Chapter XVI: Front Matter (16)

LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German physicist and satirical writer, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, on the 1st of July 1742. In 1763 he entered Göttingen university, where in 1769 he became extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary professor. This post he held till his death on the 24th of February 1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in electricity, more especially as to the so-called Lichtenberg figures, which are fully described in two memoirs _Super nova methodo motum ac naturam fluidi electrici investigandi_ (Göttingen, 1777-1778). These figures, originally studied on account of the light they were supposed to throw on the nature of the electric fluid or fluids, have reference to the distribution of electricity over the surface of non-conductors. They are produced as follows: A sharp-pointed needle is placed perpendicular to a non-conducting plate, such as of resin, ebonite or glass, with its point very near to or in contact with the plate, and a Leyden jar is discharged into the needle. The electrification of the plate is now tested by sifting over it a mixture of flowers of sulphur and red lead. The negatively electrified sulphur is seen to attach itself to the positively electrified parts of the plate, and the positively electrified red lead to the negatively electrified parts. In addition to the distribution of colour thereby produced, there is a marked difference in the _form_ of the figure, according to the nature of the electricity originally communicated to the plate. If it be positive, a widely extending patch is seen on the plate, consisting of a dense nucleus, from which branches radiate in all directions; if negative the patch is much smaller and has a sharp circular boundary entirely devoid of branches. If the plate receives a mixed charge, as, for example, from an induction coil, a "mixed" figure results, consisting of a large red central nucleus, corresponding to the negative charge, surrounded by yellow rays, corresponding to the positive charge. The difference between the positive and negative figures seems to depend on the presence of the air; for the difference tends to disappear when the experiment is conducted in vacuo. Riess explains it by the negative electrification of the plate caused by the friction of the water vapour, &c., driven along the surface by the explosion which accompanies the disruptive discharge at the point. This electrification would favour the spread of a positive, but hinder that of a negative discharge. There is, in all probability, a connexion between this phenomenon and the peculiarities of positive and negative brush and other discharge in air.

As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among the German writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many controversies with well-known contemporaries, such as Lavater, whose science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and Voss, whose views on Greek pronunciation called forth a powerful satire, _Über die Pronunciation der Schöpse des alten Griechenlandes_ (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 he resided for some time in England and his _Briefe aus England_ (1776-1778), with admirable descriptions of Garrick's acting, are the most attractive of his writings. He contributed to the _Göttinger Taschenkalender_ from 1778 onwards, and to the _Göttingisches Magazin der Literatur und Wissenschaft_, which he edited for three years (1780-1782) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published in 1794-1799 an _Ausführliche Erklärung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche_.

Lichtenberg's _Vermischte Schriften_ were published by F. Kries in 9
vols. (1800-1805); new editions in 8 vols. (1844-1846 and 1867).
Selections by E. Grisebach, _Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen_
(1871); by F. Robertag (in Kürschner's _Deutsche Nationalliteratur_
(vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg's _Briefe_
have been published in 3 vols, by C. Schüddekopf and A. Leitzmann
(1900-1902); his _Aphorismen_ by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-1906).
See also R. M. Meyer, _Swift und Lichtenberg_ (1886); F. Lauchert,
_Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tätigkeit_ (1893); and A. Leitzmann,
_Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass_ (1899).

LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on the west bank of the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, the Blies and the Glan, now belonging to the government district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The principality was constructed of parts of the electorate of Trier, of Nassau-Saarbrücken and other districts, and lay between Rhenish Bavaria and the old Prussian province of the Rhine. Originally called the lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816, in accordance with terms agreed upon at the congress of Vienna. The duke, however, restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension of £12,000 sterling. The area is about 210 sq. m.

LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived in the age of the Antonines (2nd century A.D.). He was the author of a brief epitome of Roman history based upon Livy, which he utilized as a means of displaying his antiquarian lore. Accounts of omens, portents, prodigies and other remarkable things apparently took up a considerable portion of the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.C. are preserved in a British Museum MS.

EDITIONS.--C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch
(1904); see also J. N. Madvig, _Kleine philologische Schriften_
(1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch's edition
(p. iv.).

LICINIUS [FLAVIUS GALERIUS VALERIUS LICINIANUS], Roman emperor, A.D. 307-324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on the 11th of November 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established himself master of the East, while his brother-in-law, Constantine, was supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice severely defeated--first near Cibalae in Pannonia (October 8th, 314), and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation, which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine, tempted by the "advanced age and unpopular vices" of his colleague, again declared war against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople (3rd of July 323), succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Julius Crispus, Constantine's eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon (18th of September), finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the barbarians.

See Zosimus ii. 7-28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, _Caes._ 40, 41;
Eutropius x. 3; Orosius vii. 28.

LICINIUS CALVUS STOLO, GAIUS, Roman statesman, the chief representative of the plebeian Licinian gens, was tribune in 377 B.c., consul in 361. His name is associated with the Licinian or Licinio-Sextian laws (proposed 377, passed 367), which practically ended the struggle between patricians and plebeians. He was himself fined for possessing a larger share of the public land than his own law allowed.

See ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic."

LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82-47 B.C.), Roman poet and orator, was the son of the annalist Licinius Macer. As a poet he is associated with his friend Catullus, whom he followed in style and choice of subjects. As an orator he was the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic school, who took the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked even Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence on questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be correct) the _commentarii_ alluded to by Tacitus (_Dialogus_, 23; compare also Cicero, _Ad Fam._ xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches by him are mentioned, amongst which the most famous were those delivered against Publius Vatinius. Calvus was very short of stature, and is alluded to by Catullus (Ode 53) as _Salaputium disertum_ (eloquent Lilliputian).

For Cicero's opinion see _Brutus_, 82; Quintilian x. I. 115; Tacitus,
_Dialogus_, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris, 1896) contains
a collection of the fragments (verse and prose).

LICODIA EUBEA, a town of Sicily in the province of Catania, 4 m. W. of Vizzini, which is 39 m. S.W. of Catania by rail. Pop. (1901) 7033. The name Eubea was given to the place in 1872 owing to a false identification with the Greek city of Euboea, a colony of Leontini, founded probably early in the 6th century B.C. and taken by Gelon. The town occupies the site of an unknown Sicel city, the cemeteries of which have been explored. A few vases of the first period were found, but practically all the tombs explored in 1898 belonged to the fourth period (700-500 B.C.) and show the gradual process of Hellenization among the Sicels.

See _Römische Mitteilungen_, 1898, 305 seq.; _Notizie degli scavi_,
1902, 219. (T. As.)

LICTORS (_lictores_), in Roman antiquities, a class of the attendants (_apparitores_) upon certain Roman and provincial magistrates.[1] As an institution (supposed by some to have been borrowed from Etruria) they went back to the regal period and continued to exist till imperial times. The majority of the city lictors were freedmen; they formed a corporation divided into decuries, from which the lictors of the magistrates in office were drawn; provincial officials had the nomination of their own. In Rome they wore the toga, perhaps girded up; on a campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military cloak (_sagulum_); at funerals, black. As representatives of magistrates who possessed the _imperium_, they carried the fasces and axes in front of them (see FASCES). They were exempt from military service; received a fixed salary; theoretically they were nominated for a year, but really for life. They were the constant attendants, both in and out of the house, of the magistrate to whom they were attached. They walked before him in Indian file, cleared a passage for him (_summovere_) through the crowd, and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to his rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the tribunal; mounted guard before his house, against the wall of which they stood the fasces; summoned offenders before him, seized, bound and scourged them, and (in earlier times) carried out the death sentence. It should be noted that directly a magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was obliged to dispense with his lictors. The king had twelve lictors; each of the consuls (immediately after their institution) twelve, subsequently limited to the monthly officiating consul, although Caesar appears to have restored the original arrangement; the dictator, as representing both consuls, twenty-four; the emperors twelve, until the time of Domitian, who had twenty-four. The Flamen Dialis, each of the Vestals, the _magister-vicorum_ (overseer of the sections into which the city was divided) were also accompanied by lictors. These lictors were probably supplied from the _lictores curiatii_, thirty in number, whose functions were specially religious, one of them being in attendance on the pontifex maximus. They originally summoned the comitia curiata, and when its meetings became merely a formality, acted as the representatives of that assembly. Lictors were also assigned to private individuals at the celebration of funeral games, and to the aediles at the games provided by them and the theatrical representations under their supervision.

For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen, _Römisches
Staatsrecht_, i. 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Greek equivalents of _lictor_ are [Greek: rabdouchos,
rabdophoros, rabdonomos] (rod-bearer); the Latin word is variously
derived from: (a) _ligare_, to bind or arrest a criminal; (b)
_licere_, to summon, as convoking assemblies or haling offenders
before the magistrate; (c) _licium_, the girdle with which (according
to some) their toga was held up; (d) Plutarch (_Quaestiones Romanae_,
67), assuming an older form [Greek: litôr], suggests an
identification with [Greek: leitourgos], one who performs a public
office.

LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898), English scholar and divine, eldest son of the Rev. Henry George Liddell, younger brother of the first Baron Ravensworth, was born at Binchester, near Bishop Auckland, on the 6th of February 1811. He was educated at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford. Gaining a double first in 1833, Liddell became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed him Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he was appointed to the headmastership of Westminster School. Meanwhile his life work, the great _Lexicon_ (based on the German work of F. Passow), which he and Robert Scott began as early as 1834, had made good progress, and the first edition appeared in 1843. It immediately became the standard Greek-English dictionary and still maintains this rank, although, notwithstanding the great additions made of late to our Greek vocabulary from inscriptions, papyri and other sources, scarcely any enlargement has been made since about 1880. The 8th edition was published in 1897. As headmaster of Westminster Liddell enjoyed a period of great success, followed by trouble due to the outbreak of fever and cholera in the school. In 1855 he accepted the deanery of Christ Church, then vacant by the death of Gaisford. In the same year he brought out a _History of Ancient Rome_ (much used in an abridged form as the _Student's History of Rome_) and took a very active part in the first Oxford University Commission. His tall figure, fine presence and aristocratic mien were for many years associated with all that was characteristic of Oxford life. Coming just at the transition period when the "old Christ Church," which Pusey strove so hard to preserve, was inevitably becoming broader and more liberal, it was chiefly due to Liddell that necessary changes were effected with the minimum of friction. In 1859 Liddell welcomed the then prince of Wales when he matriculated at Christ Church, being the first holder of that title who had matriculated since Henry V. In conjunction with Sir Henry Acland, Liddell did much to encourage the study of art at Oxford, and his taste and judgment gained him the admiration and friendship of Ruskin. In 1891, owing to advancing years, he resigned the deanery. The last years of his life were spent at Ascot, where he died on the 18th of January 1898. Dean Liddell married in July 1846 Miss Lorina Reeve (d. 1910), by whom he had a numerous family.

See memoir by H. L. Thompson, _Henry George Liddell_ (1899).

LIDDESDALE, the valley of Liddel Water, Roxburghshire, Scotland, extending in a south-westerly direction from the vicinity of Peel Fell to the Esk, a distance of 21 m. The Waverley route of the North British railway runs down the dale, and the Catrail, or Picts' Dyke, crosses its head. At one period the points of vantage on the river and its affluents were occupied with freebooters' peel-towers, but many of them have disappeared and the remainder are in decay. Larriston Tower belonged to the Elliots, Mangerton to the Armstrongs and Park to "little Jock Elliot," the outlaw who nearly killed Bothwell in an encounter in 1566. The chief point of interest in the valley, however, is Hermitage Castle, a vast, massive H-shaped fortress of enormous strength, one of the oldest baronial buildings in Scotland. It stands on a hill overlooking Hermitage Water, a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1244 by Nicholas de Soulis and was captured by the English in David II.'s reign. It was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant of it from the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, 5th earl of Angus, exchanged it for Bothwell Castle on the Clyde with Patrick Hepburn, 1st earl of Bothwell. It finally passed to the duke of Buccleuch, under whose care further ruin has been arrested. It was here that Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie was starved to death by Sir William Douglas in 1342, and that James Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, was visited by Mary, queen of Scots, after the assault referred to.

To the east of the castle is Ninestane Rig, a hill 943 ft. high, 4 m.
long and 1 m. broad, where it is said that William de Soulis, hated
for oppression and cruelty, was (in 1320) boiled by his own vassals in
a copper cauldron, which was supported on two of the nine stones which
composed the "Druidical" circle that gave the ridge its name. Only
five of the stones remain. James Telfer (1802-1862), the writer of
ballads, who was born in the parish of Southdean (pronounced Soudan),
was for several years schoolmaster of Saughtree, near the head of the
valley. The castle of the lairds of Liddesdale stood near the junction
of Hermitage Water and the Liddel and around it grew up the village of
Castleton.

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), English divine, was the son of a naval captain and was born at North Stoneham, Hampshire, on the 20th of August 1829. He was educated at King's College School, London, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated, taking a second class, in 1850. As vice-principal of the theological college at Cuddesdon (1854-1859) he wielded considerable influence, and, on returning to Oxford as vice-principal of St Edmund's Hall, became a growing force among the undergraduates, exercising his influence in strong opposition to the liberal reaction against Tractarianism, which had set in after Newman's secession in 1845. In 1864 the bishop of Salisbury (W. K. Hamilton), whose examining chaplain he had been, appointed him prebendary of Salisbury cathedral. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on the doctrine of the divinity of Christ. From that time his fame as a preacher, which had been steadily growing, may be considered established. In 1870 he was made canon of St Paul's Cathedral, London. He had before this published _Some Words for God_, in which, with great power and eloquence, he combated the scepticism of the day. His preaching at St Paul's soon attracted vast crowds. The afternoon sermon, which fell to the lot of the canon in residence, had usually been delivered in the choir, but soon after Liddon's appointment it became necessary to preach the sermon under the dome, where from 3000 to 4000 persons used to gather to hear the preacher. Few orators belonging to the Church of England have acquired so great a reputation as Liddon. Others may have surpassed him in originality, learning or reasoning power, but for grasp of his subject, clearness of language, lucidity of arrangement, felicity of illustration, vividness of imagination, elegance of diction, and above all, for sympathy with the intellectual position of those whom he addressed, he has hardly been rivalled. In the elaborate arrangement of his matter he is thought to have imitated the great French preachers of the age of Louis XIV. In 1870 he had also been made Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford. The combination of the two appointments gave him extensive influence over the Church of England. With Dean Church he may be said to have restored the waning influence of the Tractarian school, and he succeeded in popularizing the opinions which, in the hands of Pusey and Keble, had appealed to thinkers and scholars. His forceful spirit was equally conspicuous in his opposition to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his denunciation of the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he resigned his professorship and utilized his thus increased leisure by travelling in Palestine and Egypt, and showed his interest in the Old Catholic movement by visiting Döllinger at Munich. In 1886 he became chancellor of St Paul's, and it is said that he declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on the 9th of September 1890, in the full vigour of his intellect and at the zenith of his reputation. He had undertaken and nearly completed an elaborate life of Dr Pusey, for whom his admiration was unbounded; and this work was completed after his death by Messrs Johnston and Wilson. Liddon's great influence during his life was due to his personal fascination and the beauty of his pulpit oratory rather than to any high qualities of intellect. As a theologian his outlook was that of the 16th rather than the 19th century; and, reading his Bampton Lectures now, it is difficult to realize how they can ever have been hailed as a great contribution to Christian apologetics. To the last he maintained the narrow standpoint of Pusey and Keble, in defiance of all the developments of modern thought and modern scholarship; and his latter years were embittered by the consciousness that the younger generation of the disciples of his school were beginning to make friends of the Mammon of scientific unrighteousness. The publication in 1889 of _Lux Mundi_, a series of essays attempting to harmonize Anglican Catholic doctrine with modern thought, was a severe blow to him, for it showed that even at the Pusey House, established as the citadel of Puseyism at Oxford, the principles of Pusey were being departed from. Liddon's importance is now mainly historical. He was the last of the classical pulpit orators of the English Church, the last great popular exponent of the traditional Anglican orthodoxy. Besides the works mentioned, Liddon published several volumes of _Sermons_, a volume of Lent lectures entitled _Some Elements of Religion_ (1870), and a collection of _Essays and Addresses_ on such themes as Buddhism, Dante, &c.

See _Life and Letters_, by J. O. Johnston (1904); G. W. E. Russell,
_H. P. Liddon_ (1903); A. B. Donaldson, _Five Great Oxford Leaders_
(1900), from which the life of Liddon was reprinted separately in
1905.

LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL (1833-1908), Norwegian novelist, was born on the 6th of November 1833 close to Hougsund (Eker), near Drammen. In 1838, his father being appointed sheriff of Tromsö, the family removed to that Arctic town. Here the future novelist enjoyed an untrammelled childhood among the shipping of the little Nordland capital, and gained acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he was afterwards to describe. In 1846 he was sent to the naval school at Frederiksvaern, but his extreme near-sight unfitted him for the service, and he was transferred to the Latin school at Bergen. In 1851 he went to the university of Christiania, where Ibsen and Björnson were among his fellow-students. Jonas Lie, however, showed at this time no inclination to literature. He pursued his studies as a lawyer, took his degrees in law in 1858, and settled down to practice as a solicitor in the little town of Kongsvinger. In 1860 he married his cousin, Thomasine Lie, whose collaboration in his work he acknowledged in 1893 in a graceful article in the _Samtiden_ entitled "Min hustru." In 1866 he published his first book, a volume of poems. He made unlucky speculations in wood, and the consequent financial embarrassment induced him to return to Christiania to try his luck as a man of letters. As a journalist he had no success, but in 1870 he published a melancholy little romance, _Den Fremsynte_ (Eng. trans., _The Visionary_, 1894), which made him famous. Lie proceeded to Rome, and published Tales in 1871 and _Tremasteren "Fremtiden"_ (Eng. trans., _The Barque "Future,"_ Chicago, 1879), a novel, in 1872. His first great book, however, was _Lodsen og hans Hustru_ (_The Pilot and his Wife_, 1874), which placed him at the head of Norwegian novelists; it was written in the little town of Rocca di Papa in the Albano mountains. From that time Lie enjoyed, with Björnson and Ibsen, a stipend as poet from the Norwegian government. Lie spent the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart, with frequent summer excursions to Berchtesgaden in the Bavarian highlands. During his exile he produced the drama in verse called _Faustina Strozzi_ (1876). Returning to Norway, Lie began a series of romances of modern life in Christiania, of which _Thomas Ross_ (1878) and _Adam Schrader_ (1879) were the earliest. He returned to Germany, and settled first in Dresden again, then in Hamburg, until 1882, when he took up his abode in Paris, where he lived in close retirement in the society of Scandinavian friends. His summers were spent at Berchtesgaden in Tirol. The novels of his German period are _Rutland_ (1881) and _Gaa paa_ ("_Go Ahead!_" 1882), tales of life in the Norwegian merchant navy. His subsequent works, produced with great regularity, enjoyed an immense reputation in Norway. Among the best of them are: _Livsslaven_ (1883, Eng. trans., "_One of Life's Slaves_," 1895); _Familjen paa Gilje_ ("_The Family of Gilje_," 1883); _Malstroem_ (1885), describing the gradual ruin of a Norwegian family; _Et Samliv_ ("_Life in Common_," 1887), describing a marriage of convenience. Two of the most successful of his novels were _The Commodore's Daughters_ (1886) and Niobe (1894), both of which were presented to English readers in the International library, edited by Mr Gosse. In 1891-1892 he wrote, under the influence of the new romantic impulse, twenty-four folk-tales, printed in two volumes entitled _Trold_. Some of these were translated by R. N. Bain in _Weird Tales_ (1893), illustrated by L. Housman. Among his later works were the romance _Naar Sol gaar ned_ ("_When the Sun goes down_," 1895), the powerful novel of _Dyre Rein_ (1896), the fairy drama of _Lindelin_ (1897), _Faste Forland_ (1899), a romance which contains much which is autobiographical, _When the Iron Curtain falls_ (1901), and _The Consul_ (1904). _His Samlede Vaerker_ were published at Copenhagen in 14 vols. (1902-1904). Jonas Lie left Paris in 1891, and, after spending a year in Rome, returned to Norway, establishing himself at Holskogen, near Christiansand. He died at Christiania on the 5th of July 1908. As a novelist he stands with those minute and unobtrusive painters of contemporary manners who defy arrangement in this or that school. He is with Mrs Gaskell or Ferdinand Fabre; he is not entirely without relation with that old-fashioned favourite of the public, Fredrika Bremer.

His son, Erik Lie (b. 1868), published a successful volume of stories,
_Med Blyanten_, in 1890; and is also the author of various works on
literary history. An elder son, Mons Lie (b. 1864), studied the violin
in Paris, but turned to literature in 1894. Among his works are the
plays _Tragedier om Kjaerlighed_ (1897); _Lombardo and Agrippina_
(1898); _Don Juan_ (1900); and the novels, _Sjöfareren_ (1901); _Adam
Ravn_ (1903) and _I. Kvindensnet_ (1904). (E. G.)

LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, was born at Nordfjordeif, near Bergen, on the 17th of December 1842, and was educated at the university of Christiania, where he took his doctor's degree in 1868 and became extraordinary professor of mathematics (a chair created specially for him) four years later. In 1886 he was chosen to succeed Felix Klein in the chair of geometry at Leipzig, but as his fame grew a special post was arranged for him in Christiania. But his health was broken down by too assiduous study, and he died at Christiania on the 18th of February 1899, six months after his return. Lie's work exercised a great influence on the progress of mathematical science during the later decades of the 19th century. His primary aim has been declared to be the advancement and elaboration of the theory of differential equations, and it was with this end in view that he developed his theory of transformation groups, set forth in his _Theorie der Transformationsgruppen_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1888-1893), a work of wide range and great originality, by which probably his name is best known. A special application of his theory of continuous groups was to the general problem of non-Euclidean geometry. The latter part of the book above mentioned was devoted to a study of the foundations of geometry, considered from the standpoint of B. Riemann and H. von Helmholtz; and he intended to publish a systematic exposition of his geometrical investigations, in conjunction with Dr G. Scheffers, but only one volume made its appearance (_Geometrie der Berührungstransformationen_, Leipzig, 1896). Lie was a foreign member of the Royal Society, as well as an honorary member of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and the London Mathematical Society, and his geometrical inquiries gained him the much-coveted honour of the Lobatchewsky prize.

An analysis of Lie's works is given in the _Bibliotheca Mathematica_
(Leipzig, 1900).

LIEBER, FRANCIS (1800-1872), German-American publicist, was born at Berlin on the 18th of March 1800. He served with his two brothers under Blücher in the campaign of 1815, fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, where he was twice dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was arrested for his political sentiments, the chief evidence against him being several songs of liberty which he had written. After several months he was discharged without a trial, but was forbidden to pursue his studies at the Prussian universities. He accordingly went to Jena, where he took his degrees in 1820, continuing his studies at Halle and Dresden. He subsequently took part in the Greek War of Independence, publishing his experiences in his _Journal in Greece_ (Leipzig, 1823, and under the title _The German Anacharsis_, Amsterdam, 1823). For a year he was in Rome as tutor to the son of the historian Niebuhr, then Prussian ambassador. Returning to Berlin in 1823, he was imprisoned at Koepenik, but was released after some months through the influence of Niebuhr. In 1827 he went to the United States and as soon as possible was naturalized as a citizen. He settled at Boston, and for five years edited _The Encyclopaedia Americana_ (13 vols.). From 1835 to 1856 he was professor of history and political economy in South Carolina College at Columbia, S.C., and during this period wrote his three chief works, _Manual of Political Ethics_ (1838), _Legal and Political Hermeneutics_ (1839), and _Civil Liberty and Self Government_ (1853). In 1856 he resigned and next year was elected to a similar post in Columbia College, New York, and in 1865 became professor of constitutional history and public law in the same institution. During the Civil War Lieber rendered services of great value to the government. He was one of the first to point out the madness of secession, and was active in upholding the Union. He prepared, upon the requisition of the president, the important _Code of War for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field_, which was promulgated by the Government in General Orders No. 100 of the war department. This code suggested to Bluntschli his codification of the law of nations, as may be seen in the preface to his _Droit International Codifié_. During this period also Lieber wrote his _Guerilla Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War_. At the time of his death he was the umpire of the commission for the adjudication of Mexican claims. He died on the 2nd of October 1872. His books were acquired by the University of California, and his papers were placed in the Johns Hopkins University.

His _Miscellaneous Writings_ were published by D. C. Gilman
(Philadelphia, 1881). See T. S. Perry, _Life and Letters_ (1882), and
biography by Harby (1899).

LIEBERMANN, MAX (1849- ), German painter and etcher, was born in Berlin. After studying under Steffeck, he entered the school of art at Weimar in 1869. Though the straightforward simplicity of his first exhibited picture, "Women plucking Geese," in 1872, presented already a striking contrast to the conventional art then in vogue, it was heavy and bituminous in colour, like all the artist's paintings before his visit to Paris at the end of 1872. A summer spent at Barbizon in 1873, where he became personally acquainted with Millet and had occasion to study the works of Corot, Troyon, and Daubigny, resulted in the clearing and brightening of his palette, and taught him to forget the example of Munkacsy, under whose influence he had produced his first pictures in Paris. He subsequently went to Holland, where the example of Israels confirmed him in the method he had adopted at Barbizon; but on his return to Munich in 1878 he caused much unfavourable criticism by his realistic painting of "Christ in the Temple," which was condemned by the clergy as irreverent and remained his only attempt at a scriptural subject. Henceforth he devoted himself exclusively to the study of free-light and to the painting of the life of humble folk. He found his best subjects in the orphanages and asylums for the old in Amsterdam, among the peasants in the fields and village streets of Holland, and in the beer-gardens, factories, and workrooms of his own country. Germany was reluctant, however, in admitting the merit of an artist whose style and method were so markedly at variance with the time-honoured academic tradition. Only when his fame was echoed back from France, Belgium, and Holland did his compatriots realize the eminent position which is his due in the history of German art. It is hardly too much to say that Liebermann has done for his country what Millet did for France. His pictures hold the fragrance of the soil and the breezes of the heavens. His people move in their proper atmosphere, and their life is stated in all its monotonous simplicity, without artificial pathos or melodramatic exaggeration. His first success was a medal awarded him for "An Asylum for Old Men" at the 1881 Salon. In 1884 he settled again in Berlin, where he became professor of the Academy in 1898. He became a member of the Société nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Société royale belge des Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at the Hague. Liebermann is represented in most of the German and other continental galleries. The Berlin National Gallery owns "The Flax-Spinners"; the Munich Pinakothek, "The Woman with Goats"; the Hamburg Gallery, "The Net-Menders"; the Hanover Gallery, the "Village Street in Holland." "The Seamstress" is at the Dresden Gallery; the "Man on the Dunes" at Leipzig; "Dutch Orphan Girls" at Strassburg; "Beer-cellar at Brandenburg" at the Luxembourg Museum in Paris, and the "Knöpflerinnen" in Venice. His etchings are to be found in the leading print cabinets of Europe.

LIEBIG, JUSTUS VON, BARON (1803-1873), German chemist, was born at Darmstadt, according to his baptismal certificate, on the 12th of May 1803 (4th of May, according to his mother). His father, a drysalter and dealer in colours, used sometimes to make experiments in the hope of finding improved processes for the production of his wares, and thus his son early acquired familiarity with practical chemistry. For the theoretical side he read all the text-books which he could find, somewhat to the detriment of his ordinary school studies. Having determined to make chemistry his profession, at the age of fifteen he entered the shop of an apothecary at Appenheim, near Darmstadt; but he soon found how great is the difference between practical pharmacy and scientific chemistry, and the explosions and other incidents that accompanied his private efforts to increase his chemical knowledge disposed his master to view without regret his departure at the end of ten months. He next entered the university of Bonn, but migrated to Erlangen when the professor of chemistry, K. W. G. Kastner (1783-1857), was appointed in 1821 to the chair of physics and chemistry at the latter university. He followed this professor to learn how to analyse certain minerals, but in the end he found that the teacher himself was ignorant of the process. Indeed, as he himself said afterwards, it was a wretched time for chemistry in Germany. No laboratories were accessible to ordinary students, who had to content themselves with what the universities could give in the lecture-room and the library, and though both at Bonn and Erlangen Liebig endeavoured to make up for the deficiencies of the official instruction by founding a students' physical and chemical society for the discussion of new discoveries and speculations, he felt that he could never become a chemist in his own country. Therefore, having graduated as Ph.D. in 1822, he left Erlangen--where he subsequently complained that the contagion of the "greatest philosopher and metaphysician of the century" (Schelling), in a period "rich in words and ideas, but poor in true knowledge and genuine studies," had cost him two precious years of his life--and by the liberality of Louis I., grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, was enabled to go to Paris. By the help of L. J. Thénard he gained admission to the private laboratory of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (1792-1873), professor of chemistry at the École de Pharmacie, and soon afterwards, by the influence of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac, where in 1824 he concluded his investigations on the composition of the fulminates. It was on Humboldt's advice that he determined to become a teacher of chemistry, but difficulties stood in his way. As a native of Hesse-Darmstadt he ought, according to the academical rules of the time, to have studied and graduated at the university of Giessen, and it was only through the influence of Humboldt that the authorities forgave him for straying to the foreign university of Erlangen. After examination his Erlangen degree was recognized, and in 1824 he was appointed extraordinary professor of chemistry at Giessen, becoming ordinary professor two years later. In this small town his most important work was accomplished. His first care was to persuade the Darmstadt government to provide a chemical laboratory in which the students might obtain a proper practical training. This laboratory, unique of its kind at the time, in conjunction with Liebig's unrivalled gifts as a teacher, soon rendered Giessen the most famous chemical school in the world; men flocked from every country to enjoy its advantages, and many of the most accomplished chemists of the 19th century had to thank it for their early training. Further, it gave a great impetus to the progress of chemical education throughout Germany, for the continued admonitions of Liebig combined with the influence of his pupils induced many other universities to build laboratories modelled on the same plan. He remained at Giessen for twenty-eight years, until in 1852 he accepted the invitation of the Bavarian government to the ordinary chair of chemistry at Munich university, and this office he held, although he was offered the chair at Berlin in 1865, until his death, which occurred at Munich on the 10th of April 1873.

Apart from Liebig's labours for the improvement of chemical teaching,
the influence of his experimental researches and of his contributions
to chemical thought was felt in every branch of the science. In regard
to methods and apparatus, mention should be made of his improvements
in the technique of organic analysis, his plan for determining the
natural alkaloids and for ascertaining the molecular weights of
organic bases bv means of their chloroplatinates, his process for
determining the quantity of urea in a solution--the first step
towards the introduction of precise chemical methods into practical
medicine--and his invention of the simple form of condenser known in
every laboratory. His contributions to inorganic chemistry were
numerous, including investigations on the compounds of antimony,
aluminium, silicon, &c., on the separation of nickel and cobalt, and
on the analysis of mineral waters, but they are outweighed in
importance by his work on organic substances. In this domain his first
research was on the fulminates of mercury and silver, and his study of
these bodies led him to the discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and
fulminic acids, for the composition of fulminic acid as found by him
was the same as that of cyanic acid, as found by F. Wöhler, and it
became necessary to admit them to be two bodies which differed in
properties, though of the same percentage composition. Further work on
cyanogen and connected substances yielded a great number of
interesting derivatives, and he described an improved method for the
manufacture of potassium cyanide, an agent which has since proved of
enormous value in metallurgy and the arts. In 1832 he published,
jointly with Wöhler, one of the most famous papers in the history of
chemistry, that on the oil of bitter almonds (benzaldehyde), wherein
it was shown that the radicle benzoyl might be regarded as forming an
unchanging constituent of a long series of compounds obtained from oil
of bitter almonds, throughout which it behaved like an element.
Berzelius hailed this discovery as marking the dawn of a new era in
organic chemistry, and proposed for benzoyl the names "Proïn" or
"Orthrin" (from [Greek: prôi] and [Greek: örthrus]). A continuation of
their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig and Wöhler, who remained
firm friends for the rest of their lives, resulted in the elucidation
of the mode of formation of that substance and in the discovery of the
ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the first glucoside,
amygdalin, while another and not less important and far-reaching
inquiry in which they collaborated was that on uric acid, published in
1837. About 1832 he began his investigations into the constitution of
ether and alcohol and their derivatives. These on the one hand
resulted in the enunciation of his ethyl theory, by the light of which
he looked upon those substances as compounds of the radicle ethyl
(C2H5), in opposition to the view of J. B. A. Dumas, who regarded them
as hydrates of olefiant gas (ethylene); on the other they yielded
chloroform, chloral and aldehyde, as well as other compounds of less
general interest, and also the method of forming mirrors by depositing
silver from a slightly ammoniacal solution by acet aldehyde. In 1837
with Dumas he published a note on the constitution of organic acids,
and in the following year an elaborate paper on the same subject
appeared under his own name alone; by this work T. Graham's doctrine
of polybasicity was extended to the organic acids. Liebig also did
much to further the hydrogen theory of acids.

These and other studies in pure chemistry mainly occupied his
attention until about 1838, but the last thirty-five years of his life
were devoted more particularly to the chemistry of the processes of
life, both animal and vegetable. In animal physiology he set himself
to trace out the operation of determinate chemical and physical laws
in the maintenance of life and health. To this end he examined such
immediate vital products as blood, bile and urine; he analysed the
juices of flesh, establishing the composition of creatin and
investigating its decomposition products, creatinin and sarcosin; he
classified the various articles of food in accordance with the special
function performed by each in the animal economy, and expounded the
philosophy of cooking; and in opposition to many of the medical
opinions of his time taught that the heat of the body is the result of
the processes of combustion and oxidation performed within the
organism. A secondary result of this line of study was the preparation
of his food for infants and of his extract of meat. Vegetable
physiology he pursued with special reference to agriculture, which he
held to be the foundation of all trade and industry, but which could
not be rationally practised without the guidance of chemical
principles. His first publication on this subject was _Die Chemie in
ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie_ in 1840, which was at
once translated into English by Lyon Playfair. Rejecting the old
notion that plants derive their nourishment from humus, he taught that
they get carbon and nitrogen from the carbon dioxide and ammonia
present in the atmosphere, these compounds being returned by them to
the atmosphere by the processes of putrefaction and
fermentation--which latter he regarded as essentially chemical in
nature--while their potash, soda, lime, sulphur, phosphorus, &c., come
from the soil. Of the carbon dioxide and ammonia no exhaustion can
take place, but of the mineral constituents the supply is limited
because the soil cannot afford an indefinite amount of them; hence the
chief care of the farmer, and the function of manures, is to restore
to the soil those minerals which each crop is found, by the analysis
of its ashes, to take up in its growth. On this theory he prepared
artificial manures containing the essential mineral substances
together with a small quantity of ammoniacal salts, because he held
that the air does not supply ammonia fast enough in certain cases, and
carried out systematic experiments on ten acres of poor sandy land
which he obtained from the town of Giessen in 1845. But in practice
the results were not wholly satisfactory, and it was a long time
before he recognized one important reason for the failure in the fact
that to prevent the alkalis from being washed away by the rain he had
taken pains to add them in an insoluble form, whereas, as was
ultimately suggested to him by experiments performed by J. T. Way
about 1850, this precaution was not only superfluous but harmful,
because the soil possesses a power of absorbing the soluble saline
matters required by plants and of retaining them, in spite of rain,
for assimilation by the roots.

Liebig's literary activity was very great. The Royal Society's
_Catalogue of Scientific Papers_ enumerates 318 memoirs under his
name, exclusive of many others published in collaboration with other
investigators. A certain impetuousness of character which disposed him
to rush into controversy whenever doubt was cast upon the views he
supported accounted for a great deal of writing, and he also carried
on an extensive correspondence with Wöhler and other scientific men.
In 1832 he founded the _Annalen der Pharmazie_, which became the
_Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie_ in 1840 when Wöhler became
joint-editor with himself, and in 1837 with Wöhler and Poggendorff he
established the _Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie_.
After the death of Berzelius he continued the _Jahresbericht_ with H.
F. M. Kopp. The following are his most important separate
publications, many of which were translated into English and French
almost as soon as they appeared: _Anleitung zur Analyse der
organischen Körper_ (1837); _Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf
Agrikultur und Physiologie_ (1840); _Die Thier-Chemie oder die
organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie_
(1842); _Handbuch der organischen Chemie mit Rücksicht auf Pharmazie_
(1843); _Chemische Briefe_ (1844); _Chemische Untersuchungen über das
Fleisch und seine Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel_ (1847); _Die
Grundsätze der Agrikultur-Chemie_ (1855); _Über Theorie und Praxis in
der Landwirthschaft_ (1856); _Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die
moderne Landwirtschaft_ (1859). A posthumous collection of his
miscellaneous addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as _Reden
und Abhandlungen_, edited by his son George (b. 1827). His criticism
of Bacon, _Über Francis von Verulam_, was first published in 1863 in
the _Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung_, where also most of his letters on
chemistry made their first appearance.

See _The Life Work of Liebig_ (London, 1876), by his pupil A. W. von
Hofmann, which is the Faraday lecture delivered before the London
Chemical Society in March 1875, and is reprinted in Hofmann's _Zur
Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde_; also W. A. Shenstone, _Justus
von Liebig, his Life and Work_ (1895).

LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM (1826-1900), German socialist, was burn at Giessen on the 29th of March 1826. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated at the gymnasium in his native town, and attended the universities of Giessen, Bonn and Marburg. Before he left school he had become affected by the political discontent then general in Germany; he had already studied the writings of St Simon, from which he gained his first interest in communism, and had been converted to the extreme republican theories of which Giessen was a centre. He soon came into conflict with the authorities, and was expelled from Berlin apparently in consequence of the strong sympathy he displayed for some Poles, who were being tried for high treason. He proposed in 1846 to migrate to America, but went instead to Switzerland, where he earned his living as a teacher. As soon as the revolution of 1848 broke out he hastened to Paris, but the attempt to organize a republican corps for the invasion of Germany was prevented by the government. In September, however, in concert with Gustav von Struve, he crossed the Rhine from Switzerland at the head of a band of volunteers, and proclaimed a republic in Baden. The attempt collapsed; he was captured, and, after suffering eight months' imprisonment, was brought to trial. Fortunately for him, a new rising had just broken out; the mob burst into the court, and he was acquitted. During the short duration of the revolutionary government he was an active member of the most extreme party, but on the arrival of the Prussian troops he succeeded in escaping to France. Thence he went to Geneva, where he came into intercourse with Mazzini; but, unlike most of the German exiles, he was already an adherent of the socialist creed, which at that time was more strongly held in France. Expelled from Switzerland he went to London, where he lived for thirteen years in close association with Karl Marx. He endured great hardships, but secured a livelihood by teaching and writing; he was a correspondent of the _Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung_. The amnesty of 1861 opened for him the way back to Germany, and in 1862 he accepted the post of editor of the _Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung_, the founder of which was an old revolutionist. Only a few months elapsed before the paper, passed under Bismarck's influence. There is no more curious episode in German history than the success with which Bismarck acquired the services of many of the men of 1848, but Liebknecht remained faithful to his principles and resigned his editorship. He became a member of the Arbeiterverein, and after the death of Ferdinand Lassalle he was the chief mouthpiece in Germany of Karl Marx, and was instrumental in spreading the influence of the newly-founded _International_. Expelled from Prussia in 1865, he settled at Leipzig, and it is primarily to his activity in Saxony among the newly-formed unions of workers that the modern social democrat party owes its origin. Here he conducted the _Demokratisches Wochenblatt_. In 1867 he was elected a member of the North German Reichstag, but in opposition to Lassalle's followers he refused all compromise with the "capitalists," and avowedly used his position merely for purposes of agitation whilst taking every opportunity for making the parliament ridiculous. He was strongly influenced by the "great German" traditions of the democrats of 1848, and, violently anti-Prussian, he distinguished himself by his attacks on the policy of 1866 and the "revolution from above," and by his opposition to every form of militarism. His adherence to the traditions of 1848 are also seen in his dread of Russia, which he maintained to his death. His opposition to the war of 1870 exposed him to insults and violence, and in 1872 he was condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress for treasonable intentions. The Union of the German Socialists in 1874 at the congress of Gotha was really a triumph of his influence, and from that time he was regarded as founder and leader of the party. From 1874 till his death he was a member of the German Reichstag, and for many years also of the Saxon diet. He was one of the chief spokesmen of the party, and he took a very important part in directing its policy. In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig, but took up his residence in a neighbouring village. After the lapse of the Socialist law (1890) he became chief editor of the _Vorwärts_, and settled in Berlin. If he did not always find it easy in his later years to follow the new developments, he preserved to his death the idealism of his youth, the hatred both of Liberalism and of State Socialism; and though he was to some extent overshadowed by Bebel's greater oratorical power, he was the chief support of the orthodox Marxian tradition. Liebknecht was the author of numerous pamphlets and books, of which the most important were: _Robert Blum und seine Zeit_ (Nuremberg, 1892); _Geschichte der Französischen Revolution_ (Dresden, 1890); _Die Emser Depesche_ (Nuremberg, 1899) and _Robert Owen_ (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at Charlottenburg on the 6th of August 1900.

See Kurt Eisner, _Wilhelm Liebknecht, sein Leben und Wirken_ (Berlin,
1900).