Chapter XIV: Front Matter (14)

Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great extent
and interest: Bologna (1801), 191,000 vols., 5060 MSS.; Brescia,
Civica Quiriniana, 125,000 vols., 1500 MSS.; Ferrara (1753), 91,000
vols., 1698 MSS., many Ferrarese rarities; Macerata, the
Mozzi-Borgetti (1783-1835, united 1855), 50,000 vols.; Mantua, 70,000
vols., 1300 MSS.; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847 and 1890), 75,000
vols.; Padua, 90,000 vols., 1600 MSS.; Palermo (1760), 216,000 vols.,
3263 MSS., coins and Sicilian collection; Perugia (1852), founded by
P. Podiani, 70,000 vols., 915 MSS.; Siena (1758), founded by S.
Bandini, fine art collection, 83,250 vols., 5070 MSS.; Venice, Museo
Civico Correr, 50,000 vols., 11,000 MSS.; Verona (1792, public since
1802), 180,000 vols., 2650 MSS.; Vicenza, Bertoliana (1708), local
literature, archives of religious corporations, 175,000 vols., 6000
MSS.

Popular libraries have now been largely developed in Italy, chiefly
through private or municipal enterprise; they enjoy a small state
subvention of £1000. The government report for 1908 stated that 319
communes possessed _biblioteche popolari_ numbering altogether 415. Of
these, 313 were established by municipalities, 113 by individuals, 8
by business houses, 80 by working men's societies and 15 by ministers
of religion; 225 are open to the public, 358 lend books, 221
gratuitously, and 127 on payment of a small fee. In order to establish
these institutions throughout the kingdom, a _Bollettino_ has been
published at Milan since 1907, and a National Congress was held at
Rome in December 1908.

Information has been given for this account by Dr G. Staderini of the
Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, _Iter Italicum_
(Berlin, 1824-1836); _Notizie sulle biblioteche governative del regno
d' Italia_ (Roma, 1893); _Le biblioteche governative Italiane nel
1898_ (Roma, 1900); _Statistica delle biblioteche_ (Roma, 1893-1896, 2
pts.); _Le biblioteche popolari in Italia, relazione al Ministro della
Pubb. Istruzione_ (Roma, 1898); _Bollettino delle biblioteche
popolari_ (Milano, 1907, in progress); E. Fabietti, _Manuale per le
biblioteche popolari_ (2^(da) ediz., Milano); _Le biblioteche pop. al
1^o Congresso Naz. 1908_ (Milano, 1910).

_Latin America._

Much interest in libraries has not been shown in south, central and other parts of Latin America. Most of the libraries which exist are national or legislative libraries.

Cuba.

As the libraries of the republic of Cuba are more Spanish than
American in character, it will be convenient to consider them here.
The chief libraries are in Havana, and the best are the Biblioteca
Publica and the University Library. The Biblioteca Publica has within
recent years been completely overhauled, and is now one of the most
actively-managed libraries in Latin America.

Mexico.

Out of the twenty-nine states and territories of the Mexican republic
about half have public libraries, and only a small proportion of the
contents consists of modern literature. Many possess rare and valuable
books, of interest to the bibliographer and historian, which have come
from the libraries of the suppressed religious bodies. There is a
large number of scientific and literary associations in the republic,
each possessing books. The Society of Geography and Statistics,
founded in 1851 in Mexico City, is the most important of them, and
owns a fine museum and excellent library. After the triumph of the
Liberal party the cathedral, university and conventual libraries of
the city of Mexico came into the possession of the government, and
steps were taken to form them into one national collection. No
definite system was organized, however, until 1867, when the church of
San Augustin was taken and fitted up for the purpose. In 1884 it was
opened as the Biblioteca Nacional, and now possesses over 200,000
vols. Two copies of every book printed in Mexico must be presented to
this library. Most of the libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are
subscription, and belong to societies and schools of various kinds.

Argentina.

The importance of public libraries has been fully recognized in
Argentina, and more than two hundred of them are in the country. They
are due to benefactions, but the government in every case adds an
equal sum to any endowment. A central commission exists for the
purpose of facilitating the acquisition of books and to promote a
uniform excellence of administration. The most considerable is the
Biblioteca Nacional at Buenos Aires, which is passably rich in MSS.,
some of great interest, concerning the early history of the Spanish
colonies. There is also the Biblioteca Municipal with about 25,000
vols. There are libraries attached to colleges, churches and clubs,
and most of the larger towns possess public libraries.

Brazil.

The chief library in Brazil is the Bibliotheca Publica Nacional at Rio
de Janeiro (1807) now comprising over 250,000 printed vols. with many
MSS. National literature and works connected with South America are
special features of this collection. A handsome new building has been
erected which has been fitted up in the most modern manner. Among
other libraries of the capital may be mentioned those of the Faculty
of Medicine, Marine Library, National Museum, Portuguese Literary
Club, Bibliotheca Fluminense, Benedictine Monastery, and the
Bibliotheca Municipal. There are various provincial and public
libraries throughout Brazil, doing good work, and a typical example is
the public library of Maranhao.

Chile.

The Biblioteca Nacional at Santiago is the chief library in Chile. The
catalogue is printed, and is kept up by annual supplements. It
possesses about 100,000 vols. There is also a University Library at
Santiago, and a fairly good Biblioteca Publica at Valparaiso.

Peru.

The Biblioteca Nacional at Lima was founded by a decree of the
liberator San Martin on the 28th of August 1821, and placed in the
house of the old convent of San Pedro. The nucleus of the library
consisted of those of the university of San Marcos and of several
monasteries, and a large present of books was also made by San Martin.
The library is chiefly interesting from containing so many MSS. and
rare books relating to the history of Peru in viceregal times.

_Spain and Portugal._

Most of the royal, state and university libraries of Spain and Portugal have government control and support. In Portugal the work of the universities is to a certain extent connected up, and an official bulletin is published in which the laws and accessions of the libraries are contained.

The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly the
Biblioteca Real) at Madrid. The printed volumes number 600,000 with
200,000 pamphlets. Spanish literature is of course well represented,
and, in consequence of the numerous accessions from the libraries of
the suppressed convents, the classes of theology, canon law, history,
&c., are particularly complete. There are 30,000 MSS., including some
finely illuminated codices, historical documents, and many valuable
autographs. The collection of prints extends to 120,000 pieces, and
was principally formed from the important series bought from Don
Valentin Carderera in 1865. The printed books have one catalogue
arranged under authors' names, and one under titles; the departments
of music, maps and charts, and prints have subject-catalogues as well.
There is a general index of the MSS., with special catalogues of the
Greek and Latin codices and genealogical documents. The cabinet of
medals is most valuable and well arranged. Of the other Madrid
libraries it is enough to mention the Biblioteca de la Real Academia
de la Historia, 1758 (20,000 vols. and 1500 MSS.), which contains some
printed and MS. Spanish books of great value, including the well-known
Salazar collection. The history of the library of the Escorial (q.v.)
has been given elsewhere. In 1808, before the invasion, the Escorial
is estimated to have contained 30,000 printed vols. and 3400 MSS.;
Joseph removed the collection to Madrid, but when it was returned by
Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000
printed vols. The Arabic MSS. have been described by M. Casiri,
1760-1770; and a catalogue of the Greek codices by Müller was issued
at the expense of the French government in 1848. There is a MS.
catalogue of the printed books. Permission to study at the Escorial,
which is one of the royal private libraries, must be obtained by
special application. The Biblioteca Provincial y Universitaria of
Barcelona (1841) contains about 155,000 vols., and that of Seville
(1767) has 82,000 vols. Other cities in Spain possess provincial or
university libraries open to students under various restrictions,
among them may be mentioned the Biblioteca Universitaria of Salamanca
(1254) with over 80,000 vols.

Portugal.

Among the libraries of Portugal the Bibliotheca Nacional at Lisbon
(1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely
increased from the monastic collections, which, however, seem to have
been little cared for according to a report prepared by the principal
librarian three years later. There are now said to be 400,000 vols. of
printed books, among which theology, canon law, history and Portuguese
and Spanish literature largely predominate. The MSS. number 16,000
including many of great value. There is also a cabinet of 40,000 coins
and medals. The Bibliotheca da Academia, founded in 1780, is preserved
in the suppressed convent of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia. In
1836 the Academy acquired the library of that convent, numbering
30,000 vols., which have since been kept apart. The Archivo Nacional,
in the same building, contains the archives of the kingdom, brought
here after the destruction of the Torre do Castello during the great
earthquake.

The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto is the second largest in
Portugal, although only dating from the 9th of July 1833, the
anniversary of the debarcation of D. Pedro, and when the memorable
siege was still in progress; from that date to 1874 it was styled the
Real Biblioteca do Porto. The regent (ex-emperor of Brazil) gave to
the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the northern
provinces, the municipality undertaking to defray the expense of
keeping up the collection. Recent accessions consist mainly of
Portuguese and French books. The important Camoens collection is
described in a printed catalogue (Oporto, 1880). A notice of the MSS.
may be found in _Catalogo dos MSS. da B. Publica Eborense_, by H. da
Cunha Rivara (Lisbon, 1850-1870), 3 vols. folio, and the first part of
an _Indice preparatorio do Catalogo dos Manuscriptos_ was produced in
1880. The University Library of Coimbra (1591) contains about 100,000
vols., and other colleges possess libraries.

_Netherlands._

Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both Belgium and Holland in the development of public libraries, and several towns in the latter country have established popular libraries after the fashion of the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America.

Belgium.

The national library of Belgium is the Bibliothèque Royale at
Brussels, of which the basis may be said to consist of the famous
Bibliothèque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian
sovereigns of the Low Countries, which had gradually accumulated
during three centuries. After suffering many losses from thieves and
fire, in 1772 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne received considerable
augmentations from the libraries of the suppressed order of Jesuits,
and was thrown open to the public. On the occupation of Brussels by
the French in 1794 a number of books and MSS. were confiscated and
transferred to Paris (whence the majority were returned in 1815); in
1795 the remainder were formed into a public library under the care of
La Serna Santander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed
by van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem a
large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was
acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothèque de Bourgogne was added to the state
archives, and the whole made available for students. Van Hulthem died
in 1832, leaving one of the most important private libraries in
Europe, described by Voisin in _Bibliotheca Hulthemiana_ (Brussels,
1836), 5 vols., and extending to 60,000 printed vols, and 1016 MSS.,
mostly relating to Belgian history. The collection was purchased by
the government in 1837, and, having been added to the Bibliothèque de
Bourgogne (open since 1772) and the Bibliothèque de la Ville (open
since 1794), formed what has since been known as the Bibliothèque
Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes now number over 600,000 with
30,000 MSS., 105,000 prints and 80,000 coins and medals. The special
collections, each with a printed catalogue, consist of the Fonds van
Hulthem, for national history; the Fonds Fétis, for music; the Fonds
Goethals, for genealogy; and the Fonds Müller, for physiology. The
catalogue of the MSS. has been partly printed, and catalogues of
accessions and other departments are also in course of publication.
There are libraries attached to most of the departments of the
government, the ministry of war having 120,000 vols. and the ministry
of the interior, 15,000 vols. An interesting library is the
Bibliothèque Collective des Sociétés Savantes founded in 1906 to
assemble in one place the libraries of all the learned societies of
Brussels. It contains about 40,000 vols. which have been catalogued on
cards. The Bibliothèque du Conservatoire royal de Musique (1832)
contains 12,000 vols, and 6000 dramatic works. The popular or communal
libraries of Brussels contain about 30,000 vols. and those of the
adjoining suburbs about 50,000 vols., most of which are distributed
through the primary and secondary schools. At Antwerp the Stadt
Bibliothek (1805) has now 70,000 vols., and is partly supported by
subscriptions and endowments. The valuable collection of books in the
Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also be mentioned. It contains
11,000 MSS. and 15,000 printed books, comprising the works issued by
the Plantin family and many 15th-century books.

The University Library of Ghent, known successively as the
Bibliothèque de l'École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la
Ville, was founded upon the old libraries of the Conseil de Flandres,
of the College des Échevins, and of many suppressed religious
communities. It was declared public in 1797, and formally opened in
1798. On the foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the
collection at its disposal, and the library has since remained under
state control. The printed volumes now amount to 353,000. There are
important special collections on archaeology, Netherlands literature,
national history, books printed in Flanders, and 23,000 historical
pamphlets of the 16th and 17th centuries. The main catalogue is in MS.
on cards. There are printed catalogues of the works on jurisprudence
(1839), and of the MSS. (1852). The Bibliothèque de l'Université
Catholique of Louvain is based upon the collection of Beyerlinck, who
bequeathed it to his alma mater in 1627; this example was followed by
Jacques Romain, professor of medicine, but the proper organization of
the library began in 1636. There are now said to be 211,000 vols. The
Bibliothèque de l'Université of Liége dates from 1817, when on the
foundation of the university the old Bibliothèque de la Ville was
added to it. There are now 350,000 printed vols., pamphlets, MSS., &c.
The Liége collection (of which a printed catalogue appeared in 3 vols.
8vo., 1872), bequeathed by M. Ulysse Capitaine, extends to 12,061
vols. and pamphlets. There are various printed catalogues. The
Bibliothèques Populaires of Liége established in 1862, now number
five, and contain among them 50,000 vols. which are circulated to the
extent of 130,000 per annum among the school children. The
Bibliothèque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,600 printed books
and MSS., housed in a very artistic building, once the Tonlieu or
douane, 1477. There are communal libraries at Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath
(1842), Courtrai, Malines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend
(1861), Tournai (1794, housed in the Hôtel des Anciens Prêtres, 1755),
Ypres (1839) and elsewhere, all conducted on the same system as the
French communal libraries. Most of them range in size from 5000 to
40,000 vols, and they are open as a rule only part of the day. Every
small town has a similar library, and a complete list of them,
together with much other information, will be found in the _Annuaire
de la Belgique, scientifique, artistique et littéraire_ (Brussels 1908
and later issues).

Holland.

The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek at
Hague, which was established in 1798, when it was decided to join the
library of the princes of Orange with those of the defunct government
bodies in order to form a library for the States-General, to be called
the Nationale Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; and
since 1815 it has become the national library. In 1848 the Baron W. Y.
H. van Westreenen van Tiellandt bequeathed his valuable books, MSS.,
coins and antiquities to the country, and directed that they should be
preserved in his former residence as a branch of the royal library.
There are now upwards of 500,000 vols. of printed books, and the MSS.
number 6000, chiefly historical, but including many fine books of
hours with miniatures. Books are lent all over the country. The
library boasts of the richest collection in the world of books on
chess, Dutch incunabula, Elzevirs and Spinozana. There is one general
written catalogue arranged in classes, with alphabetical indexes. In
1800 a printed catalogue was issued, with four supplements down to
1811; and since 1866 a yearly list of additions has been published.
Special mention should be made of the excellent catalogue of the
incunabula published in 1856.

The next library in numerical importance is the famous Bibliotheca
Academiae Lugduno-Batavae, which dates from the foundation of the
university of Leiden by William I., prince of Orange, on the 8th of
February 1575. It has acquired many valuable additions from the books
and MSS. of the distinguished scholars, Golius, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac
Voss, Ruhnken and Hemsterhuis. The MSS. comprehend many of great
intrinsic importance. The library of the Society of Netherland
Literature has been placed here since 1877; this is rich in the
national history and literature. The Arabic and Oriental MSS. known as
the Legatum Warnerianum are of great value and interest; and the
collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenhuis is also
noteworthy. The library is contained in a building which was formerly
a church of the Béguines, adapted in 1860 somewhat after the style of
the British Museum. The catalogues (one alphabetical and one
classified) are on slips, the titles being printed. A catalogue of
books and MSS. was printed in 1716, one of books added between 1814
and 1847 and a supplementary part of MSS. only in 1850. A catalogue of
the Oriental MSS. was published in 6 vols. (1851-1877). The
Bibliotheek der Rijks Universiteit (1575) at Leiden contains over
190,000 vols.

The University Library at Utrecht dates from 1582, when certain
conventual collections were brought together in order to form a public
library, which was shortly afterwards enriched by the books bequeathed
by Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio. Upon the foundation of the
university in 1636, the town library passed into its charge. Among the
MSS. are some interesting cloister MSS. and the famous "Utrecht
Psalter," which contains the oldest text of the Athanasian creed. The
last edition of the catalogue was in 2 vols. folio, 1834, with
supplement in 1845, index from 1845-1855 in 8vo., and additions
1856-1870, 2 vols. 8vo. A catalogue of the MSS. was issued in 1887.
The titles of accessions are now printed in sheets and pasted down for
insertion. There are now about 250,000 vols. in the library.

The basis of the University Library at Amsterdam consists of a
collection of books brought together in the 15th century and preserved
in the Nieuwe Kerk. At the time of the Reformation in 1578 they became
the property of the city, but remained in the Nieuwe Kerk for the use
of the public till 1632, when they were transferred to the Athenaeum.
Since 1877 the collection has been known as the University Library,
and in 1881 it was removed to a building designed upon the plan of the
new library and reading-room of the British Museum. The library
includes the best collection of medical works in Holland, and the
Bibliotheca Rosenthaliana of Hebrew and Talmudic literature is of
great fame and value; a catalogue of the last was printed in 1875. The
libraries of the Dutch Geographical and other societies are preserved
here. A general printed catalogue was issued in 6 vols. 8vo.,
Amsterdam (1856-1877); one describing the bequests of J. de Bosch
Kemper, E. J. Potgieter and F. W. Rive, in 3 vols., 8vo. (1878-1879);
a catalogue of the MSS. of Professor Moll was published in 1880, and
one of those of P. Camper in 1881. Other catalogues have been
published up to 1902, including one of the MSS. The library contains
about half a million volumes. There are popular subscription libraries
with reading-rooms in all parts of Holland, and in Rotterdam there is
a society for the encouragement of social culture which has a large
library as part of its equipment. At Hague, Leiden, Haarlem, Dordrecht
and other towns popular libraries have been established, and there is
a movement of recent growth, in favour of training librarians on
advanced English lines.

The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen at Batavia
contains books printed in Netherlandish India, works relating to the
Indian Archipelago and adjacent countries, and the history of the
Dutch in the East. There are 20,000 printed vols. and 1630 MSS., of
which 243 are Arabic, 445 Malay, 303 Javanese, 60 Batak and 517 on
lontar leaves, in the ancient Kawi, Javanese and Bali languages, &c.
Printed catalogues of the Arabic, Malay, Javanese and Kawi MSS. have
been issued.

_Scandinavia._

Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians having been trained and employed in American libraries, a greater approach has been made to Anglo-American library ideals in Norway, Sweden and Denmark than anywhere else on the continent of Europe.

Denmark.

The beginning of the admirably managed national library of Denmark,
the great Royal Library at Copenhagen (Det Store Kongelige Bibliothek)
may be said to have taken place during the reign of Christian III.
(1533-1559), who took pride in importing foreign books and choice
MSS.; but the true founder was Frederick III. (1648-1670); to him is
mainly due the famous collection of Icelandic literature and the
acquisition of Tycho Brahe's MSS. The present building (in the
Christiansborg castle) was begun in 1667. Among notable accessions may
be mentioned the collections of C. Reitzer, the count of Danneskjöld
(8000 vols. and 500 MSS.) and Count de Thott; the last bequeathed 6039
vols. printed before 1531, and the remainder of his books, over
100,000 vols., was eventually purchased. In 1793 the library was
opened to the public, and it has since remained under state control.
Two copies of every book published within the kingdom must be
deposited here. The incunabula and block books form an important
series. There is a general classified catalogue in writing for the use
of readers; and an alphabetical one on slips arranged in boxes for the
officials. A good catalogue of the de Thott collection was printed in
12 vols. 8vo. (1789-1795); a catalogue of the French MSS. appeared in
1844; of Oriental MSS., 1846; of the Danish collection, 1875, 8vo.
Annual reports and accounts of notable MSS. have been published since
1864. The library now contains over 750,000 vols.

The University Library, founded in 1482, was destroyed by fire in
1728, and re-established shortly afterwards. A copy of every Danish
publication must be deposited here. The MSS. include the famous
Arne-Magnean collection. There are now about 400,000 vols. in this
library. The Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1902) possesses about 200,000
vols. and the Landsbókasafn Islands (National Library) of Reykjavik,
Iceland, has about 50,000 printed books and 5500 MSS. In Copenhagen
there are 11 popular libraries supported in part by the city, and
there are at least 50 towns in the provinces with public libraries and
in some cases reading-rooms. An association for promoting public
libraries was formed in 1905, and in 1909 the minister of public
instruction appointed a special adviser in library matters. About 800
towns and villages are aided by the above named association, the state
and local authorities, and it is estimated that they possess among
them 500,000 vols., and circulate over 1,000,000 vols. annually.

Norway.

The chief library in Norway is the University Library at Christiania,
established at the same time as the university, September 2nd, 1811,
by Frederick II., with a donation from the king of many thousands of
duplicates from the Royal Library at Copenhagen, and since augmented
by important bequests. Annual catalogues are issued and there are now
over 420,000 vols. in the collection. The Deichmanske Bibliothek in
Christiania was founded by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library.
In 1898 it was reorganized, and in 1903 the open shelf method was
installed by Haakon Nyhuus, the librarian, who had been trained in the
United States. The library is partly supported by endowment, partly by
grants from the municipality. It now contains about 85,000 vols., and
is a typical example of a progressive library. The Free Library at
Bergen (1872) has about 90,000 vols. and has recently been re-housed
in a new building. A free library, with open shelves, has also been
opened at Trondhjem. The library connected with the Kongellige
Videnskabers Selskab at Trondhjem now contains about 120,000 vols.
Owing to the absence of small towns and villages in Norway, most of
the library work is concentrated in the coast towns.

Sweden.

The Royal Library at Stockholm was first established in 1585. The
original collection was given to the university of Upsala by Gustavus
II., that formed by Christina is at the Vatican, and the library
brought together by Charles X. was destroyed by fire in 1697. The
present library was organized shortly afterwards. The
Benzelstjerna-Engeström Library (14,500 printed vols. and 1200 MSS.)
rich in materials for Swedish history, is now annexed to it. Natural
history, medicine and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among
the MSS. the _Codex Aureus_ of the 6th or 7th century, with its
interesting Anglo-Saxon inscription, is particularly noteworthy. The
catalogues are in writing, and are both alphabetical and classified;
printed catalogues have been issued of portions of the MSS. The
present building was opened in 1882. The library now contains about
320,000 printed books and over 11,000 MSS. The Karolinska Institutet
in Stockholm, contains a library of medical books numbering over
40,000.

The University Library at Upsala was founded by Gustavus Adolphus in
1620, from the remains of several convent libraries; he also provided
an endowment. The MSS. chiefly relate to the history of the country,
but include the _Codex Argenteus_, containing the Gothic gospels of
Ulfilas. The general catalogue is in writing. A catalogue was printed
in 1814; special lists of the foreign accessions have been published
each year from 1850; the Arabic, Persian and Turkish MSS. are
described by C. J. Tornberg, 1846. It now contains about 340,000
printed books and MSS. The library at Lund dates from the foundation
of the university in 1668, and was based upon the old cathedral
library. The MSS. include the de la Gardie archives, acquired in 1848.
There are about 200,000 vols. in the library. The Stadsbibliotek of
Gothenburg contains about 100,000 vols., and has a printed catalogue.

_Russia._

The imperial Public Library at St Petersburg is one of the largest libraries in the world, and now possesses about 1,800,000 printed vols. and 34,000 MSS., as well as large collections of maps, autographs, photographs, &c. The beginning of this magnificent collection may be said to have been the books seized by the Czar Peter during his invasion of Courland in 1714; the library did not receive any notable augmentation, however, till the year 1795, when, by the acquisition of the famous Zaluski collection, the Imperial Library suddenly attained a place in the first rank among great European libraries. The Zaluski Library was formed by the Polish count Joseph Zaluski, who collected at his own expense during forty-three years no less than 200,000 vols., which were added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of Cracow, by whom in 1747 the library was thrown open to the public. At his death it was left under the control of the Jesuit College at Warsaw; on the suppression of the order it was taken care of by the Commission of Education; and finally in 1795 it was transferred by Suwaroff to St Petersburg as a trophy of war. It then extended to 260,000 printed vols. and 10,000 MSS., but in consequence of the withdrawal of many medical and illustrated works to enrich other institutions, hardly 238,000 vols. remained in 1810. Literature, history and theology formed the main features of the Zaluski Library; the last class alone amounted to one-fourth of the whole number. Since the beginning of the 19th century, through the liberality of the sovereigns, the gifts of individuals, careful purchases, and the application of the law of 1810, whereby two copies of every Russian publication must be deposited here, the Imperial Library has attained its present extensive dimensions. Nearly one hundred different collections, some of them very valuable and extensive, have been added from time to time. They include, for example, the Tolstoi Sclavonic collection (1830), Tischendorf's MSS. (1858), the Dolgorousky Oriental MSS. (1859), and the Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite) collection (1862-1863), the libraries of Adelung (1858) and Tobler (1877), that of the Slavonic scholar Jungmann (1856), and the national MSS. of Karamzin (1867). This system of acquiring books, while it has made some departments exceedingly rich, has left others comparatively meagre. The library was not regularly opened to the public until 1814; it is under the control of the minister of public instruction. There are fine collections of Aldines and Elzevirs, and the numerous incunabula are instructively arranged.

The manuscripts include 26,000 codices, 41,340 autographs, 4689 charters and 576 maps. The glory of this department is the celebrated _Codex Sinaiticus_ of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St Catherine on Mount Sinai by Tischendorf in 1859. Other important Biblical and patristic codices are to be found among the Greek, and Latin MSS.; the Hebrew MSS. include some of the most ancient that exist, and the Samaritan collection is one of the largest in Europe; the Oriental MSS. comprehend many valuable texts, and among the French are some of great historical value. The general catalogues are in writing, but many special catalogues of the MSS. and printed books have been published.

The nucleus of the library at the Hermitage Palace was formed by the
empress Catherine II., who purchased the books and MSS. of Voltaire
and Diderot. In the year 1861 the collection amounted to 150,000
vols., of which nearly all not relating to the history of art were
then transferred to the Imperial Library. There are many large and
valuable libraries attached to the government departments in St
Petersburg, and most of the academies and colleges and learned
societies are provided with libraries.

The second largest library in Russia is contained in the Public Museum
at Moscow. The class of history is particularly rich, and Russian
early printed books are well represented. The MSS. number 5000,
including many ancient Sclavonic codices and historical documents of
value. One room is devoted to a collection of Masonic MSS., which
comprehend the archives of the lodges in Russia between 1816 and 1821.
There is a general alphabetical catalogue in writing; the catalogue of
the MSS. has been printed, as well as those of some of the special
collections. This large and valuable library now contains close upon
1,000,000 printed books and MSS. The Imperial University at Moscow
(1755) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and the Duchovnaja Academy
has 120,000 vols. The Imperial Russian Historical Museum (1875-1883)
in Moscow contains nearly 200,000 vols. and most of the state
institutions and schools are supplied with libraries. All the Russian
universities have libraries, some of them being both large and
valuable--Dorpat (1802) 400,000 vols.; Charkov (1804) 180,000 vols.;
Helsingfors (1640-1827) 193,000 vols.; Kasan (1804) 242,000 vols.;
Kiev (1832) 125,000 vols.; Odessa (1865) 250,000 vols.; and Warsaw
(1817) 550,000 vols. There are also communal or public libraries at
Charkov (1886) 110,000 vols.; Odessa (1830) 130,000 vols.; Reval
(1825) 40,000 vols.; Riga, 90,000 vols.; Vilna (1856) 210,000 vols.
and many other towns. A text-book on library economy, based on Graesel
and Brown, was issued at St Petersburg in 1904.

_Eastern Europe._

At Athens the National Library (1842) possesses about 260,000 vols., and there is also a considerable library at the university. The Public Library at Corfu has about 40,000 vols. Belgrade University Library has 60,000 vols. and the University Library of Sofia has 30,000 vols. Constantinople University in 1910 had a library in process of formation, and there are libraries at the Greek Literary Society (20,000 vols.) and Theological School (11,000 vols.).

_China._

Chinese books were first written on thin slips of bamboo, which were replaced by silk or cloth scrolls in the 3rd century B.C., paper coming into use in the beginning of the 2nd century. These methods were customary down to the 10th or 11th century. There were no public libraries in the western sense.

The practice of forming national collections of the native literature
originated in the attempts to recover the works destroyed in the
"burning of the books" by the "First Emperor" (220 B.C.). In 190 B.C.
the law for the suppression of literary works was repealed, but
towards the close of the 1st century B.C. many works were still
missing. Hsiao Wu (139-86 B.C.) formed the plan of Repositories, in
which books might be stored, with officers to transcribe them. Liu
Hsiang (80-9 B.C.) was specially appointed to classify the literature
and form a library. His task was completed by his son, and the
_resumé_ of their labours is a detailed catalogue with valuable notes
describing 11,332 "sections" (volumes) by 625 authors. Similar
national collections were formed by nearly every succeeding dynasty.
The high estimation in which literature has always been held has led
to the formation of very large imperial, official and private
collections of books. Large numbers of works, chiefly relating to
Buddhism and Taoism, are also stored in many of the temples. Chinese
books are usually in several, and frequently in many volumes. The
histories and encyclopaedias are mostly of vast dimensions.
Collections of books are kept in wooden cupboards or on open shelves,
placed on their sides, each set (_t'ao_) of volumes (_pên_) being
protected and held together by two thin wooden or card boards, one
forming the front cover (in a European book) and the other the back
cover, joined by two cords or tapes running round the whole. By
untying and tying these tapes the _t'ao_ is opened and closed. The
titles of the whole work and of each section are written on the edge
(either the top or bottom in a European book) and so face outwards as
it lies on the shelf. Catalogues are simple lists with comments on the
books, not the systematic and scientific productions used in Western
countries. There are circulating libraries in large numbers in Peking,
Canton and other cities.

See E. T. C. Werner, "Chinese Civilisation" (in H. Spencer's
_Descriptive Sociology_, pt. ix.).

_Japan._

The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that of China, with whose civilization and literature it had close relations. Since about 1870, however, the great cities and institutions have established libraries on the European model.

Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the
Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokio with over 500,000 vols., consisting
of the collections of the various government departments, and is for
official use alone. The University Library (1872) is the largest open
to students and the public; it contains over 400,000 vols. of which
230,000 are Chinese and Japanese. The Public Library and reading-room
(Tosho-Kwan) at Ueno Park (1872) was formed in 1872 and contains over
250,000 vols., of which about one-fifth are European books. At Tokio
are also to be found the Ohashi Library (1902) with 60,000 vols. and
the Hibaya Library (1908) with 130,000 vols. and the Nanki Library
(1899) with 86,000 vols. The library of the Imperial University of
Kyoto contains nearly 200,000 vols., of which over 90,000 are in
European languages. To this is attached the library of the Fukuoka
Medical College with 113,000 vols. The Municipal Library of Kyoto
(1898) contains 46,000 vols. Other important municipal libraries in
Japan are those at Akita in the province Of Ugo (1899), 47,000 vols.,
at Mito, province of Hitachi (1908), 25,000 vols., Narita, province of
Shimosa (1901), 36,000 vols., chiefly Buddhistic, Yamaguchi, province
of Suó (1907), 23,000 vols. The libraries of the large temples often
contain books of value to the philologist. Lending libraries of native
and Chinese literature have existed in Japan from very early times.

LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND TRAINING

The first and largest association established for the study of librarianship was the American Library Association (1876). The Library Association of the United Kingdom was formed in 1877 as an outcome of the first International Library Conference, held at London, and in 1898 it received a royal charter. It publishes a _Year Book_, the monthly _Library Association Record_, and a number of professional handbooks. It also holds examinations in Literary History, Bibliography and Library Economy, and issues certificates and diplomas. There are also English and Scottish district library associations. The Library Assistants Association was formed in 1895 and has branches in different parts of England, Wales and Ireland. It issues a monthly magazine entitled _The Library Assistant_. There is an important Library Association in Germany which issues a year-book giving information concerning the libraries of the country, and a similar organization in Austria-Hungary which issues a magazine at irregular intervals. An Association of Archivists and Librarians was formed at Brussels in 1907, and there are similar societies in France, Italy, Holland and elsewhere. In every country there is now some kind of association for the study of librarianship, archives or bibliography. International conferences have been held at London, 1877; London, 1897; Paris (at Exhibition), 1903; St Louis, 1904; Brussels (preliminary), 1908; and Brussels, 1910.

LIBRARY PERIODICALS.--The following is a list of the current
periodicals which deal with library matters, with the dates of their
establishment and place of publication: _The Library Journal_ (New
York, 1876); _The Library_ (London, 1889); _Public Libraries_
(Chicago, 1896); _The Library World_ (London, 1898); _The Library
Assistant_ (1898); _The Library Association Record_ (1899); _Library
Work_ (Minneapolis, U.S., 1906); _Bulletin of the American Library
Association_ (Boston, 1907); _Revue des bibliothèques_ (Paris, 1891);
_Bulletin des bibliothèques populaires_ (Paris, 1906); _Courrier des
Bibliothèques_ (Paris); _Bulletin de l'institut international de
bibliographie_ (Brussels, 1895); _Revue des bibliothèques et archives
de Belgique_ (Brussels, 1903); _Tijdschrift voor boek- en
bibliotheekwezen_ (Hague, 1903); _De Boekzaal_ (Hague, 1907);
_Bogsamlingsbladet_ (Copenhagen, 1906); _For Folke-og
Barnboksamlinger_ (Christiania, 1906); _Folkebibliotheksbladet_
(Stockholm, 1903); _Zentralblatt für Bibliothekswesen_ (Leipzig,
1884); _Blätter für Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen_ (1899;
occasional supplement to the above); _Bibliographie des Bibliotheks-
und Buchwesens_ (ed. by Adalbert Hortzschansky, 1904; issued in the
_Zentralblatt_); _Jahrbuch der Deutschen Bibliotheken_ (Leipzig,
1902); _Minerva. Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt_ (Strassburg, 1890);
_Mitteilungen des österreichischen Vereins für Bibliothekswesen_
(Vienna, 1896); _Ceská Osvéta_ (Novy Bydzov, Bohemia, 1905); _Revista
delle biblioteche e degli archivi_ (Florence, 1890); _Bollettino delle
biblioteche popolari_ (Milan, 1907); _Revista de Archivos, Bibliotecas
y Museos Madrid_ (1907); _The Gakuto_ (Tokio, Japan, 1897).
(H. R. T.; J. D. Br.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See Menant, _Bibliothèque du palais de Ninive_ (Paris, 1880).

[2] Grote, _History of Greece_, iv. 37, following Becker.

[3] Ritschl, _Die alexandrinischen Bibliotheken_, p. 22; _Opusc.
phil._ i. § 123.

[4] _N.A._ vi. 17.

[5] _De tranq. an._ 9.

[6] Parthey (_Alexandrinisches Museum_) assigns topographical reasons
for doubting this story.

[7] Some of the authorities have been collected by Parthey, _op.
cit._

[8] The oldest catalogue of a western library is that of the
monastery of Fontanelle in Normandy compiled in the 8th century. Many
catalogues may be found in the collections of D'Achery, Martene and
Durand, and Pez, in the bibliographical periodicals of Naumann and
Petzholdt and the _Centralblatt f. Bibliothekswissenschaft_. The Rev.
Joseph Hunter has collected some particulars as to the contents of
the English monastic libraries, and Ed. Edwards has printed a list of
the catalogues (_Libraries and Founders of Libraries_, 1865, pp.
448-454). See also G. Becker, _Catalogi Bibliothecarum Antiqui_
(1885). There are said to be over six hundred such catalogues in the
Royal Library at Munich. In the 14th century the Franciscans compiled
a general catalogue of the MSS. in 160 English libraries and about
the year 1400 John Boston, a Benedictine monk of Bury, travelled over
England and a part of Scotland and examined the libraries of 195
religious houses (Tanner, _Bibliotheca Brit. Hibern._ 1748). Leland's
list of the books he found during his visitation of the houses in
1539-1545 is printed in his _Collectanea_ (ed. Hearne, 1715, 6
vols.). T. W. Williams has treated Gloucestershire and Bristol
medieval libraries and their catalogues in a paper in the Bristol and
Gloucestershire _Arch. Soc._ vol. xxxi.

[9] This subject has been specially treated by J. Willis Clark in
several works, of which the chief is a masterly volume, _The Care of
Books_ (1901). See also Dom Gasquet, "On Medieval Monastic
Libraries," in his _Old English Bible_ (1897).

[10] Among the Arabs, however, as among the Christians, theological
bigotry did not always approve of non-theological literature, and the
great library of Cordova was sacrificed by Almanzor to his reputation
for orthodoxy, 978 A.D.

[11] _Guide to Librarianship_ by J. D. Brown (1909).

LIBRATION (Lat. _libra_, a balance), a slow oscillation, as of a balance; in astronomy especially the seeming oscillation of the moon around her axis, by which portions of her surface near the edge of the disk are alternately brought into sight and swung out of sight.

LIBYA, the Greek name for the northern part of Africa, with which alone Greek and Roman history are concerned. It is mentioned as a land of great fertility in Homer (_Odyssey_, iv. 85), but no indication of its extent is given. It did not originally include Egypt, which was considered part of Asia, and first assigned to Africa by Ptolemy, who made the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between the two continents. The name Africa came into general use through the Romans. In the early empire, North Africa (excluding Egypt) was divided into Mauretania, Numidia, Africa Propria and Cyrenaica. The old name was reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica (detached from Crete) was divided into Marmarica (Libya inferior) in the east, and Cyrenaica (Libya superior) in the west. A further distinction into Libya interior and exterior is also known. The former ([Greek: hê entós]) included the interior (known and unknown) of the continent, as contrasted with the N. and N.E. portion; the latter ([Greek: hê exô], called also simply Libya, or _Libyae nomos_), between Egypt and Marmarica, was so called as having once formed an Egyptian "nome." See AFRICA, ROMAN.

LICATA, a seaport of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti, 24 m. S.E. of Girgenti direct and 54 m. by rail. Pop. (1901) 22,931. It occupies the site of the town which Phintias of Acragas (Agrigentum) erected after the destruction of Gela, about 281 B.C., by the Mamertines, and named after himself. The river Salso, which flows into the sea on the east of the town, is the ancient _Himera Meridionalis_. The promontory at the foot of which the town is situated, the _Poggio di Sant' Angelo_, is the Ecnomus (_Eknomon_) of the Greeks, and upon its slopes are scanty traces of ancient structures and rock tombs. It was off this promontory that the Romans gained the famous naval victory over the Carthaginians in the spring of 256 B.C., while the plain to the north was the scene of the defeat of Agathocles by Hamilcar in 310 B.C. The modern town is mainly important as a shipping port for sulphur.

LICENCE (through the French from Lat. _licentia_, _licere_, to be lawful), permission, leave, liberty, hence an abuse of liberty, licentiousness; in particular, a formal authority to do some lawful act. Such authority may be either verbal or written; when written, the document containing the authority is called a "licence." Many acts, lawful in themselves, are regulated by statutory authority, and licences must be obtained. For the sale of alcoholic liquor see LIQUOR LAWS.

LICHEN (_lichen ruber_), in medical terminology, a papular disease of the skin, consisting of an eruption in small thickly set, slightly elevated red points, more or less widely distributed over the body, and accompanied by slight febrile symptoms.

LICHENS, in botany, compound or dual organisms each consisting of an association of a higher fungus, with a usually unicellular, sometimes filamentous, alga. The fungal part of the organism nearly always consists of a number of the _Discomycetes_ or _Pyrenomycetes_, while the algal portion is a member of the Schizophyceae (Cyanophyceae or Blue-green Algae) or of the Green Algae; only in a very few cases is the fungus a member of the Basidiomycetes. The special fungi which take part in the association are, with rare exceptions, not found growing separately, while the algal forms are constantly found free. The reproductive organs of the lichen are of a typically fungal character, i.e. are apothecia or perithecia (see FUNGI) and spermogonia. The algal cells are never known to form spores while part of the lichen-thallus, but they may do so when separated from it and growing free. The fungus thus clearly takes the upper hand in the association.

Owing to their peculiar dual nature, lichens are able to live in situations where neither the alga nor fungus could exist alone. The enclosed alga is protected by the threads (hyphae) of the fungus, and supplied with water and salts and, possibly, organic nitrogenous substances; in its turn the alga by means of its green or blue-green colouring matter and the sun's energy manufactures carbohydrates which are used in part by the fungus. An association of two organisms to their mutual advantage is known as _symbiosis_, and the lichen in botanical language is described as a symbiotic union of an alga and a fungus. This form of relationship is now known in other groups of plants (see BACTERIOLOGY and FUNGI), but it was first discovered in the lichens. The lichens are characterized by their excessively slow growth and their great length of life.

Until comparatively recent times the lichens were considered as a group of simple organisms on a level with algae and fungi. The green (or blue-green) cells were termed gonidia by Wallroth, who looked upon them as asexual reproductive cells, but when it was later realized that they were not reproductive elements they were considered as mere outgrowths of the hyphae of the thallus which had developed chlorophyll. In 1865 De Bary suggested the possibility that such lichens as _Collema_, _Ephebe_, &c., arose as a result of the attack of parasitic Ascomycetes upon the algae, Nostoc, Chroococcus, &c. In 1867 the observations of Famintzin and Baranetzky showed that the gonidia, in certain cases, were able to live outside the lichen-thallus, and in the case of Physcia, Evernia and Cladonia were able to form zoospores. Baranetzky therefore concluded that a certain number, if not all of the so-called algae were nothing more than free living lichen-gonidia. In 1869 Schwendener put forward the really illuminating view--exactly opposite to that of Baranetzky--that the gonidia in all cases were algae which had been attacked by parasitic fungi. Although Schwendener supported this view of the "dual" nature of lichens by very strong evidence and identified the more common lichen-gonidia with known free-living algae, yet the theory was received with a storm of opposition by nearly all lichenologists. These workers were unable to consider with equanimity the loss of the autonomy of their group and its reduction to the level of a special division of the fungi. The observations of Schwendener, however, received ample support from Bornet's (1873) examination of 60 genera. He investigated the exact relation of fungus and alga and showed that the same alga is able to combine with a number of different fungi to form lichens; thus _Chroolepus umbrinus_ is found as the gonidia of 13 different lichen genera.

The view of the dual nature of lichens had hitherto been based on analysis; the final proof of this view was now supplied by the actual _synthesis_ of a lichen from fungal and algal constituents. Rees in 1871 produced the sterile thallus of a _Collema_ from its constituents; later Stahl did the same for three species. Later Bonnier (1886) succeeded in producing fertile thalli by sowing lichen spores and the appropriate algae upon sterile glass plates or portions of bark, and growing them in sterilized air (fig. 1). Möller also in 1887 succeeded in growing small lichen-thalli without their algal constituent (gonidia) on nutritive solutions; in the case of _Calicium_ pycnidia were actually produced under these conditions.

The thallus or body of the lichen is of very different form in different genera. In the simplest filamentous lichens (e.g. _Ephebe pubescens_) the form of thallus is the form of the filamentous alga which is merely surrounded by the fungal hyphae (fig. 2). The next simplest forms are gelatinous lichens (e.g. _Collemaceae_); in these the algae are Chroococcaceae and Nostocaceae, and the fungus makes its way into the gelatinous membranes of the algal cells and ramifies there (fig. 3). We can distinguish this class of forms as lichens with a _homoiomerous_ thallus, i.e. one in which the alga and fungus are equally distributed. The majority of the lichens, however, possess a stratified thallus in which the gonidia are found as a definite layer or layers embedded in a pseudo-parenchymatous mass of fungal hyphae, i.e. they are _heteromerous_ (figs. 8 and 9). Obviously these two conditions may merge into one another, and the distinction is not of classificatory value.

From Strasburger's _Lehrbuch der Botanik_, by permission of Gustav
Fischer.

FIG. 1.--_Xanthoria parietina._ By the fusion of the hyphae in the
middle of the mycelium a pseudo-parenchymatous cortical layer has
begun to form.

1, Germinating ascospore (sp) with branching germ-tube applied to the
_Cystococcus_ cells (a).
2, Thallus in process of formation.
sp, Two ascospores.
p, _Cystococcus_ cells.]

In external form the heteromerous thallus presents the following
modifications. (a) The _foliaceous_ (leaf-like) thallus, which may be
either peltate, i.e. rounded and entire, as in _Umbilicaria_, &c., or
variously lobed and laciniated, as in _Sticta_, _Parmelia_, _Cetraria_
(fig. 4), &c. This is the highest type of its development, and is
sometimes very considerably expanded. (b) The _fruticose_ thallus may
be either erect, becoming pendulous, as in _Usnea_ (fig. 5),
_Ramalina_, &c., or prostrate, as in _Alectoria jubata_, var.
_chalybeiformis_. It is usually divided into branches and branchlets,
bearing some resemblance to a miniature shrub. An erect cylindrical
thallus terminated by the fruit is termed a _podetium_, as in
_Cladonia_ (fig. 7). (c) The _crustaceous_ thallus, which is the most
common of all, forms a mere crust on the substratum, varying in
thickness, and may be squamose (in _Squamaria_), radiate (in
_Placodium_), areolate, granulose or pulverulent (in various
_Lecanorae_ and _Lecideae_). (d) The _hypophloeodal_ thallus is often
concealed beneath the bark of trees (as in some _Verrucariae_ and
_Arthoniae_), or enters into the fibres of wood (as in _Xylographa_
and _Agyrium_), being indicated externally only by a very thin film
(figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). In colour also the thallus externally is
very variable. In the dry and more typical state it is most frequently
white or whitish, and almost as often greyish or greyish glaucous.
Less commonly it is of different shades of brown, red, yellow and
black. In the moist state of the thallus these colours are much less
apparent, as the textures then become more or less translucent, and
the thallus usually prevents the greenish colour of the gonidia (e.g.
_Parmelia Borreri_, _Peltidea aphthosa_, _Umbilicaria pustulata_ and
pulverulent _Lecideae_).

The thallus may be free upon the surface of the substratum (e.g.
_Collema_) or may be fixed more or less closely to it by special
hyphae or rhizoids. These may penetrate but slightly into the
substratum, but the connexion established may be so close that it is
impossible to remove the thallus from the substratum without injury
(e.g. _Physcia_, _Placodium_). In some cases the rhizoids are united
together into larger strands, the _rhizines_.

The typical heteromerous thallus shows on section a peripheral, thin
and therefore transparent, layer, the _cortical layer_, and centrally
a mass of denser tissue the so-called _medullary layer_, between these
two layers is the algal zone or gonidial layer (figs. 8 and 9).

The term _epithallus_ is sometimes applied to the superficial dense
portion of the cortical layer and the term _hypothallus_ to the layer,
when specially modified, in immediate contact with the substratum; the
hypothallus is usually dark or blackish. The cylindrical branches of
the fruticose forms are usually radially symmetrical, but the
flattened branches of these forms and also the thalli of the
foliaceous form show a difference in the cortex of the upper and lower
side. The cortical layer is usually more developed on the side towards
the light, while in many lichens this is the only side provided with a
cortical layer. The podetia of some species of Cladonia possess no
cortical layer at all. The surface of the thallus often exhibits
outgrowths in the form of warts, hairs, &c. The medullary layer, which
usually forms the main part of the thallus, is distinguished from the
cortical layer by its looser consistence and the presence in it of
numerous, large, air-containing spaces.

FIG. 2.--_Ephebe pubescens_, Fr. A branched filiform thallus of
_Stigonema_ with the hyphae of the fungus growing through its
gelatinous membranes. Extremity of a branch of the thallus with a
young lateral branch a; h, hyphae; g, cells of the alga; gs, the apex
of the thallus.]

FIG. 4.--_Cetraria islandica._ (Nat. size.) ap, Apothecium.]