Chapter XI: Front Matter (11)

Of the law libraries, that at Lincoln's Inn, London, is the oldest and
the largest. It dates from 1497, when John Nethersale, a member of the
society, made a bequest of forty marks, part of which was to be
devoted to the building of a library for the benefit of the students
of the laws of England. A catalogue of the printed books was published
in 1859 and since supplemented, and the MSS. were catalogued by the
Rev. Joseph Hunter in 1837. There are about 72,000 vols. The library
of the Inner Temple is known to have existed in 1540. In the middle of
the 17th century it received a considerable benefaction from William
Petyt, the well-known keeper of the Tower records. There are now about
60,000 vols., including the pamphlets collected by John Adolphus for
his _History of England_, books on crime and prisons brought together
by Mr Crawford, and a selection of works on jurisprudence made by John
Austin. A library in connexion with the Middle Temple was in existence
during the reign of Henry VIII., but the date usually assigned to its
foundation is 1641, when Robert Ashley left his books to the inn of
which he had been a member. There are now about 50,000 vols. Gray's
Inn Library (21,000 vols.) was perhaps established before 1555. In
1669 was made the first catalogue of the books, and the next, still
extant, in 1689. The Law Society (1828) has a good law and general
library (50,000 vols.), including the best collection of private acts
of parliament in England. The library of the Royal Society (1667), now
housed in Burlington House, contains over 80,000 vols., of which many
are the transactions and other publications of scientific bodies. The
Royal Institution of Great Britain (1803) possesses a reference
library of 60,000 vols. Some of its early catalogues were in
classified form. The London Institution (1805), in the City, is a
general library of reference and lending books open to members only.
There are about 150,000 vols., and lectures are given in connexion
with the institution. The Royal Society of Arts has a library
numbering about 11,000 vols., chiefly the publications of other
learned bodies.

The best library of archaeology and kindred subjects is that of the
Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, consisting of nearly 40,000
printed vols. and many MSS. It is rich in early printed books,
topography, heraldry and numismatics, and includes a curious
collection of books on pageants presented by Mr Fairholt, and the
remarkable assemblage of lexicographical works formerly belonging to
Albert Way.

Of libraries devoted to the natural sciences may be mentioned those of
the Geological Society of London (1807), with over 30,000 vols. and
maps; the Linnean Society (1788), 35,000 vols.; the Zoological Society
(1829), about 31,000 vols. Of libraries associated with medicine there
are those of the Royal Society of Medicine (1907), incorporating a
number of medical societies, over 95,000 vols., about to be housed in
a new building; the Royal College of Physicians (1525), 26,000 vols.;
the British Medical Association, 20,000 vols.; the Royal College of
Surgeons of England (1800), 60,000 vols., with a MS. catalogue on
cards; the Chemical Society (1841), over 25,000 vols.; and the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain (1841), about 15,000 vols.
Other important London society libraries are--the Royal Geographical
Society (1830), 50,000 vols., and numerous maps in a special room,
open to the public for reference; the Royal Colonial Institute (1868),
70,000 vols. of British colonial literature; the Royal United Service
Institution, Whitehall (1831), has 32,000 works on military and naval
subjects and a museum. Large and interesting collections of books are
owned by the British and Foreign Bible Society, the Institution of
Civil Engineers, the Institution of Electrical Engineers (containing
the Ronalds Library), the Royal Academy, the Royal Institute of
British Architects, and practically every other working society in
London.

The English provincial libraries connected with societies or learned
bodies are mostly attached to those concerned with law, medicine, and
various antiquarian, literary and scientific subjects. The
headquarters of most national societies being in London to some extent
accounts for the comparatively small number of these special libraries
in the provinces.

The most important libraries of this description outside London are
situated in Scotland and Ireland, and one at least is practically a
national collection.

The principal library in Scotland is that of the Faculty of Advocates
at Edinburgh, who in 1680 appointed a committee of their number, which
reported that "it was fitt that, seeing if the recusants could be made
pay their entire money, there wold be betwixt three thousand and four
thousand pounds in cash; that the same be imployed on the best and
fynest lawers and other law bookes, conforme to a catalogue to be
condescended upon by the Facultie, that the samen may be a fonde for
ane Bibliothecque whereto many lawers and others may leave their
books." In 1682 the active carrying out of the scheme was committed to
the Dean of Faculty, Sir George Mackenzie of Rosehaugh, who may be
regarded as the founder of the library. In 1684 the first librarian
was appointed, and the library appears to have made rapid progress,
since it appears from the treasurer's accounts that in 1686 the books
and furniture were valued at upwards of £11,000 Scots, exclusive of
donations. In the year 1700, the rooms in the Exchange Stairs,
Parliament Close, in which the library was kept, being nearly
destroyed by fire the collection was removed to the ground floor of
the Parliament House, where it has ever since remained. The library
retains the copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the
special collections the most important are the Astorga collection of
old Spanish books, purchased by the faculty in 1824 for £4000; the
Thorkelin collection, consisting of about 1200 vols., relating chiefly
to the history and antiquities of the northern nations, and including
some rare books on old Scottish poetry; the Dietrich collection of
over 100,000 German pamphlets and dissertations, including many of the
writings of Luther and Melanchthon, purchased for the small sum of
£80; and the Combe collection.

The faculty appear early to have turned their attention to the
collection of MSS., and this department of the library now numbers
about 3000 vols. Many of them are of great interest and value,
especially for the civil and ecclesiastical history of Scotland before
and after the Reformation. There are thirteen monastic chartularies
which escaped the destruction of the religious houses to which they
belonged. The MSS. relating to Scottish church history include the
collections of Spottiswoode, Wodrow and Calderwood. The Wodrow
collection consists of 154 vols., and includes his correspondence,
extending from 1694 to 1726. Sir James Balfour's collection and the
Balcarres papers consist largely of original state papers, and include
many interesting royal letters of the times of James V., Queen Mary
and James VI. The Sibbald papers, numbering over 30 vols., are largely
topographical. The Riddel notebooks, numbering 156 vols., contain
collections to illustrate the genealogy of Scottish families. There
are about one hundred volumes of Icelandic MSS., purchased in 1825
from Professor Finn Magnusson, and some Persian and Sanskrit, with a
few classical, manuscripts. The department has some interesting
treasures of old poetry, extending to 73 vols. The most important are
the Bannatyne MS., in 2 vols. folio, written by George Bannatyne in
1568, and the Auchinleck MS., a collection of ancient English poetry,
named after Alexander Boswell of Auchinleck, who presented it in 1774.

The first catalogue of the printed books was compiled in 1692, and
contains a preface by Sir George Mackenzie. Another was prepared under
the care of Ruddiman in 1742. In 1853 the late Mr Halkett commenced a
catalogue, which has been printed in 6 vols. 4to, with a supplement,
and includes all the printed books in the library at the end of 1871,
containing about 260,000 entries. The library, managed by a keeper and
staff, under a board of six curators, is easily accessible to all
persons engaged in literary work, and now contains about 500,000 vols.

The library of the Writers to the Signet was established by the
Society at Edinburgh in 1755. At first it consisted of law books
exclusively, but in 1788 they began to collect the best editions of
works in other departments of literature. During the librarianship of
Macvey Napier (1805-1837) the number of volumes was more than
sextupled, and in 1812 the library was removed to the new hall
adjoining the Parliament House. In 1834 the upper hall was devoted to
the collection. This is a magnificent apartment 142 ft. long, with a
beautiful cupola painted by Stothard. The library now contains over
110,000 vols. and includes some fine specimens of early printing, as
well as many other rare and costly works. It is especially rich in
county histories and British topography and antiquities. A catalogue
of the law books was printed in 1856. The late David Laing, who became
librarian in 1837, published the first volume of a new catalogue in
1871, and in 1891 this was completed with a subject index. The books
are lent out to the writers and even to strangers recommended by them.

The library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin was established on
the formation of the Academy in 1785 for the purpose of promoting the
study of science, literature and antiquities in Ireland. The library
possesses about 80,000 printed vols. and MSS. There is a large
collection of MSS. and books relating to the history, ancient
language, and antiquities of Ireland. They include the Betham
collection, acquired partly by public subscription in 1851. The
library is partly supported by a government grant and is freely open
on a proper introduction. The publication of Irish MSS. in the library
was begun in 1870, and has since continued; the general catalogue is
in manuscript form.

The library of King's Inns was founded, pursuant to a bequest of books
and legal MSS. under the will of Mr Justice Robinson in 1787, to form
the nucleus of a library for law students. It is partly supported from
the funds of the benchers, but partly also by a treasury grant in lieu
of the copyright privilege.

It is needless to describe the other society libraries, as most of
them are described in annuals like the _Literary Year-book_ and
similar publications, with statistics of stock, issues, &c., brought
up to date.

Proprietary and subscription libraries.

Proprietary and subscription libraries were at one time more common than now, as, owing to the steady advance of the municipal library, the minor subscription libraries have been gradually extinguished. A striking example of this is furnished by the mechanics' institutes which used to flourish all over the country. In most cases these have been handed over to the local authorities by the owners to form the nucleus of the public rate-supported library, and in this way the older libraries have been preserved and valuable aid has been given to the popular library movement. Somewhat akin to the mechanics' institutes are the libraries established in connexion with various co-operative societies in the north of England. Together with working men's club libraries, there must be nearly 100 libraries of the class just mentioned, ranging in size from a few hundred vols. to 30,000 or 40,000 vols. The affiliated clubs of the Working Men's Club and Institute Union possess among them over 100,000 vols.

Among subscription libraries, the London Library stands first in order of importance. It was founded in 1841 as a lending library for the use of scholars, and Dean Milman, Sir G. C. Lewis, W. E. Gladstone, Thomas Carlyle, Henry Hallam and other eminent men took part in its formation. By means of a moderate subscription, funds were raised for the purchase of books on general subjects, which now amount to about 250,000 vols. Of these elaborate and excellent author and subject catalogues have been printed. The last is valuable as a classified guide to the contents of the library.

Some mention should be made also of the more important subscription or
proprietary libraries, which were formed for the most part in the
latter half of the 18th century. The earliest circulating library in
the metropolis was established about the middle of the 18th century.
The first in Birmingham was opened by Hutton in 1757. The idea of a
proprietary library appears to have been first carried out at
Liverpool in 1758. The library then formed still flourishes at the
Lyceum, and possesses a collection of 55,000 vols. and an income of
£1000 a year. In 1760 a library was formed at Warrington which has
been merged in the Warrington Museum. The Leeds library was
established in 1768, and now has 64,000 vols. In 1772 the Bristol
museum and library was formed, and numbered Coleridge, Southey and
Landor among its earlier members. It has now been merged in the
reference collection of the Bristol public libraries. The Birmingham
(old) library was formed in 1779, and its rules were drawn up by Dr
Priestley. The library has now about 80,000 vols.

Other English proprietary libraries have been established at
Leicester, Liverpool (Athenaeum, 1798), Manchester, Nottingham and
elsewhere. In Scotland the first subscription library was started by
Allan Ramsay, the poet, at Edinburgh in 1725, and since that time
commercial subscription libraries have increased greatly in number and
size, Mudie's and _The Times_ Book Club being typical modern examples.

Club libraries.

Many of the principal clubs possess libraries; that of the Athenaeum (London) is by far the most important. It now numbers about 75,000 vols. of books in all departments of literature, and is especially rich in well-bound and fine copies of works on the fine arts, archaeology, topography and history. The pamphlets, of which there is a complete printed catalogue, as well as of the books, form a remarkable series, including those collected by Gibbon and Mackintosh. Next comes the Reform Club, with about 60,000 vols., chiefly in belles-lettres, with a fair proportion of parliamentary and historical works. The National Liberal Club, containing the Gladstone Library, has about 45,000 vols., and may be used occasionally by non-members. The Oxford and Cambridge Club has 30,000 vols. in general and classical literature. At the Garrick there is a small dramatic collection; and the (Senior) United Service Club, besides a number of books on professional subjects, possesses the fine library which formerly belonged to Dugald Stewart.

Other London clubs which possess libraries are the Carlton with 25,000
vols.; the Constitutional with 12,000 vols.; Grand Lodge of
Freemasons, 10,000 vols.; Alpine, 5000 vols.; Travellers, 8000 vols.;
and Junior Carlton, 6000 vols. In the provinces and in Scotland and
Ireland every club of a social character has a reading-room, and in
most cases a library is attached.

Municipal libraries.

The first act of parliament authorizing the establishment of public libraries in England was obtained by William Ewart, M.P. for the Dumfries Burghs, in 1850. This arose out of the report of a special parliamentary committee appointed to enquire into the management of the British Museum in 1835, and a more general report on libraries in 1849, at which much evidence was submitted to prove the necessity for providing public libraries. Ewart obtained both committees and also, in 1845, procured an act for "encouraging the establishment of museums in large towns." Neither the 1845 nor 1850 acts proved effective, owing chiefly to the limitation of the library rate to ½d. in the £ of rental, which produced in most cases an insufficient revenue. In 1853 the Library Act of 1850 was extended to Ireland and Scotland, and in 1854 Scotland obtained an act increasing the rate limit from ½d. to 1d. in the £. In 1855 Ireland also obtained a penny rate, and later in the same year England obtained the same power by an act which remained the principal library act, with some intermediate amendments, till 1892, when a Public Library Consolidation Act was passed. In the following year, 1893, the power of adopting the acts, or putting them in operation, was transferred from the ratepayers to the local authority, save in the case of rural parishes and the metropolitan vestries. By the London Government Act of 1899, however, the metropolitan boroughs were given the power of adopting the acts of 1892-1893 without consulting the ratepayers, so that as the law at present stands, any urban district can put the public libraries acts in force without reference to the voters. Rural parishes are still required by the provisions of the Local Government Act 1894 to adopt the 1892 Libraries Act by means of a parish meeting, or if a poll is demanded, by means of a poll of the voters.

The main points in British library legislation are as follows:--

(a) The acts are permissive in character and not compulsory, and can
only be put in force by a vote of a majority of members in an urban
district or city, or of a majority of voters in rural districts.

(b) The amount of rate which can be collected is limited to one penny
in the pound of the rateable value of the district, though in some
towns power has been obtained by special legislation for local
purposes to increase the amount to 2d. In a few cases, as at
Birmingham, no limit is fixed. The incomes produced by the penny in
the pound range from less than £10 in a rural district to over £25,000
in a large city.

(c) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the
local authorities, who may, if so disposed, delegate to them all their
powers and duties under section 15 of the act of 1892. The local
authorities in England have also power to appoint persons on such
committees who are not members of the council. By the Scottish
principal act of 1887 committees are to consist of one-half
councillors and one-half non-councillors, not to exceed a total of 20,
and these committees become independent bodies not subject to the
councils. Glasgow has contracted out of this arrangement by means of a
special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much on the same
system as in England.

(d) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for science,
art galleries, and schools for art. Needless to say it is impossible
to carry on so many departments with the strictly limited means
provided by the acts, although some towns have attempted to do so. The
Museums and Gymnasiums Act of 1891 enables an additional rate of ½d.
to be raised for either purpose, and many places which have
established museums or art galleries under the provisions of the
Libraries Acts have also adopted the Museums Act in order to increase
their revenues.

(e) The regulation and management of public libraries are entrusted to
the library authority, which may either be the local authority, or a
committee with a full or partial delegation of powers. The library
authority can buy books, periodicals, specimens of art and science,
and make all necessary rules for the proper working of the libraries.
A staff can be appointed, and arrangements may be made with adjoining
local authorities for the joint use of one or more libraries.
Buildings may also be erected, and money borrowed for the purpose on
the security of the local rates. These are the main provisions of the
library legislation of the United Kingdom as at present existing.
Revision and amendment are wanted as regards the abolition or raising
of the rate limitation, and some clearer definitions as to powers
which can be exercised, as, for example, the right to spend money on
lectures. The rate limitation is the most serious obstacle to
progress, and it affects the smaller towns to a much greater degree
than large cities or areas.

Between 1850 and 1910 about 630 local government areas of all kinds adopted the Public Libraries Acts. Of these a considerable number had in 1910 not yet put the acts in operation, whilst the London Government Act 1899, by joining various previously independent vestries or boards, extinguished about 23 library areas. The Metropolitan County of London in 1910 comprised 25 library areas, or counting also the City, 26, and only Marylebone, Bethnal Green and parts of Finsbury and Paddington remained unprovided. Practically every large city or district council has adopted the Public Libraries Acts or obtained special legislation, and the only important places, in addition to Marylebone and Bethnal Green, unprovided in 1910 were Bacup, Crewe, Dover, Jarrow, Scarborough, Swindon, Weymouth, Llandudno, Govan, Leith, Pollokshaws and Wishaw. In all, 556 places had library systems in operation, and among them they possessed about 925 buildings.

The progress of the public library movement was very slow up to 1887,
the year of Queen Victoria's jubilee. From 1887, however, when many
districts established libraries as memorials to Queen Victoria, the
progress has been much more rapid. An immense stimulus to the movement
was given from about 1900, when Mr Andrew Carnegie (q.v.) began to
present library buildings to towns in England as well as to Scotland
and the United States. The result of this action was to increase the
number of municipal libraries from 146 in 1886 to 556 in 1910; and in
the 10 years up to 1910 during which Mr Carnegie's gifts had been
offered, no fewer than 163 places had put the acts in operation, a
yearly average of over 16 adoptions.

There is one municipal library whose importance demands special mention, although it is not rate-supported under the provisions of the Public Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall library of the Corporation of the City of London, which is a free public reference library with a periodicals reading-room, and a lending department for officials and members of the corporation. A library was established for London by Sir Richard Whittington between 1421-1426, and several notices in the civic records show how well in those times the citizens cared for their books. But it did not remain without accident; in 1522 the Lord Protector Somerset carried off three cart-loads of books, and during the great fire of 1666 the remainder was destroyed together with the library buildings. Nothing was done to repair the loss until 1824, when a committee was appointed, and rooms set apart for library purposes. In 1840 a catalogue of 10,000 vols. was printed, and in 1859 a second was prepared of 40,000 vols. In consequence of the large and increasing number of the readers, the present fine building was commenced about ten years later, and, after having cost £90,000, was opened in 1873 as a free public library.

There are now upwards of 136,000 printed vols. and 5900 MSS. in the
Guildhall library. The contents are of a general character, and
include a special collection of books about London, the Solomons
Hebrew and rabbinical library, and the libraries of the Clockmakers
Company and the old Dutch church in Austin Friars. Recently the fine
collection of books by and about Charles Dickens, called the National
Dickens Library, was added, and other special libraries of a valuable
nature, as well as an extensive and well-cared-for collection of
London prints, and drawings.

British library administration.

There is such a variety of library buildings in the United Kingdom that it is not possible to single out examples for special description, but a brief statement of their work and methods will help to give some idea of the extent of their activities.

The total number of borrowers enrolled in 1910 was[11] about 2,200,000, 59% males and 41% females, 48% under 20 years of age and 52% over 20. Industrial and commercial occupations were followed by 49% of the borrowers, the balance of 51% being domestic, professional, unstated, and including 20% of students and scholars. To these borrowers 60,000,000 vols. are circulated every year for home-reading, and of this large number 54% represented fiction, including juvenile literature. The Reference libraries issued over 11,000,000 vols., exclusive of books consulted at open shelves, and to the Reading-rooms, Magazines, Newspapers, Directories, Time-tables, &c., allowing only one consultation for each visit, 85,000,000 visits are made per annum. Allowing 5% for the reading of fiction in current magazines, it appears that the percentage of fiction read in British municipal libraries, taking into account the work of every issuing or consulting department, is only about 24%. This fact should be carefully recorded, as in the past municipal libraries have suffered in the esteem of all sections of the public, by being erroneously described as mere centres for the distribution of common novels. The quality of the fiction selected is the best obtainable, and, as shown above, it is not read to an unreasonable or unnecessary extent.

The changes in character, policy and methods which have marked library administration in the United Kingdom, have affected libraries of all kinds, but on the whole the municipal libraries have been most active in the promotion of improvements. It is evident, moreover, even to the most casual observer, that a complete revolution in library practice has been effected since 1882, not only in the details of administration, but in the initiation of ideas and experiments. One of the most notable changes has been the gradual disappearance of the unclassified library. Previous to 1882 very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific classification schemes equipped with suitable notations, although the Decimal method of Mr Melvil Dewey had been applied in the United States. After that date this system began to be adopted for reference departments in British municipal libraries, till in 1910 at least 120 places had been classified by means of the scheme. An English scheme, called the "Adjustable," with a notation, but not fully expanded, has been adopted in 53 places, and a very complete and minute scheme called the "Subject," also English, has been used in nearly 40 libraries, although it only dates from 1906. That much remains to be accomplished in this direction is indicated by the fact that over 340 municipal libraries were in 1910 not closely classified, but only arranged in broad numerical or alphabetical divisions. The adoption of exact schemes of classification for books in libraries may be said to double their utility almost mechanically, and in course of time an unclassified municipal library will be unknown. The other kinds of library--state, subscription, university, &c.--are very often not classified, but some use the Decimal system, while others, like the Patent Office, have systems peculiar to themselves.

The catalogue, as a means of making known the contents of books, has also undergone a succession of changes, both in policy and mechanical construction. At one period, before access to the shelves and other methods of making known the contents of libraries had become general, the printed catalogue was relied upon as practically the sole guide to the books. Many excellent examples of such catalogues exist, in author, subject and classified form, and some of them are admirable contributions to bibliography. Within recent years, however, doubts have arisen in many quarters, both in Europe and America, as to the wisdom of printing the catalogues of general popular libraries which possess comparatively few rare or extraordinary books. A complete catalogue of such a library is out of date the moment it is printed, and in many cases the cost is very great, while only a small number is sold. For these and other reasons, modern libraries have begun to compile complete catalogues only in MS. form, and to issue comparatively cheap class-lists at intervals, supplemented by monthly or quarterly bulletins or lists of recent accessions, which in combination will answer most of the questions likely to be put to a catalogue. Various improvements in the mechanical construction of manuscript catalogues have contributed to popularize them, and many libraries use the card, sheaf and other systems which allow constant and infinite intercalation coupled with economy and ease in making additions.

The idea of using separate slips or cards for cataloguing books, in order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision is not new, having been applied during the French revolutionary period to the cataloguing of libraries. More recently the system has been applied to various commercial purposes, such as book-keeping by what is known as the "loose-leaf ledger," and in this way greater public attention has been directed to the possibilities of adjustable methods both in libraries and for business. The card system is perhaps the most generally used at present, but many improvements in the adjustable binders, called by librarians the "sheaf system," will probably result in this latter form becoming a serious rival. The card method consists of a series of cards in alphabetical or other order kept on edge in trays or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to facilitate reference. Entries are usually made on one side of the card, and one card serves for a single entry. The sheaf method provides for slips of an uniform size being kept in book form in volumes capable of being opened by means of a screw or other fastening, for the purpose of adding or withdrawing slips. In addition to the advantage of being in book-form the sheaf system allows both sides of a slip to be used, while in many cases from two to twelve entries may be made on one slip. This is a great economy and leads to considerable saving of space. A great advantage resulting from the use of an adjustable manuscript catalogue, in whatever form adopted, is the simplicity with which it can be kept up-to-date. This is an advantage which in the view of many librarians outweighs the undoubted valuable qualities of comparative safety and multiplication of copies possessed by the printed form. There are many different forms of both card and sheaf systems, and practically every library now uses one or other of them for cataloguing or indexing purposes.

One other modification in connexion with the complete printed catalogue has been tried with success, and seems worthy of brief mention. After a complete manuscript catalogue has been provided in sheaf form, a select or eclectic catalogue is printed, comprising all the most important books in the library and those that represent special subjects. This, when supplemented by a printed list or bulletin of additions, seems to supply every need.

The most striking tendency of the modern library movement is the great increase in the freedom allowed to readers both in reference and lending departments. Although access to the shelves was quite a common feature in the older subscription libraries, and in state libraries like the British Museum and Patent Office, it is only within comparatively recent years that lending library borrowers were granted a similar privilege. Most municipal reference libraries grant access to a large or small collection of books, and at Cambridge, Birmingham and elsewhere in the United Kingdom, the practice is of long standing. So also in the United States, practically every library has its open shelf collection. On the continent of Europe, however, this method is not at all general, and books are guarded with a jealousy which in many cases must militate against their utility. The first "safe-guarded" open access municipal lending library was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in 1893, and since then over one hundred cities and districts of all sizes in Britain have adopted the system. The British municipal libraries differ considerably from those of the United States in the safeguards against abuse which are employed, and the result is that their losses are insignificant, whilst in America they are sometimes enormous. Pawtucket and Cleveland in America were pioneers to some extent of the open shelf system for lending libraries, but the methods employed had little resemblance to the safe-guarded system of British libraries. The main features of the British plan are: exact classification; class, shelf and book guiding; the provision of automatic locking wickets to regulate the entrance and exit of borrowers, and the rule that borrowers must be registered before they can obtain admission. This last rule is not always current in America, and in consequence abuses are liable to take place. The great majority of British and American libraries, whether allowing open access or not, use cards for charging or registering books loaned to borrowers. In the United Kingdom a considerable number of places still use indicators for this purpose, although this mechanical method is gradually being restricted to fiction, save in very small places.

Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both Britain
and America are courses of lectures, book exhibitions, work with
children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign residents,
travelling libraries and the education of library assistants. In many
of the recent buildings, especially in those erected from the gifts of
Mr Andrew Carnegie, special rooms for lectures and exhibitions and
children are provided. Courses of lectures in connexion with the
Liverpool and Manchester public libraries date from 1860, but during
the years 1900-1910 there was a very great extension of this work. As
a rule these courses are intended to direct attention to the
literature of the subjects treated, as represented in the libraries,
and in this way a certain amount of mutual advantage is secured. In
some districts the libraries work in association with the education
authorities, and thus it is rendered possible to keep schools supplied
with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise supervision.
This connexion between libraries and schools is much less common in
the United Kingdom than in the British colonies and the United States,
where the libraries are regarded as part of the national system of
education. Excellent work has been accomplished within recent years by
the Library Association in the training of librarians, and it is usual
for about 300 candidates to come forward annually for examination in
literary history, bibliography, classification, cataloguing, library
history and library routine for which subjects certificates and
diplomas are awarded. The profession of municipal librarian is not by
any means remunerative as compared with employment in teaching or in
the Civil Service, and until the library rate is increased there is
little hope of improvement.

The usefulness of public libraries has been greatly increased by the
work of the Library Association, founded in 1877, during the first
International Library Conference held in London in October 1877. A
charter of incorporation was granted to the association in 1898. It
holds monthly and annual meetings, publishes a journal, conducts
examinations, issues certificates, holds classes for instruction, and
has greatly helped to improve the public library law. The Library
Assistants Association (1895) publishes a journal. A second
International Library Conference was held at London in 1897, and a
third at Brussels in 1910. Library associations have been started in
most of the countries of Europe, and the American Library Association,
the largest and most important in existence, was established in 1876.
These associations are giving substantial aid in the development and
improvement of library methods and the status of librarians, and it is
certain that their influence will in time produce a more scientific
and valuable type of library than at present generally exists.

_British Colonies and India._

The majority of the British Colonies and Dependencies have permissive library laws on lines very similar to those in force in the mother country. There are, however, several points of difference which are worth mention. The rate limit is not so strict in every case, and an effort is made to bring the libraries into closer relations with the educational machinery of each colony. There is, for example, no rate limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may raise a library rate equivalent to 3d. in the £, although, in both cases, owing to the absence of large towns, the legislation existing has not been adopted. In Africa, Australia and Canada the governments make grants to public libraries up to a certain amount, on condition that the reading-rooms are open to the public, and some of the legislatures are even in closer touch with the libraries. The Canadian and Australian libraries are administered more or less on American lines, whilst those of South Africa, India, &c., are managed on the plan followed in England.

_Africa._

There are several important libraries in South Africa, and many small town libraries which used to receive a government grant equal to the subscriptions of the members, but in no case did such grants exceed £150 for any one library in one year. These grants fluctuate considerably owing to the changes and temper of successive governments, and since the last war they have been considerably reduced everywhere. One of the oldest libraries is the South African Public Library at Cape Town established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege of receiving a free copy of every publication issued in Cape Colony. This library contains the great collection of colonial books bequeathed by Sir George Grey. The libraries of the various legislatures are perhaps the best supported and most important, but mention should be made of the public libraries of Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, which published an excellent catalogue, and the public libraries at Kimberley; Durban, Natal; Bloemfontein, Orange River Colony; Bulawayo, Rhodesia; Johannesburg, Transvaal; and the public and university libraries at Pretoria. None of the libraries of North Africa are specially notable, although there are considerable collections at Cairo and Algiers.

_Australasia._

All the public libraries, mechanics' institutes, schools of arts and similar institutes receive aid from the government, either in the form of grants of money or boxes of books sent from some centre. The public library of New South Wales, Sydney (1869), which includes the Mitchell Library of over 50,000 vols., now possesses a total of nearly 250,000 vols., and circulates books to country libraries, lighthouses and teachers' associations to the number of about 20,000 vols. per annum. The public library of Victoria, Melbourne (1853), with about 220,000 vols., also sends books to 443 country libraries of various kinds, which among them possess 750,000 vols., and circulate annually considerably over 2½ million vols. The university library at Melbourne (1855) has over 20,000 vols., and the libraries connected with the parliament and various learned societies are important. The public library of South Australia, Adelaide, has about 75,000 vols., and is the centre for the distribution of books to the institutes throughout the colony. These institutes possess over 325,000 vols. There is a good public library at Brisbane, Queensland, and there are a number of state-aided schools of arts with libraries attached. The Library of Parliament in Brisbane possesses over 40,000, and the Rockhampton School of Arts has 10,000 vols. Western Australia has a public library at Perth, which was established in 1887, and the small town institutes are assisted as in the other colonies.

Tasmania has several good libraries in the larger towns, but none of them had in 1910 taken advantage of the act passed in 1867 which gives municipalities practically unlimited powers and means as far as the establishment and maintenance of public libraries are concerned. At Hobart the Tasmanian Public Library (1849) is one of the most important, with 25,000 vols.

New Zealand is well equipped with public libraries established under acts dating from 1869 to 1877, as well as subscription, college and government libraries. At Auckland the Free Public Library (1880) has 50,000 vols., including Sir George Grey's Australasian collection; the Canterbury Public Library, Christchurch (1874), has 40,000 vols.; the University of Otago Library, Dunedin (1872), 10,000 vols.; and the public library at Wellington (1893) contains 20,000 vols.

_India and the East._

Apart from government and royal libraries, there are many college, society, subscription and others, both English and oriental. It is impossible to do more than name a few of the most notable. Lists of many of the libraries in private hands including descriptions of their MS. contents have been issued by the Indian government. At Calcutta the Sanskrit college has 1652 printed Sanskrit volumes and 2769 Sanskrit MSS., some as old as the 14th century; there is also a large collection of Jain MSS. The Arabic library attached to the Arabic department of the Madrasa was founded about 1781, and now includes 731 printed volumes, 143 original MSS. and 151 copies; the English library of the Anglo-Persian department dates from 1854, and extends to 3254 vols. The library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784, and now contains 15,000 printed vols., chiefly on eastern and philological subjects, with a valuable collection of 9500 Arabic and Persian MSS.

At Bombay the library of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, established in 1804 as the Literary Society of Bengal, is now an excellent general and oriental collection of 75,000 printed vols. and MSS., described in printed catalogues. The Moolla Feroze Library was bequeathed for public use by Moolla Feroze, head priest of the Parsis of the Kudmi sect in 1831, and consisted chiefly of MSS., in Arabic and Persian on history, philosophy and astronomy; some additions of English and Gujarati works have been made, as well as of European books on Zoroastrianism. The Native General Library (1845) has 11,000 vols., and there are libraries attached to Elphinstone College and the university of Bombay.

The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2000 MSS., fell into the hands of the British, and a descriptive catalogue of them by Charles Stewart was published at Cambridge in 1809, 4to. A few were presented to public libraries in England, but the majority were placed in the college of Fort William, then recently established. The first volume, containing Persian and Hindustani poetry, of the _Catalogue of the Libraries of the King of Oudh_, by A. Sprenger, was published at Calcutta in 1854. The compiler shortly afterwards left the Indian service, and no measures were taken to complete the work. On the annexation of the kingdom in 1856 the ex-king is believed to have taken some of the most valuable MSS. to Calcutta, but the largest portion was left behind at Lucknow. During the siege the books were used to block up windows, &c., and those which were not destroyed were abandoned and plundered by the soldiers. Many were burnt for fuel; a few, however, were rescued and sold by auction, and of these some were purchased for the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja of Tanjore, which dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century, when Tanjore was under the rule of the Telugu Naiks, who collected Sanskrit MSS. written in the Telugu character. In the 18th century the Mahrattas conquered the country, and since that date the library increased but slowly. By far the greater portion of the store was acquired by Sharabhoji Raja during a visit to Benares in 1820-1830; his successor Sivaji added a few, but of inferior value. There are now about 18,000 MSS. written in Devanagari, Nandinagari, Telugu, Kannada, Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi or Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8000 are on palm leaves. Dr Burnell's printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles.

The Royal Asiatic Society has branches with libraries attached in many of the large cities of India, the Straits Settlements, Ceylon, China, Japan, &c. At Rangoon in Burma there are several good libraries. The Raffles Library at Singapore was established as a proprietary institution in 1844, taken over by the government in 1874, and given legal status by an ordinance passed in 1878. It now contains about 35,000 vols. in general literature, but books relating to the Malayan peninsula and archipelago have been made a special feature, and since the acquisition of the collection of J. R. Logan in 1879 the library has become remarkably rich in this department. In Ceylon there is the Museum Library at Colombo (1877), which is maintained by the government, and there are many subscription and a few oriental libraries.

_Canada._

The public libraries of the various provinces of Canada have grown rapidly in importance and activity, and, assisted as they are by government and municipal grants, they promise to rival those of the United States in generous equipment. Most of the library work in Canada is on the same lines as that of the United States, and there are no special points of difference worth mention. The library laws of the Dominion are embodied in a series of acts dating from 1854, by which much the same powers are conferred on local authorities as by the legislation of Britain and the United States. An important feature of the Canadian library law is the close association maintained between schools and libraries, and in some provinces the school libraries are established by the school and not the library laws. There is also an important extension of libraries to the rural districts, so that in every direction full provision is being made for the after-school education and recreation of the people.

The province of Ontario has a very large and widespread library system
of which full particulars are given in the annual reports of the
minister of education. The library portion has been printed
separately, and with its illustrations and special articles forms
quite a handbook of Canadian library practice. There are now 413
public libraries described as free and not free, and of these 131 free
and 234 not free reported in 1909. The free libraries possessed
775,976 vols. and issued 2,421,049 vols. The not free libraries, most
of which receive legislative or municipal grants, possessed 502,879
vols. and issued 650,826 vols. This makes a grand total of 1,278,855
vols. in municipal and assisted subscription libraries without
counting the university and other libraries in the province. The most
important other libraries in Ontario are--Queen's University, Kingston
(1841), 40,000 vols.; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 250,000
vols.; university of Ottawa, 35,000 vols.; Legislative Library of
Ontario, Toronto, about 100,000 vols.; university of Toronto (1856),
50,000 vols. The Public (municipal) Library of Toronto has now over
152,000 vols.

In the province of Quebec, in addition to the state-aided libraries
there are several large and important libraries, among which may be
mentioned the Fraser Institute, Montreal, 40,000 vols.; McGill
University, Montreal (1855), 125,000 vols., comprising many important
collections; the Seminary of St Sulpice, Montreal, about 80,000 vols.;
Laval University, Quebec, 125,000 vols.; and the library of the
Legislature (1792), about 100,000 vols. In the western provinces
several large public, government and college libraries have been
formed, but none of them are as old and important as those in the
eastern provinces.

In Nova Scotia there are now 279 cases of books circulating among the
school libraries, containing about 40,000 vols., and in addition 2800
vols. were stocked for the use of rural school libraries. The rural
school libraries of Nova Scotia are regulated by a special law, and a
little handbook has been printed, somewhat similar to that published
by the French educational authorities for the communale libraries. The
Legislative Library at Halifax contains nearly 35,000 vols., and the
Dalhousie University (1868), in the same town, contains about 20,000
vols. The Legislative Library of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown,
containing the Dodd Library, issues books for home use. The school law
of New Brunswick provides for grants being made in aid of school
libraries by the Board of Education equal to one half the amount
raised by a district, and a series of rules has been published. The
only other British libraries in America of much consequence are those
in the West Indian Islands. The Institute of Jamaica, Kingston (1879)
has about 15,000 vols.; the Trinidad Public Library (1841), recently
revised and catalogued, 23,000 vols.; and there are a few small
legislative and college libraries in addition.

AUTHORITIES.--For the history of British libraries see H. B. Adams,
_Public Libraries and Popular Education_ (Albany, N.Y., 1900); J. D.
Brown, _Guide to Librarianship_ (1909); G. F. Chambers and H. W.
Fovargue, _The Law relating to Public Libraries_ (4th ed., 1899); J.
W. Clark, _The Care of Books_ (1909); E. Edwards, _Memoirs of
Libraries_ (1859); T. Greenwood, _Edward Edwards_ (1901) and _Public
Libraries_ (4th ed., revised, 1891); J. J. Ogle, _The Free Library_
(1897); Maurice Pellisson, _Les Bibliothèques populaires à l'etranger
et en France_ (Paris, 1906); R. A. Rye, _The Libraries of London_
(1910); E. A. Savage, _The Story of Libraries and Book-Collectors_
(1909).

For library economy consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Economy_
(1907); F. J. Burgoyne, _Library Construction, &c._ (1897); A. L.
Champneys, _Public Libraries: a Treatise on their Design_ (1907); J.
C. Dana, _A Library Primer_ (Chicago, 1910); Arnim Graesel, _Handbuch
der Bibliothekslehre_ (Leipzig, 1902); Albert Maire, _Manuel pratique
du bibliothécaire_ (Paris, 1896). On the subject of classification
consult J. D. Brown, _Manual of Library Classification_ (1898) and
_Subject Classification_ (1906); C. A. Cutter, _Expansive
Classification_ (1891-1893) (not yet completed); M. Dewey, _Decimal
Classification_ (6th ed., 1899), and _Institut International de
Bibliographie: Classification bibliographique décimale_ (Brussels,
1905); E. C. Richardson, _Classification: Theoretical and Practical_
(1901).

Various methods of cataloguing books are treated in _Cataloguing
Rules, author and title entries, compiled by the Committees of the
American Library Association and the Library Association_ (1908); C.
A. Cutter, _Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue_ (Washington,
1904); M. Dewey, _Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues_ (1892); T.
Hitchler, _Cataloguing for Small Libraries_ (Boston, 1905); K. A.
Linderfelt, _Eclectic Card Catalog Rules_ (Boston, 1890); J. H. Quinn,
_Manual of Library Cataloguing_ (1899); E. A. Savage, _Manual of
Descriptive Annotation_ (1906); J. D. Stewart, _The Sheaf Catalogue_
(1909); H. B. Wheatley, _How to Catalogue a Library_ (1889).

_United States of America._

The libraries of the United States are remarkable for their number, size, variety, liberal endowment and good administration. The total number of libraries with over 1000 vols. was 5383 in 1900, including those attached to schools and institutions, and in 1910 there were probably at least 10,000 libraries having 1000 vols. and over. It is impossible to do more than glance at the principal libraries and activities, where the field is so immense, and a brief sketch of some of the chief federal, state, university, endowed and municipal libraries will therefore be presented.

Federal libraries.

The Library of Congress was first established in 1800 at Washington, and was burned together with the Capitol by the British army in 1814. President Jefferson's books were purchased to form the foundation of a new library, which continued to increase slowly until 1851, when all but 20,000 vols. were destroyed by fire. From this time the collection has grown rapidly, and now consists of about 1,800,000 vols. In 1866 the library of the Smithsonian Institution, consisting of 40,000 vols., chiefly in natural science, was transferred to the Library of Congress. The library is specially well provided in history, jurisprudence, the political sciences and Americana. Since 1832 the law collections have been constituted into a special department. This is the national library. In 1870 the registry of copyrights was transferred to it under the charge of the librarian of Congress, and two copies of every publication which claims copyright are required to be deposited. Cards for these are now printed and copies are sold to other libraries for an annual subscription fixed according to the number taken. The building in which the library is now housed was opened in 1897. It covers 3½ acres of ground, contains 10,000,000 cub. ft. of space, and has possible accommodation for over 4 million vols. Its cost was $6,500,000, or including the land, $7,000,000. It is the largest, most ornate and most costly building in the world yet erected for library purposes. Within recent years the appropriation has been largely increased, and the bibliographical department has been able to publish many valuable books on special subjects. The _A.L.A. Catalog_ (1904) and _A.L.A. Portrait Index_ (1906), may be mentioned as of especial value. The classification of the library is being gradually completed, and in every respect this is the most active government library in existence.

Other important federal libraries are those attached to the following departments at Washington: Bureau of Education (1868); Geological Survey (1882); House of Representatives; Patent Office (1836); Senate (1868); Surgeon General's Office (1870), with an elaborate analytical printed catalogue of world-wide fame.

State libraries.

Although the state libraries of Pennsylvania and New Hampshire are known to have been established as early as 1777, it was not until some time after the revolution that any general tendency was shown to form official libraries in connexion with the state system. It is especially within the last thirty years that the number of these libraries has so increased that now every state and territory possesses a collection of books and documents for official and public purposes. These collections depend for their increase upon annual appropriations by the several states, and upon a systematic exchange of the official publications of the general government and of the several states and territories. The largest is that of the state of New York at Albany, which contains nearly 500,000 vols., and is composed of a general and a law library. Printed and MS. card catalogues have been issued. The state libraries are libraries of reference, and only members of the official classes are allowed to borrow books, although any well-behaved person is admitted to read in the libraries.

University libraries.