmont in 1580; but a few weeks afterwards he fell into the hands of the Spaniards. Thrust into a loathsome prison at Limburg, La Noue, the admiration of all, of whatever faith, for his gallantry, honour and purity of character, was kept confined for five years by a powerful nation, whose reluctance to set him free is one of the sincerest tributes to his reputation. It was in captivity that he wrote his celebrated _Discours politiques et militaires_, a work which was published at Basel in 1587 [republished at La Rochelle 1590, Frankfurt on Main (in German) 1592 and 1612; and London (in English) 1597] and had an immense influence on the soldiers of all nations. The abiding value of La Noue's "Discourses" lies in the fact that he wrote of war as a human drama, before it had been elaborated and codified. At length, in June 1585, La Noue was exchanged for Egmont and other prisoners of consideration, while a heavy ransom and a pledge not to bear arms against his Catholic majesty were also exacted from him. Till 1589 La Noue took no part in public matters, but in that year he joined Henry of Navarre against the Leaguers. He was present at both sieges of Paris, at Ivry and other battles. At the siege of Lamballe in Brittany he received a wound of which he died at Moncontour on the 4th of August 1591.

He wrote, besides the Discourses, _Déclaration pour prise d'armes et
la défense de Sedan et Jamets_ (1588); _Observations sur l'histoire de
Guicciardini_ (2 vols., 1592); and notes on _Plutarch's Lives_. His
_Correspondance_ was published in 1854. See _La Vie de François,
seigneur de La Noue_, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661); Brantôme's
_Vies des Capitaines français_; C. Vincens' _Les Héros de la Réforme.
Fr. de La Noue_ (1875); and Hauser, _François de La Noue_ (Paris,
1892).

LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, 1ST MARQUESS OF (1737-1805), British statesman, better known under his earlier title of earl of Shelburne, was born at Dublin on the 20th of May 1737. He was a descendant of the lords of Kerry (dating from 1181), and his grandfather Thomas Fitzmaurice, who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the daughter of Sir William Petty (q.v.). On the death without issue of Sir William Petty's sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the earldom of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of Petty. His son William spent his childhood "in the remotest parts of the south of Ireland," and, according to his own account, when he entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both "everything to learn and everything to unlearn." From a tutor whom he describes as "narrow-minded" he received advantageous guidance in his studies, but he attributes his improvement in manners and in knowledge of the world chiefly to the fact that, as was his "fate through life," he fell in "with clever but unpopular connexions." Shortly after leaving the university he served in Wolfe's regiment during the Seven Years' War, and so distinguished himself at Minden and Kloster-Kampen that he was raised to the rank of colonel and appointed aide-de-camp to the king (1760). Being thus brought into near communication with Lord Bute, he was in 1761 employed by that nobleman to negotiate for the support of Henry Fox, Lord Holland. He was returned to the House of Commons as member for Wycombe, but in 1761 he succeeded his father as earl of Shelburne in the Irish peerage, and Baron Wycombe in the peerage of Great Britain (created 1760). Though he declined to take office under Bute he undertook negotiations to induce C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to the peace of 1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped, and, although Shelburne always asserted that he had acted in thorough good faith, Bute spoke of the affair as a "pious fraud." Shelburne joined the Grenville ministry in 1763 as president of the Board of Trade, but, failing in his efforts to replace Pitt in the cabinet, he in a few months resigned office. Having moreover on account of his support of Pitt on the question of Wilkes's expulsion from the House of Commons incurred the displeasure of the king, he retired for a time to his estate. After Pitt's return to power in 1766 he became secretary of state, but during Pitt's illness his conciliatory policy towards America was completely thwarted by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed from office. In 1782 he consented to take office under the marquess of Rockingham on condition that the king would recognize the United States. On the death of Lord Rockingham in the same year he became premier; but the secession of Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of Fox with North, which caused his resignation in the following February, his fall being perhaps hastened by his plans for the reform of the public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to promote free commercial intercourse between England and the United States. When Pitt acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne, instead of receiving a place in the cabinet, was created marquess of Lansdowne. Though giving a general support to the policy of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an active part in public affairs. He died on the 7th of May 1805. During his lifetime he was blamed for insincerity and duplicity, and he incurred the deepest unpopularity, but the accusations came chiefly from those who were dissatisfied with his preference of principles to party, and if he had had a more unscrupulous regard to his personal ambition, his career as a statesman would have had more outward success. He was cynical in his estimates of character, but no statesman of his time possessed more enlightened political views, while his friendship with those of his contemporaries eminent in science and literature must be allowed considerable weight in qualifying our estimate of the moral defects with which he has been credited. He was twice married, first to Lady Sophia (1745-1771), daughter of John Carteret, Earl Granville, through whom he obtained the Lansdowne estates near Bath, and secondly to Lady Louisa (1755-1789), daughter of John Fitzpatrick, 1st earl of Upper Ossory. John Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by the first marriage, succeeded as 2nd marquess, after having sat in the House of Commons for twenty years as member for Chipping Wycombe.

HENRY PETTY FITZMAURICE, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne (1780-1863), son of the 1st marquess by his second marriage, was born on the 2nd of July 1780 and educated at Edinburgh University and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He entered the House of Commons in 1802 as member for the family borough of Calne and quickly showed his mettle as a politician. In February 1806, as Lord Henry Petty, he became chancellor of the exchequer in the ministry of "All the Talents," being at this time member for the university of Cambridge; but he lost both his seat and his office in 1807. In 1809 he became marquess of Lansdowne; and in the House of Lords and in society he continued to play an active part as one of the Whig leaders. His chief interest was perhaps in the question of Roman Catholic emancipation, a cause which he consistently championed, but he sympathized also with the advocates of the abolition of the slave-trade and with the cause of popular education. Lansdowne, who had succeeded his cousin, Francis Thomas Fitzmaurice, as 4th earl of Kerry in 1818, took office with Canning in May 1827 and was secretary for home affairs from July of that year until January 1828; he was lord president of the council under Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne from November 1830 to August 1841, with the exception of the few months in 1835 when Sir Robert Peel was prime minister. He held the same office during the whole of Lord John Russell's ministry (1846-1852), and, having declined to become prime minister, sat in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and of Lord Palmerston, but without office. In 1857 he refused the offer of a dukedom, and he died on the 31st of January 1863. Lansdowne's social influence and political moderation made him one of the most powerful Whig statesmen of the time; he was frequently consulted by Queen Victoria on matters of moment, and his long official experience made his counsel invaluable to his party. He married Louisa (1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was succeeded by his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-1866). The latter, who was member of parliament for Calne for twenty years and chairman of the Great Western railway, married for his second wife Emily (1819-1895), daughter of the comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness Nairne in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh).

HENRY CHARLES KEITH PETTY FITZMAURICE, 5th marquess of Lansdowne (b. 1845), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where he became one of Jowett's favourite pupils. In 1869 he married the daughter of the 1st duke of Abercorn. As a member of the Liberal party he was a lord of the treasury (1869-1872), under-secretary of war (1872-1874), and under-secretary of India (1880); in 1883 he was appointed governor-general of Canada, and from 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He joined the Liberal Unionist party when Mr Gladstone proposed home rule for Ireland, and on returning to England became one of its most influential leaders. He was secretary of state for war from 1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from 1900 to 1906, becoming leader of the Unionist party in the House of Lords on Lord Salisbury's death.

His brother EDMOND GEORGE FITZMAURICE, Baron Fitzmaurice (b. 1846), was educated at Trinity, Cambridge, where he took a first class in classics. Unlike Lord Lansdowne, he remained a Liberal in politics and followed Mr Gladstone in his home rule policy. As Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice he entered the House of Commons in 1868, and was under-secretary for foreign affairs from 1882 to 1885. He then had no seat in parliament till 1898, when he was elected for the Cricklade division of Wilts, and retiring in 1905, he was created Baron Fitzmaurice of Leigh in 1906, and made under-secretary for foreign affairs in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's ministry. In 1908 he became chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and a member of the Liberal cabinet, but resigned his post in 1909. He devoted much time to literary work, and was the author of excellent biographies of the 1st marquess, of Sir William Petty (1895), and of Lord Granville (1905), under whom he had served at the foreign office.

For the 1st marquess, see Lord Fitzmaurice, _Life of William, Earl of
Shelburne_ (3 vols., London, 1875-1876).

LANSDOWNE, a hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal district of the United Provinces, about 6000 ft. above the sea, 19 m. by cart road from the station of Kotdwara on the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway. Pop. (1901) 3943. The cantonment, founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m. through pine and oak forests, and can accommodate three Gurkha battalions.

LANSING, the capital of Michigan, U.S.A., in Ingham county, at the confluence of the Grand and Cedar rivers, about 85 m. W.N.W. of Detroit and about 64 m. E.S.E. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1900) 16,485, of whom 2397 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 31,229. It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and the Père Marquette railways, and by interurban electric lines. The Grand river on its way through the city makes a horse-shoe bend round a moderately elevated plateau; this is the commercial centre of the city, and here, in a square covering 10 acres, is the State Capitol, erected in 1873-1878 and containing the State library. On the opposite side of the river, farther N., and also extending across the southern portion of the city, are districts devoted largely to manufacturing. Lansing has a public library and a city hospital. About 3 m. E. of the city, at East Lansing, is the State Agricultural College (coeducational), the oldest agricultural college in the United States, which was provided for by the state constitution of 1850, was organized in 1855 and opened in 1857. Its engineering course was begun in 1885; a course in home economics for women was established in 1896; and a forestry course was opened in 1902. In connexion with the college there is an agricultural experiment station. Lansing is the seat of the Michigan School for the Blind, and of the State Industrial School for Boys, formerly the Reform School. The city has abundant water-power and is an important manufacturing centre. The value of the factory products increased from $2,942,306 in 1900 to $6,887,415 in 1904, or 134.1%. The municipality owns and operates the water-works and the electric-lighting plant. The place was selected as the site for the capital in 1847, when it was still covered with forests, and growth was slow until 1862, when the railways began to reach it. Lansing was chartered as a city in 1859 and rechartered in 1893.

LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologists to certain human remains discovered in 1902 during the digging of a cellar near Lansing, Kansas, and by some authorities believed to represent a prehistoric type of man. They include a skull and several large adult bones and a child's jaw. They were found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a position indicating intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the U. S. National Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to those of historic Indians of the region. Its ethnological value as indicating the existence of man on the Missouri in the glacial period is very doubtful, it being impossible accurately to determine the age of the deposits.

See _Handbook of American Indians_ (Washington, 1907).

LANSQUENET, the French corrupted form of the German _Landsknecht_ (q.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century. It is also the name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by the _Landsknechte_. The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the dealer's right. The dealer lays the two first cards face upwards on the table to his left; the third he places in front of him and the fourth, or _réjouissance_ card, in the middle of the table. The players, usually called (except in the case of the dealer) _punters_, stake any sum within the agreed limit upon this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker, covers the bets and then turns up the next card. If this fails to match any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside the réjouissance card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards not matching are treated in the same manner. When a card is turned which matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything staked on it, and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own) that is matched by the card turned. The banker pays all stakes, and the deal is over as soon as a card appears that matches his own; excepting that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be matched before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal. In France matching means winning, not losing, as in Great Britain. There are other variations of play on the continent of Europe.

LANTARA, SIMON MATHURIN (1729-1778), French landscape painter, was born at Oncy on the 24th of March 1729. His father was a weaver, and he himself began life as a herdboy; but, having attracted the notice of Gille de Reumont, a son of his master, he was placed under a painter at Versailles. Endowed with great facility and real talent, his powers found ready recognition; but he found the constraint of a regular life and the society of educated people unbearably tiresome; and as long as the proceeds of the last sale lasted he lived careless of the future in the company of obscure workmen. Rich amateurs more than once attracted him to their houses, only to find that in ease and high living Lantara could produce nothing. He died in Paris on the 22nd of December 1778. His works, now much prized, are not numerous; the Louvre has one landscape, "Morning," signed and dated 1761. Bernard, Joseph Vernet, and others are said to have added figures to his landscapes and sea-pieces. Engravings after Lantara will be found in the works of Lebas, Piquenot, Duret, Mouchy and others. In 1809 a comedy called _Lantara, or the Painter in the Pothouse_, was brought out at the Vaudeville with great success.

See E. Bellier de la Chavignerie, _Recherches sur le peintre Lantara_
(Paris, 1852).

LANTERN (an adaptation of the Fr. _lanterne_ from Lat. _lanterna_ or _laterna_, supposed to be from Gr. [Greek: lamptêr], a torch or lamp, [Greek: lampein], to shine, cf. "lamp"; the 16th- and 17th-century form "lanthorn" is due to a mistaken derivation from "horn," as a material frequently used in the making of lanterns), a metal case filled in with some transparent material, and used for holding a light and protecting it from rain or wind. The appliance is of two kinds--the hanging lantern and the hand lantern--both of which are ancient. At Pompeii and Herculaneum have been discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with ornamented pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging the lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and the cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape of smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed of ornamental metal work, of which iron and brass were perhaps most frequently used. Silver, and even gold, were, however, sometimes employed, and the artificers in metal of the 17th and 18th centuries produced much exceedingly artistic work of this kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work bronze were often very beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn, talc, bladder or oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the common square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a candle. The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance than the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was sometimes richly worked and decorated. As glass grew cheaper it gradually ousted all other materials, but the horn lantern which was already ancient in the 13th century was still being used in the early part of the 19th. By the end of the 18th century lanterns in rooms had been superseded by the candlestick. The collapsible paper lanterns of China and Japan, usually known as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative and decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of flowers, &c. The lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger are made of oiled paper. In China the "Feast of Lanterns" takes place early in the New Year and lasts for four days. In Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as the "feast of lanterns." It is then that the spirits of the dead ancestors return to the household altar. The festival takes place in July. The "bull's-eye" lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone. The "dark lantern" has a shutter or slide arrangement by which the light can be shut off at will. Ships' lanterns are used as masthead or other signal lights. On Trajan's column is a representation of a heavy poop-lantern on a ship. The ships' lanterns of the 16th and 17th centuries were highly ornamental, especially when placed on the poop. At the Armeria Real in Madrid is a collection of these 16th-century ships' lanterns. The protected cages which contain the lights used in lighthouses are also known as "lanterns" (see LIGHTHOUSES).

In architecture a lantern is primarily a framework of timber, with windows all round, to admit ample light, placed on the top of a roof. In a broader sense, it is applied to those portions of buildings which are largely perforated with windows, and more especially to the upper part of the towers of cathedrals and churches, as in the octagon of Ely cathedral, or the tower of Boston church, Lincolnshire. The term is also applied to the entire church, as in the case of Bath Abbey church, which was called the "lantern of England," from the number of its windows, and St John's Priory at Kilkenny, the "lantern of Ireland," on account of the window on the south side of the choir which was 54 ft. long. In the Renaissance style the lantern was looked upon as a decorative feature surmounting the dome, as in St Peter's, Rome, the Invalides, Paris, and St Paul's, London.

_Magic or Optical Lantern._

The magic or optical lantern is an instrument for projecting on a white wall or screen largely magnified representations of transparent pictures painted or photographed on glass, or of objects--crystals, animals, &c.--carried on glass slides or in glass vessels. If the light traverses the object, the projection is said to be diascopic, if by reflected light, episcopic.

The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to Athanasius Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646) of his _Ars magna lucis et umbrae_, but it is very probably of earlier discovery. For a long period the magic lantern was used chiefly to exhibit comic pictures, or in the hands of so-called wizards to summon up ghosts and perform other tricks, astonishing to those ignorant of the simple optical principles employed. Within recent years, however, the optical lantern has been greatly improved in construction, and its use widely extended. By its means finely executed photographs on glass can be shown greatly magnified to large audiences, thus saving the trouble and expense of preparing large diagrams. When suitably constructed, it can be used in the form of a microscope to exhibit on a screen the forms and movements of minute living organisms, or to show to an audience delicate physical and chemical experiments which could otherwise be seen only by a few at a time Another application of the optical lantern is found in the cinematograph (q.v.).

The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following
parts: (1) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical
system for projecting the images. The lantern body is a rectangular
casing usually made of Russian iron, but sometimes covered with wood
(which must be protected by asbestos at parts liable to damage by
heat), provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the
source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for conveying
away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides and the
optical system. In the earlier and simpler lanterns, oil lamps were
commonly used, and in the toy forms either an oil flame or an ordinary
gas jet is still employed. Natural petroleum burnt in a specially
constructed lamp by means of two or three parallel wicks set edgeways
to the lenses was employed in the sciopticon, an improved lantern
invented in America which gave well-defined pictures 6 to 10 ft. in
diameter. The Argand gas burner also found application. A great
improvement attended the introduction of lime-light, i.e. the light
emitted by a block of lime made incandescent by an impinging
oxyhydrogen or oxygen-coal-gas flame, and the readiness with which
hydrogen and oxygen can be prepared and rendered available by
compression in steel cylinders and the increased commercial supply of
coal-gas greatly popularized these illuminants. Many improvements have
been made on the original apparatus. The lime-cylinders are specially
prepared to withstand better the disintegrating effects of the flame,
and are mounted on a rotating pin in order that fresh surfaces may be
brought into play. Cones of zirconia are also used in the same way; or
a thorium mantle in conjunction with alcohol vapour may be employed.
Two types of burner are in use: (1) the "blow-through jet," in which
the oxygen is forced through the jet of the burning gas (this is the
safest type), and (2) where the gases are mixed before combustion
(this is the more dangerous but also the more powerful type). Ether
burners are also in use. In one type the oxygen supply is divided into
two streams, one of which passes through a chamber containing cotton
wool soaked with ether, and then rejoins the undiverted stream at the
jet. The application of the incandescent gas mantle is limited by the
intensity of the heat emitted and the large area of the source. Of
electrical illuminants the platinum and carbon filament lamps are not
much used, the Nernst lamp (in which the preliminary heating is
effected by a spirit lamp and not by an auxiliary coil) being
preferred. But the arc light is undoubtedly the best illuminant for
use in the projecting lantern. The actual size of the source is
comparatively small, and hence it is necessary to mount the carbons so
that the arc remains at one point on the axis of the optical system.
It is also advisable to set back the carbons relatively to one another
and to tilt them, so that the brightest part of the "crater" faces the
lens.

_Optical System._--In the ordinary (or vertically) projecting lantern
the rays are transmitted through a lens termed the "condenser," then
through the object, and finally through another lens termed the
"objective." In the horizontally projecting types the light, after
passing through the condenser, is reflected vertically by a plane
mirror inclined at 45° to the direction of the light; it then
traverses another lens, then the object, then the objective, and is
finally projected horizontally by a plane mirror inclined at 45°, or
by a right angled glass prism, the hypothenuse face of which is
silvered. In episcopic projection, the light, having traversed the
condenser, is reflected on to the object, placed horizontally, by an
inclined mirror. The rays reflecting the object then traverse the
objective, and are then projected horizontally by a mirror or prism.
This device inverts the object; a convenient remedy is to place an
erecting prism before the lens. The object of the condenser is to
collect as much light as possible from the source, and pass it through
the object in a uniform beam. For this purpose the condenser should
subtend as large an angle as possible at the source of light. To
secure this, it should be tolerably large, and its distance from the
light, that is, its focal length, small. Since effective single lenses
of large diameter are necessarily of long focus, a really good
condenser of considerable diameter and yet of short focus must be a
combination of two or more lenses. It is essential that the condenser
be white and limpid and free from defects or striae.

In the earlier lanterns, as still in the cheaper forms, only a single
plano-convex lens or bull's-eye was employed as a condenser. A good
compound condenser for ordinary work is that proposed by Herschel,
consisting of a biconvex lens and a meniscus mounted together with the
concave side of the meniscus next the light. Other types employ two
plano-convex lenses, the curved surfaces nearly in contact; or a
concavo-convex and a plano-convex lens. Or it may be a triple
combination, the object always being to increase the aperture. The
focus must not be so short as to bring the lens too near the light,
and render it liable to crack from the intense heat. In some lanterns
this is guarded against by placing a plate of thin glass between the
condenser and the light. If the source of light be broad, an iris
diaphragm may be introduced so as to eliminate inequalities in
illumination.

The function of the objective is to produce a magnified inverted image
of the picture on the screen. In toy lanterns it is a simple
double-convex lens of short focus. This, however, can only produce a
small picture, and that not very distinct at the edges. The best
objective is the portrait combination lens usually of the Petzval type
as used in ordinary photographic cameras. These are carefully
corrected both for spherical and chromatic aberration, which is
absolutely essential in the objective, although not so necessary in
the condenser.

_Objects._--The commonest objects used for exhibiting with the optical
lantern are named "slides" and consist of pictures printed on
transparent surfaces. Solid objects mounted on glass after the
ordinary manner of mounting microscopic objects are also possible of
exhibition, and hollow glass tanks containing organisms or substances
undergoing some alteration are also available for use with the
lantern. If it be necessary to eliminate the heat rays, which may act
deleteriously on the object, a vessel is introduced containing either
water or a 5% solution of ferric chloride. In the ordinary slide the
pictures are painted with transparent water or oil colours, or
photographed on pieces of glass. If parts of the picture are to be
movable, two disks of glass are employed, the one movable in front of
the other, the fixed part of the picture being painted on the fixed
disk and the movable part on the other. By means of a lever the latter
disk is moved in its own plane; and in this way a cow, for instance,
can be represented drinking, or a donkey cutting amusing capers. In
the chromatrope slide two circular disks of glass are placed face to
face, each containing a design radiating from the centre, and painted
with brilliant transparent colours. By a small pinion gearing in
toothed wheels or endless bands the disks are made to move in opposite
directions in their own plane. The effect produced is a singularly
beautiful change of design and colour. In astronomical slides the
motions of the heavenly bodies, eclipses, the phases of the moon or
the like are similarly represented by mechanical means.

_Dissolving Views._--For this purpose two magic lanterns are
necessary, arranged either side by side or the one on the top of the
other. The fronts of the lanterns are slightly inclined to each other
so as to make the illuminated disks on the screen due to each lantern
coincide. By means of a pair of thin metallic shutters terminating in
comb-like teeth, and movable by a rack or lever, the light from either
lantern can be gradually cut off at the same time that the light from
the other is allowed gradually to fall on the screen. In this way one
view appears to melt or dissolve into another. This arrangement was
first adopted by Childe in 1811.

_Phantasmagoria._--In this arrangement the pictures on the screen
appear gradually to increase or diminish in size and brightness. To
effect this a semi-transparent screen of cotton or other material is
used, the lantern being behind and the audience in front. The lantern
is mounted on wheels so that it can be rapidly moved up to or
withdrawn from the screen; and an automatic arrangement is provided
whereby simultaneously with this the objective is made to approach or
recede from the slide so as to focus the picture on the screen in any
position of the lantern. In this way a very small picture appears
gradually to grow to enormous dimensions.

See L. Wright, _Optical Projection_ (1891); E. Trutat, _Traité des
Projections_ (Paris, 1897 and 1901); P. E. Liesegang, _Die
Projektions-Kunst_ (Leipzig, 1909).

LANTERN-FLY, the name given to insects belonging to the homopterous division of the Hemiptera, and referable to the genus _Fulgora_ and allied forms. They are mostly of large size, with a superficial resemblance to lepidoptera due to their brilliant and varied coloration. Characteristic of the group is the presence on the front of the head of a hollow process, simulating a snout, which is sometimes inflated and as large as the rest of the insect, sometimes elongated, narrow and apically upturned. It was believed, mainly on the authority of Marie Sibylle de Mérian, that this process, the so-called "lantern," was luminous at night. Linnaeus adopted the statement without question and made use of a number of specific names, such as _lanternaria_, _phosphorea_, _candelaria_, &c., to illustrate the supposed fact, and thus aided in disseminating a belief which subsequent observations have failed to establish and which is now generally rejected.

LANTERNS OF THE DEAD, the architectural name for the small towers in stone, found chiefly in the centre and west of France, pierced with small openings at the top, where a light was exhibited at night to indicate the position of a cemetery. These towers were usually circular, with a small entrance in the lower part giving access to the interior, so as to raise the lamps by a pulley to the required height. One of the most perfect in France is that at Cellefrouin (Charente), which consists of a series of eight attached semicircular shafts, raised on a pedestal, and is crowned with a conical roof decorated with fir cones; it has only one aperture, towards the main road. Other examples exist at Ciron (Indre) and Antigny (Vienne).

LANTHANUM [symbol La, atomic weight 139.0 (O = 16)] one of the metals of the cerium group of rare earths. Its name is derived from the Gr. [Greek: lanthanein], to lie hidden. It was first isolated in 1839 by C. G. Mosander from the "cerium" of J. Berzelius. It is found in the minerals gadolinite, cerite, samarskite and fergusonite, and is usually obtained from cerite. For details of the complex process for the separation of the lanthanum salts from cerite, see R. Bunsen (_Pogg. Ann._, 1875, 155, p. 377); P. T. Cleve (_Bull. de la soc. chim._, 1874, 21, p. 196); and A. v. Welsbach (_Monats. f. Chem._, 1884, 5, p. 508). The metal was obtained by Mosander on heating its chloride with potassium, and by W. F. Hillebrand and T. Norton (_Pogg. Ann._, 1875, 156, p. 466) on electrolysis of the fused chloride, while C. Winkler (_Ber._, 1890, 23, p. 78) prepared it by heating the oxide with a mixture of magnesium and magnesia. Muthmann and Weiss (_Ann._, 1904, 331, p. 1) obtained it by electrolysing the anhydrous chloride. It may be readily hammered, but cannot be drawn. Its specific gravity is 6.1545, and it melts at 810°. It decomposes cold water slowly, but hot water violently. It burns in air, and also in chlorine and bromine, and is readily oxidized by nitric acid.

_Lanthanum oxide_, La2O3, is a white powder obtained by burning the
metal in oxygen, or by ignition of the carbonate, nitrate or sulphate.
It combines with water with evolution of heat, and on heating with
magnesium powder in an atmosphere of hydrogen forms a hydride of
probable composition La2H3 (C. Winkler, _Ber._ 1891, 24, p. 890).
_Lanthanum hydroxide_, La(OH)3, is a white amorphous powder formed by
precipitating lanthanum salts by potassium hydroxide. It decomposes
ammonium salts. _Lanthanum chloride_, LaCl3, is obtained in the
anhydrous condition by heating lanthanum ammonium chloride or,
according to C. Matignon (_Compt. rend._, 1905, 40, p. 1181), by the
action of chlorine or hydrochloric acid on the residue obtained by
evaporating the oxide with hydrochloric acid. It forms a deliquescent
crystalline mass. By evaporation of a solution of lanthanum oxide in
hydrochloric acid to the consistency of a syrup, and allowing the
solution to stand, large colourless crystals of a hydrated chloride of
the composition 2LaCl3·15H2O are obtained. _Lanthanum sulphide_,
La2S3, is a yellow powder, obtained when the oxide is heated in the
vapour of carbon bisulphide. It is decomposed by water, with evolution
of sulphuretted hydrogen. _Lanthanum sulphate_, La2(SO4)3·9H2O, forms
six-sided prisms, isomorphous with those of the corresponding cerium
salt. By careful heating it may be made to yield the anhydrous salt.
_Lanthanum nitrate_, La(NO3)3·6H2O, is obtained by dissolving the
oxide in nitric acid. It crystallizes in plates, and is soluble in
water and alcohol. _Lanthanum carbide_, LaC2, is prepared by heating
the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace (H. Moissan, _Compt.
rend._, 1896, 123, p. 148). It is decomposed by water with the
formation of acetylene, methane, ethylene, &c. _Lanthanum carbonate_,
La2CO3·8H2O, occurs as the rare mineral lanthanite, forming
greyish-white, pink or yellowish rhombic prisms. The atomic weight of
lanthanum has been determined by B. Brauner (_Proc. Chem. Soc._, 1901,
17, p. 63) by ignition of lanthanum sulphate at 500° C., the value
obtained being 139 (O = 16).

LANUVIUM (more frequently _Lanivium_ in imperial times, mod. _Civita Lavinia_), an ancient city of Latium, some 19 m. S.E. of Rome, a little S.W. of the Via Appia. It was situated on an isolated hill projecting S. from the main mass of the Alban Hills, and commanding an extensive view over the low country between it and the sea. It was one of the members of the Latin League, and remained independent until conquered by Rome in 338 B.C. At first it did not enjoy the right of Roman citizenship, but acquired it later; and even in imperial times its chief magistrate and municipal council kept the titles of _dictator_ and _senatus_ respectively. It was especially famous for its rich and much venerated temple of Juno Sospes, from which Octavian borrowed money in 31 B.C., and the possessions of which extended as far as the sea-coast (T. Ashby in _Mélanges de l'école française_, 1905, 203). It possessed many other temples, repaired by Antoninus Pius, who was born close by, as was also Commodus. Remains of the ancient theatre and of the city walls exist in the modern village, and above it is an area surrounded by a portico, in _opus reticulatum_, upon the north side of which is a rectangular building in _opus quadratum_, probably connected with the temple of Juno. Here archaic decorative terra-cottas were discovered in excavations carried on by Lord Savile. The acropolis of the primitive city was probably on the highest point above the temple to the north. The neighbourhood, which is now covered with vineyards, contains remains of many Roman villas, one of which is traditionally attributed to Antoninus Pius.

See _Notizie degli Scavi, passim._ (T. As.)

LANZA, DOMENICO GIOVANNI GIUSEPPE MARIA (1810-1882), Italian politician, was born at Casale, Piedmont, on the 15th of February 1810. He studied medicine at Turin, and practised for some years in his native place. He was one of the promoters of the agrarian association in Turin, and took an active part in the rising of 1848. He was elected to the Piedmontese parliament in that year, and attached himself to the party of Cavour, devoting his attention chiefly to questions of economy and finance. He became minister of public instruction in 1855 in the cabinet of Cavour, and in 1858 minister of finance. He followed Cavour into his temporary retirement in July 1859 after the peace of Villafranca, and for a year (1860-1861) was president of the Chamber. He was minister of the interior (1864-1865) in the La Marmora cabinet, and arranged the transference of the capital to Florence. He maintained a resolute opposition to the financial policy of Menabrea, who resigned when Lanza was a second time elected, in 1869, president of the Chamber. Lanza formed a new cabinet in which he was himself minister of the interior. With Quintino Sella as minister of finance he sought to reorganize Italian finance, and resigned office when Sella's projects were rejected in 1873. His cabinet had seen the accomplishment of Italian unity and the installation of an Italian government in Rome. He died in Rome on the 9th of March 1882.

See Enrico Tavallini, _La Vita ed i tempi di Giovanni Lanza_ (2 vols.,
Turin and Naples, 1887).

LANZAROTE, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (q.v.). Pop. (1900) 17,546; area, 326 sq. m. Lanzarote, the most easterly of the Canaries, has a length of 31 m. and a breadth varying from 5 to 10 m. It is naked and mountainous, bearing everywhere marks of its volcanic origin. Montaña Blanca, the highest point (2000 ft.), is cultivated to the summit. In 1730 the appearance of half the island was altered by a volcanic outburst. A violent earthquake preceded the catastrophe, by which nine villages were destroyed. In 1825 another volcanic eruption took place accompanied by earthquakes, and two hills were thrown up. The port of Naos on the south-east of the island affords safe anchorage. It is protected by two forts. A short distance inland is the town of Arrecife (pop. 3082). The climate is hot and dry. There is only a single spring of fresh water on the island, and that in a position difficult of access. From the total failure of water the inhabitants were once compelled to abandon the island. Dromedaries are used as beasts of burden. Teguise (pop. 3786), on the north-west coast, is the residence of the local authorities. A strait about 6 m. in width separates Lanzarote from Fuerteventura.

Graciosa, a small uninhabited island, is divided from the north-eastern extremity of Lanzarote by a channel 1 m. in width, which affords a capacious and safe harbour for large ships; but basaltic cliffs, 1500 ft. high, prevent intercourse with the inhabited part of Lanzarote. A few persons reside on the little island Allegranza, a mass of lava and cinders ejected at various times from a now extinct volcano, the crater of which has still a well-defined edge.

LANZI, LUIGI (1732-1810), Italian archaeologist, was born in 1732 and educated as a priest. In 1773 he was appointed keeper of the galleries of Florence, and thereafter studied Italian painting and Etruscan antiquities and language. In the one field his labours are represented by his _Storia Pittorica della Italia_, the first portion of which, containing the Florentine, Sienese, Roman and Neapolitan schools, appeared in 1792, the rest in 1796. The work is translated by Roscoe. In archaeology his great achievement was _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_ (1789), followed by _Saggio delle lingue Ital. antiche_ (1806). In his memoir on the so-called Etruscan vases (_Dei vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente chiamati Etruschi_, 1806) Lanzi rightly perceived their Greek origin and characters. What was true of the antiquities would be true also, he argued, of the Etruscan language, and the object of the _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_ was to prove that this language must be related to that of the neighbouring peoples--Romans, Umbrians, Oscans and Greeks. He was allied with E. Q. Visconti in his great but never accomplished plan of illustrating antiquity altogether from existing literature and monuments. His notices of ancient sculpture and its various styles appeared as an appendix to the _Saggio di lingua Etrusca_, and arose out of his minute study of the treasures then added to the Florentine collection from the Villa Medici. The abuse he met with from later writers on the Etruscan language led Corssen (_Sprache der Etrusker_, i. p. vi.) to protest in the name of his real services to philology and archaeology. Among his other productions was an edition of Hesiod's _Works and Days_, with valuable notes, and a translation in _terza rima_. Begun in 1785, it was recast and completed in 1808. The list of his works closes with his _Opere sacre_, a series of treatises on spiritual subjects. Lanzi died on the 30th of March 1810. He was buried in the church of the Santa Croce at Florence by the side of Michelangelo.