Chapter X: Front Matter (10)

These documents, illustrated by early Gallican canons, and by
allusions in the writings of Sulpicius Severus, Caesarius of Arles,
Gregory of Tours, Germanus of Paris and other authors, enable us to
reconstruct the greater part of this liturgy. The previously
enumerated signs of Eastern origin and influence are found here as
well as in the Mozarabic liturgy, together with certain other more or
less minute peculiarities, which would be of interest to professed
liturgiologists, but which we must not pause to specify here. They are
the origin of the Ephesine theory that the Gallican liturgy was
introduced into use by Irenaeus, bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200) who had
learned it in the East from St Polycarp, the disciple of the apostle
St John.

3. _Ambrosian Liturgy._--Considerable variety of opinion has existed among liturgical writers as to the proper classification of the "Ambrosian" or "Milanese" liturgy. If we are to accept it in its present form and to make the present position of the great intercession for quick and dead the test of its _genus_, then we must classify it as "Petrine" and consider it as a branch of the Roman family. If, on the other hand, we consider the important variations from the Roman liturgy which yet exist, and the traces of still more marked variation which confront us in the older printed and MS. copies of the Ambrosian rite, we shall detect in it an original member of the Hispano-Gallican group of liturgies, which for centuries underwent a gradual but ever-increasing assimilation to Rome. We know this as a matter of history, as well as a matter of inference from changes in the text itself. Charlemagne adopted the same policy towards the Milanese as towards the Gallican church. He carried off all the Ambrosian church books which he could obtain, with the view of substituting Roman books in their place, but the completion of his intentions failed, partly through the attachment of the Lombards to their own rites, partly through the intercession of a Gallican bishop named Eugenius (Mabillon, _Mus. Ital._ tom. i. Pars. ii. p. 106). It has been asserted by Joseph Vicecomes that this is an originally independent liturgy drawn up by St Barnabas, who first preached the Gospel at Milan (_De Missae_ Rit. 1 capp. xi. xii.), and this tradition is preserved in the title and proper preface for St Barnabas Day in the Ambrosian missal (Pamelius, _Liturgicon_, i. 385, 386), but it has never been proved.

We can trace the following points in which the Ambrosian differs from
the Roman liturgy, many of them exhibiting traces of Eastern
influence. Some of them are no longer found in recent Ambrosian
missals and only survive in earlier MSS. such as those published by
Pamelius (_Liturgicon_, tom. i. p. 293), Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ i.
132) and Ceriani (in his edition, 1881, of an ancient MS. at Milan).
(a) The prayer entitled "oratio super sindonem" corresponding to the
prayer after the spreading of the corporal; (b) the proclamation of
silence by the deacon before the epistle; (c) the litanies said after
the Ingressa (Introit) on Sundays in Lent, closely resembling the
Greek Ektené; (d) varying forms of introduction to the Lord's Prayer,
in Coena Domini (Ceriani p. 116) in Pascha (Ib. p. 129); (e) the
presence of passages in the prayer of consecration which are not part
of the Roman canon and one of which at least corresponds in import and
position though not in words to the Greek Invocation: _Tuum vero, est,
omnipotens Pater, mittere_, &c. (Ib. p. 116); (f) the survival of a
distinctly Gallican formula of consecration in the Post-sanctus "in
Sabbato Sancto." _Vere sanctus, vere benedictus Dominus noster,_ &c.
(Ib. p. 125); (g) the varying nomenclature of the Sundays after
Pentecost; (h) the position of the fraction or ritual breaking of
bread before the Lord's Prayer; (i) the omission of the second
oblation after the words of institution (Muratori, _Lit. Rom. Vet._ i.
133); (k) a third lection or _Prophetia_ from the Old Testament
preceding the epistle and gospel; (l) the lay offering of the
oblations and the formulae accompanying their reception (Pamelius,
_Liturgicon_, i. 297); (m) the position of the ablution of the hands
in the middle of the canon just before the words of institution; (n)
the position of the "oratio super populum," which corresponds in
matter but not in name to the collect for the day, before the Gloria
in Excelsis.

4. _Celtic Liturgy._--We postpone the consideration of this liturgy till after we have treated of the next main group.

VI. _The Roman Rite_ (St Peter).--There is only one liturgy to be enumerated under this group, viz. the present liturgy of the Church of Rome, which, though originally local in character and circumscribed in use, has come to be nearly co-extensive with the Roman Catholic Church, sometimes superseding earlier national liturgies, as in Gaul and Spain, sometimes incorporating more or less of the ancient ritual of a country into itself and producing from such incorporation a sub-class of distinct Uses, as in England, France and elsewhere. Even these subordinate Uses have for the most part become, or are rapidly becoming, obsolete.

The date, origin and early history of the Roman liturgy are obscure. The first Christians at Rome were a Greek-speaking community, and their liturgy must have been Greek, and is possibly represented in the so-called Clementine liturgy. But the date when such a state of things ceased, when and by whom the present Latin liturgy was composed, whether it is an original composition, or, as its structure seems to imply, a survival of some intermediate form of liturgy--all these are questions which are waiting for solution.

One MS. exists which has been claimed to represent the Roman liturgy
as it existed in the time of Leo I., 440-461. It was discovered at
Verona by Bianchini in 1735 and assigned by him to the 8th century and
published under the title of _Sacramentarium Leonianum_; but this
title was from the first conjectural, and is in the teeth of the
internal evidence which the MS. itself affords. The question is
discussed at some length by Muratori (_Lit. Rom. Vet._ tom. i. cap. i.
col. 16). Assemani published it under the title of _Sacramentarium
Veronense_ in tom. vi. of his _Codex Liturg. Eccles. Univ_.

A MS. of the 7th or 8th century was found at Rome by Thomasius and
published by him in 1680 under the title of _Sacramentarium
Gelasianum_. But it was written in France and is certainly not a pure
Gelasian codex; and although there is historical evidence of Pope
Gelasius I. (492-496) having made some changes in the Roman liturgy,
and although MSS. have been published by Gerbertus and others,
claiming the title of Gelasian, we neither have nor are likely to have
genuine and contemporary MS. evidence of the real state of the liturgy
in that pope's time. The most modern and the best edition of the
Gelasian Sacramentary is that by H. A. Wilson (Oxford, 1894).

The larger number of MSS. of this group are copies of the Gregorian
Sacramentary, that is to say, MSS. representing or purporting to
represent, the state of Roman liturgy in the days of Pope Gregory the
Great. But they cannot be accepted as certain evidence for the
following reasons: not one of them was written earlier than the 9th
century, not one of them was written in Italy, but every one north of
the Alps; every one contains internal evidence of a post-Gregorian
date in the shape of masses for the repose or for the intercession of
St Gregory and in various other ways.

The Roman liturgy seems to have been introduced into England in the 7th, into France in the 9th and into Spain in the 11th century, though no doubt it was known in both France and Spain to some extent before these dates. In France certain features of the service and certain points in the ritual of the ancient national liturgy became interwoven with its text and formed those many varying medieval Gallican Uses which are associated with the names of different French sees.

The chief distinguishing characteristics of the Roman rite are these: (a) the position of the great intercession for quick and dead within the canon, the commemoration of the living being placed just before and the commemoration of the departed just after the words of institution; (b) the absence of an "Epiklesis" or invocation of the Holy Ghost upon the elements; (c) the position of the "Pax" or "Kiss of Peace after the consecration" and before the communion, whereas in other liturgies it occurs at a much earlier point in the service.

_Liturgies of the British Islands._

Period I. _The Celtic Church._--Until recently almost nothing was known of the character of the liturgical service of the Celtic church which existed in these islands before the Anglo-Saxon Conquest, and continued to exist in Ireland, Scotland, Wales and Cornwall for considerable though varying periods of time after that event. But in recent times a good deal of light has been thrown on the subject, partly by the publication or republication of the few genuine works of Patrick, Columba, Columbanus, Adamnan and other Celtic saints; partly by the discovery of liturgical remains in the Scottish _Book of Deer_ and in the Irish _Books of Dimma and Mulling_ and the _Stowe Missal_, &c.; partly by the publication of medieval Irish compilations, such as the _Lebar Brecc_, _Liber Hymnorum_, _Martyrology of Oengus_, &c., which contain ecclesiastical kalendars, legends, treatises, &c., of considerable but very varying antiquity. The evidence collected from these sources is sufficient to prove that the liturgy of the Celtic church was of the Gallican type. In central England the churches, with everything belonging to them, were destroyed by the heathen invaders at the close of the 5th century; but the Celtic church in the remoter parts of England, as well as in the neighbouring kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland, retained its independence for centuries afterwards.

An examination of its few extant service-books and fragments of service-books yields the following evidence of the Gallican origin and character of the Celtic liturgy: (a) the presence of collects and anthems which occur in the Gallican or Mozarabic but not in the Roman liturgy; (b) various formulae of thanksgiving after communion; (c) frequent biddings or addresses to the people in the form of Gallican _Praefationes_; (d) the Gallican form of consecration, being a prayer called "Post-Sanctus" leading up to the words of institution; (e) the complicated rite of "fraction" or "the breaking of bread," as described in the Irish treatise at the end of the _Stowe Missal_, finds its only counterpart in the elaborate ceremonial of the Mozarabic church; (f) the presence of the Gallican ceremonial of _Pedilavium_ or "Washing of feet" in the earliest Irish baptismal office.

For a further description of these and other features which are
characteristic of or peculiar to the Celtic liturgy the reader is
referred to F. E. Warren's _Liturgy and Ritual of the Celtic Church_
(Oxford, 1881).

Period II. _The Anglo-Saxon Church._--We find ourselves here on firmer ground, and can speak with certainty as to the nature of the liturgy of the English church after the beginning of the 7th century. Information is drawn from liturgical allusions in the extant canons of numerous councils, from the voluminous writings of Bede, Alcuin and many other ecclesiastical authors of the Anglo-Saxon period, and above all from a considerable number of service-books written in England before the Norman Conquest. Three of these books are missals of more or less completeness: (1) the _Leofric Missal_, a composite 10th- to 11th-century MS. presented to the cathedral of Exeter by Leofric, the first bishop of that see (1046-1072), now in the Bodleian library at Oxford; edited by F. E. Warren (Oxford, 1883); (2) the missal of Robert of Jumièges, archbishop of Canterbury (1051-1052), written probably at Winchester and presented by Archbishop Robert to his old monastery of Jumièges in the neighbourhood of Rouen, in the public library of which it now lies; edited by H. A. Wilson (London, 1896); (3) the _Red Book of Derby_, a MS. missal of the second half of the 11th century, now in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.

A perusal of these volumes proves what we should have expected a priori, that the Roman liturgy was in use in the Anglo-Saxon church. This was the case from the very first. That church owed its foundation to a Roman pontiff, and to Roman missionaries, who brought, as we are told by Bede, their native liturgical codices with them (_Hist. Eccles_. lib. ii. cap. 28). Accordingly, when we speak of an Anglo-Saxon missal, we mean a Roman missal only exhibiting one or more of the following features, which would differentiate it from an Italian missal of the same century. (a) Rubrics and other entries of a miscellaneous character written in the vernacular language of the country. (b) The commemoration of national or local saints in the kalendar, in the canon of the mass and in the litanies which occur for use on Easter Even and in the baptismal offices. (c) The presence of a few special masses in honour of those local saints, together with a certain number of collects of a necessarily local character, for the rulers of the country, for its natural produce, &c. (d) The addition of certain peculiarities of liturgical structure and arrangement interpolated into the otherwise purely Roman service from an extraneous source. There are two noteworthy examples of this in Anglo-Saxon service-books. Every Sunday and festival and almost every votive mass has its proper preface, although the number of such prefaces in the Gregorian sacramentary of the same period had been reduced to eight. There was a large but not quite equal number of triple episcopal benedictions to be pronounced by the bishop after the Lord's Prayer and before the communion. This custom must either have been perpetuated from the old Celtic liturgy or directly derived from a Gallican source.

Period III. _Anglo-Norman Church._--The influx of numerous foreigners, especially from Normandy and Lorraine, which preceded, accompanied and followed the Conquest, and the occupation by them of the highest posts in church as well as state had a distinct effect on the liturgy of the English church. These foreign ecclesiastics brought over with them a preference for and a habit of using certain features of the Gallican liturgy and ritual, which they succeeded in incorporating into the service-books of the church of England. One of the Norman prelates, Osmund, count of Séez, earl of Dorset, chancellor of England, and bishop of Salisbury (1078-1099), is credited with having undertaken the revision of the English service-books; and the missal which we know as the _Sarum Missal_, or the _Missal according to the Use of Sarum_, practically became the liturgy of the English church. It was not only received into use in the province of Canterbury, but was largely adopted beyond those limits--in Ireland in the 12th and in various Scottish dioceses in the 12th and 13th centuries.

It would be beyond our scope here to give a complete list of the numerous and frequently minute differences between a medieval Sarum and the earlier Anglo-Saxon or contemporaneous Roman liturgy. They lie mainly in differences of collects and lections, variations of ritual on Candlemass, Ash Wednesday and throughout Holy Week; the introduction into the canon of the mass of certain clauses and usages of Gallican character or origin; the wording of rubrics in the subjunctive or imperative tense; the peculiar "Preces in prostratione"; the procession of Corpus Christi on Palm Sunday; the forms of ejection and reconciliation of penitents, &c. The varying episcopal benedictions as used in the Anglo-Saxon church were retained, but the numerous proper prefaces were discarded, the number being reduced to ten.

Besides the famous and far-spreading Use of Sarum, other Uses, more local and less known, grew up in various English dioceses. In virtue of a recognized diocesan independence, bishops were able to regulate or alter their ritual, and to add special masses or commemorations for use within the limits of their jurisdiction. The better known and the more distinctive of these Uses were those of York and Hereford, but we also find traces of or allusions to the Uses of Bangor, Lichfield, Lincoln, Ripon, St Asaph, St Paul's, Wells and Winchester.

_Service-books._--The Eucharistie service was contained in the volume
called the Missal (_q.v_.), as the ordinary choir offices were
contained in the volume known as the Breviary (_q.v_.). But besides
these two volumes there were a large number of other service-books. Mr
W. Maskell has enumerated and described ninety-one such volumes
employed by the Western Church only. It must be understood, however,
that many of these ninety-one names are synonyms (_Mon. Rit. Eccles.
Anglic_. 1882, vol. i. p. ccxxx.). The list might be increased, but it
will be possible here only to name and briefly describe a few of the
more important of them. (1) The _Agenda_ is the same as the Manual,
for which see below. (2) The _Antiphonary_ contained the antiphons or
anthems, sung at the canonical hours, and certain other minor parts of
the service. (3) The _Benedictional_ contained those triple episcopal
benedictions previously described as used on Sundays and on the chief
festivals throughout the year. (4) The _Collectarium_ contained the
collects for the season, together with a few other parts of the day
offices. It was an inchoate breviary. (5) The _Epistolarium_ contained
the epistles, and the _Evangelistarium_ the gospels for the year. (7)
The _Gradual_ contained the introit, gradual, sequences, and the other
portions of the communion service which were sung by the choir at nigh
mass. (8) The _Legenda_ contained the lections which were read at
matins and at other times, and may be taken as a generic term to
include the _Homiliarium, Passional_ and other volumes. (9) The
_Manual_ was the name usually employed in England to denote the
_Ritual_, which contained the baptismal, matrimonial and other offices
which might be performed by the parish priest. (10) The _Pontifical_
contained the orders of consecration, ordination, and such other rites
as could, ordinarily, only be performed by a bishop. To these we must
add a book which was not strictly a church office book, but a handy
book for the use of the laity, and which was in very popular use and
often very highly embellished from the 14th to the 16th century, the
_Book of Hours_, or _Horae Beatae Mariae Virginis_, also known as the
_Prymer_ or _Primer_. It contained portions of the canonical hours,
litanies, the penitential Psalms, and other devotions of a
miscellaneous and private character. Detailed information about all
these and other books is to be found in C. Wordsworth and H.
Littlehales', _The Old Service Books of the English Church_.

The Eastern Church too possessed and still possesses numerous and
voluminous service-books, of which the chief are the following: (1)
The _Euchologian_, containing the liturgy itself with the remaining
sacramental offices bound up in the same volume. (2) The _Horologion_,
containing the unvarying portion of the Breviary. (3) The _Menaea_,
being equivalent to a complete Breviary. (4) The _Menologion_ or
Martyrology. (5) The _Octoechus_ and (6) The _Paracletice_, containing
Troparia and answering to the Western antiphonary. (7) The
_Pentecostarion_, containing the services from Easter Day to All
Saints' Sunday. (8) The _Triodion_, containing those from Septuagesima
Sunday to Easter Even. (9) The _Typicum_ is a general book of rubrics
corresponding to the Ordinale or the Pie of Western Christendom.

Period IV. _The Reformed Church._--The Anglican liturgy of Reformation and post-Reformation times is described under the heading of PRAYER, BOOK OF COMMON, but a brief description may be added here of the liturgies of other reformed churches.

_The Liturgy of the Scottish Episcopal Church._--This liturgy in nearly its present form was compiled by Scottish bishops in 1636 and imposed--or, to speak more accurately, attempted to be imposed--upon the Scottish people by the royal authority of Charles I. in 1637. The prelates chiefly concerned in it were Spottiswood, bishop of Glasgow; Maxwell, bishop of Ross; Wedderburn, bishop of Dunblane; and Forbes, bishop of Edinburgh. Their work was approved and revised by certain members of the English episcopate, especially Laud, archbishop of Canterbury; Juxon, bishop of London; and Wren, bishop of Ely. This liturgy has met with varied fortune and has passed through several editions. The present Scottish office dates from 1764. It is now used as an alternative form with the English communion office in the Scottish Episcopal Church.

The general arrangements of its parts approximates more closely to that of the first book of Edward VI. than to the present Anglican Book of Common Prayer. Among its noteworthy features are (a) the retention in its integrity and in its primitive position after the words of institution of the invocation of the Holy Spirit. That invocation runs thus: "And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us and of thy almighty goodness vouchsafe to bless and sanctify with thy word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine that they may become the body and blood of thy most dearly beloved Son" (edit. 1764). This kind of petition thus placed is found in the Eastern but not in the Roman or Anglican liturgies. (b) The reservation of the sacrament is permitted, by traditional usage, for the purpose of communicating the absent or the sick. (c) The minimum number of communicants is fixed at one or two instead of three or four.

For fuller information see Bishop J. Dowden, _The Annotated Scottish
Communion Service_ (Edinburgh, 1884).

_American Liturgy._--The Prayer Book of "the Protestant Episcopal Church" in America was adopted by the general convention of the American church in 1789. It is substantially the same as the English Book of Common Prayer, but among important variations we may name the following: (a) The arrangement and wording of the order for Holy Communion rather resembles that of the Scottish than that of the English liturgy, especially in the position of the oblation and invocation immediately after the words of institution. (b) The Magnificat, Nunc dimittis and greater part of Benedictus were disused; but these were reinstated among the changes made in the Prayer Book in 1892. (c) Ten selections of Psalms are appointed for use as alternatives for the Psalms of the day. (d) _Gloria in excelsis_ is allowed as a substitute for _Gloria Patri_ at the end of the Psalms at morning and evening prayer. In addition to these there are many more both important and unimportant variations from the English Book of Common Prayer.

_The Irish Prayer Book._--The Prayer Book in use in the Irish portion of the United Church of England and Ireland was the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, but after the disestablishment of the Irish church several changes were introduced into it by a synod held at Dublin in 1870. These changes included such important points as: (a) the excision of all lessons from the Apocrypha, (b) of the rubric ordering the recitation of the Athanasian Creed, (c) of the rubric ordering the vestments of the second year of Edward VI., (d) of the form of absolution in the office for the visitation of the sick, (e) the addition to the Catechism of a question and answer bringing out more clearly the spiritual character of the real presence.

_The Presbyterian Church._--The Presbyterian churches of Scotland at present possess no liturgy properly so called. Certain general rules for the conduct of divine service are contained in the "Directory for the Public Worship of God" agreed upon by the assembly of divines at Westminster, with the assistance of commissioners from the Church of Scotland, approved and established by an act of the general assembly, and by an act of parliament, both in 1645. In 1554 John Knox had drawn up an order of liturgy closely modelled on the Genevan pattern for the use of the English congregation to which he was then ministering at Frankfort. On his return to Scotland this form of liturgy was adopted by an act of the general assembly in 1560 and became the established form of worship in the Presbyterian church until the year 1645, when the Directory of Public Worship took its place. Herein regulations are laid down for the conduct of public worship, for the reading of Scripture and for extempore prayer before and after the sermon, and in the administration of the sacrament of baptism and the Lord's Supper, for the solemnization of marriage, visitation of the sick and burial of the dead, for the observance of days of public fasting and public thanksgiving, together with a form of ordination and a directory for family worship. In all these cases, though the general terms of the prayer are frequently indicated, the wording of it is left to the discretion of the minister, with these exceptions: At the act of baptism this formula must be used--"I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost"; and for the Lord's Supper these forms are suggested, but with liberty to the minister to use "other the like, used by Christ or his apostles upon this occasion"--"According to the holy institution, command, and example of our blessed Saviour, Jesus Christ, I take this bread, and having given thanks, break it, and give it unto you. Take ye, eat ye; this is the body of Christ which is broken for you; do this in remembrance of him." And again "According to the institution, command and example of our Lord Jesus Christ, I take this cup and give it unto you; this cup is the New Testament in the blood of Christ, which is shed for the remission of the sins of many; drink ye all of it."

There is also an unvarying form of words directed to be used before the minister by the man to the woman, and by the woman to the man in the case of the solemnization of matrimony. The form of words on all other occasions, including ordination, is left to the discretion of the officiating minister or of the presbytery.

_European Protestant Churches. The Calvinistic Churches._--Rather more
of the liturgical element in the shape of a set form of words enters
into the service of the French and German Calvinistic Protestants. The
Sunday morning service as drawn up by Calvin was to open with a
portion of Holy Scripture and the recitation of the ten commandments.
Afterwards the minister, inviting the people to accompany him,
proceeded to a confession of sins and supplication for grace. Then one
of the Psalms of David was sung. Then came the sermon, prefaced by an
extempore prayer and concluding with the Lord's Prayer, creed and
benediction. The communion service began with an exhortation leading
up to the apostles' creed; then followed a long exhortation, after
which the bread and wine were distributed to the people, who advanced
in reverence and order, while a Psalm was being sung, or a suitable
passage of Scripture was being read. After all had communicated a set
form of thanksgiving was said by the minister. Then the Song of Simeon
was sung by the congregation, who were then dismissed with the
blessing. This form of service has been modified in various ways from
time to time, but it remains substantially the type of service in use
among the reformed Calvinistic churches of Germany, Switzerland and
France.

_The Lutheran Church._--Luther was far more conservative than the rest
of the Protestant reformers and his conservatism appeared nowhere more
than in the service-books which he drew up for the use of the church
which bears his name. In 1523 he published a treatise _Of the Order of
the Service in the Congregation_ and in 1526 he published the _German
Mass_. Except that the vernacular was substituted for the Latin
language, the old framework and order of the Roman missal were closely
followed, beginning with the Confiteor, Introit, Kyrie eleison, still
always sung in Greek, Gloria in excelsis, &c. The text of this and
other Lutheran services is given in _Agende für christliche Gemeinden
des Lutherischen Bekenntnisses_ (Nördlingen, 1853). At the same time
Luther was tolerant and expressed a hope that different portions of
the Lutheran church would from time to time make such changes or
adaptations in the order of service as might be found convenient. The
Lutheran churches of northern Europe have not been slow to avail
themselves of this advice and permission. Most of them have drawn up
liturgies for themselves, sometimes following very closely, sometimes
differing considerably from the original service composed by Luther
himself. In 1822, on the union of the Lutheran and Reformed
(Calvinistic) churches of Prussia, a new liturgy was published at
Berlin. It is used in its entirety in the chapel royal, but great
liberty as to its use was allowed to the parochical clergy, and
considerable variations of text appear in the more recent editions of
this service-book.

The Church of the New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) and the Catholic
Apostolic Church (Irvingites) and other Protestant bodies have drawn
up liturgies for themselves, but they are hardly of sufficient
historical importance to be described at length here.

The Old Catholics, lastly, published a _Rituale_ in 1875 containing
the occasional offices for baptism, matrimony, burial, &c., and a form
for reception of Holy Communion, in the German language. This latter
is for use in the otherwise unaltered service of the mass,
corresponding in purpose to the order of Communion in English
published the 8th of March 1548 and in use till Whitsunday 1549.
(F. E. W.)

LITUUS, the cavalry trumpet of the Romans, said by Macrobius (_Saturn_. lib. vi.) to have resembled the crooked staff borne by the Augurs. The lituus consisted of a cylindrical tube 4 or 5 ft. long, having a narrow bore, and terminating in a conical bell joint turned up in such a manner as to give the instrument the outline of the letter "J." Unlike the buccina, cornu and tuba, the other military service instruments of the Romans, the lituus has not been traced during the middle ages, the medieval instrument most nearly resembling it being the cromorne or tournebout, which, however, had lateral holes and was played by means of a reed mouthpiece. A lituus found in a Roman warrior's tomb at Cervetri (Etruria) in 1827 is preserved in the Vatican. Victor Mahillon gives its length as 1 m. 60, and its scale as in unison with that of the trumpet in G (_Catalogue descriptif_, 1896, pp. 29-30). (K. S.)

LIUDPRAND (LIUTPRAND, LUITPRAND) (c. 922-972), Italian historian and author, bishop of Cremona, was born towards the beginning of the 10th century, of a good Lombard family. In 931 he entered the service of King Hugo of Italy as page; he afterwards rose to a high position at the court of Hugo's successor Berengar, having become chancellor, and having been sent (949) on an embassy to the Byzantine court. Falling into disgrace with Berengar on his return, he attached himself to the emperor Otto I., whom in 961 he accompanied into Italy, and by whom in 962 he was made bishop of Cremona. He was frequently employed in missions to the pope, and in 968 to Constantinople to demand for the younger Otto (afterwards Otto II.) the hand of Theophano, daughter of the emperor Nicephorus Phocas. His account of this embassy in the _Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana_ is perhaps the most graphic and lively piece of writing which has come down to us from the 10th century. The detailed description of Constantinople and the Byzantine court is a document of rare value--though highly coloured by his ill reception and offended dignity. Whether he returned in 971 with the embassy to bring Theophano or not is uncertain. Liudprand died in 972.

He wrote (1) _Antapodoseos, seu rerum per Europam gestarum, Libri VI_,
an historical narrative, relating to the events from 887 to 949,
compiled with the object of avenging himself upon Berengar and Willa
his queen; (2) _Historia Ottonis_, a work of greater impartiality and
merit, unfortunately covering only the years from 960 to 964; and (3)
the _Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana_ (968-969). All are to
be found in the _Monum. Germ. Hist_. of Pertz, and in the _Rer. Ital.
Script_. of Muratori; there is an edition by E. Dümmler (1877), and a
partial translation into German, with an introduction by W.
Wattenbach, is given in the second volume of the _Geschichtsschreiber
der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1853). Compare Wattenbach, _Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen im Mittelalter_. Three other works, entitled
_Adversaria, Chronicon, 606-960_, and _Opusculum de vitis Romanorum
pontificum_, are usually, but wrongly, assigned to Liudprand. An
English translation of the embassy to Constantinople is in Ernest
Henderson's _Select Documents of the Middle Ages_ (Bohn series, 1896).
A complete bibliography is in A. Potthast's _Bibl. Hist. Medii Aevi_
(Berlin, 1896).

LIVE OAK, a city and the county-seat of Suwannee county, Florida, U.S.A., 81 m. by rail W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 687; (1900) 1659; (1905) 7200; (1910) 3450. Live Oak is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Live Oak, Perry & Gulf and the Florida railways. There are extensive areas of pine lands in the vicinity, and large quantities of sea-island cotton are produced in the county. Lumber and naval stores are also important products. The first settlement on the site of the city was made in 1865 by John Parshley, of Massachusetts, who erected a large saw-mill here. Live Oak was first incorporated as a town in 1874, and in 1903 was chartered as a city.

LIVER (O. Eng. _lifer_; cf. cognate forms, Dutch _lever_, Ger. _Leber_, Swed. _lefver_, &c.; the O. H. Ger. forms are _libara, lipora_, &c.; the Teut. word has been connected with Gr. [Greek: hêpar] and Lat. _jecur_), in anatomy, a large reddish-brown digestive gland situated in the upper and right part of the abdominal cavity. When hardened _in situ_ its shape is that of a right-angled, triangular prism showing five surfaces--superior, anterior, inferior, posterior and right lateral which represents the base of the prism. It weighs about three pounds or one-fortieth of the body Weight.

Although the liver is a fairly solid organ, it is plastic, and moulds itself to even hollow neighbouring viscera rather than they to it. The superior surface is in contact with the diaphragm, but has peritoneum between (see COELOM AND SEROUS MEMBRANES). At its posterior margin the peritoneum of the great sac is reflected on to the diaphragm to form the anterior layer of the _coronary ligament_. Near the mid line of the body, and at right angles to the last, another reflection, the _falciform ligament_, runs forward, and the line of attachment of this indicates the junction of the _right_ and _left lobes_ of the liver. The anterior surface is in contact with the diaphragm and the anterior abdominal wall. The attachment of the falciform ligament is continued down it. The posterior surface is more complicated (see fig. 1); starting from the right and working toward the left, a large triangular area, uncovered by peritoneum and in direct contact with the diaphragm, is seen. This is bounded on the left by the inferior vena cava, which is sunk into a deep groove in the liver, and into the upper part of this the _hepatic veins_ open. Just to the right of this and at the lower part of the bare area is a triangular depression for the right suprarenal body. To the left of the vena cava is the _Spigelian lobe_, which lies in front of the bodies of the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae, the lesser sac of peritoneum, diaphragm and thoracic aorta intervening. To the left of this is the fissure for the _ductus venosus_, and to the left of this again, the left lobe, in which a broad shallow groove for the oesophagus may usually be seen. Sometimes the left lobe stretches as far as the left abdominal wall, but more often it ends below the apex of the heart, which is 3½ in. to the left of the mid line of the body. The relations of the lower surface can only be understood if it is realized that it looks backward and to the left as well as downward (see fig. 1). Again starting from the right side, two impressions are seen; the anterior one is for the hepatic flexure of the colon, and the posterior for the upper part of the right kidney. To the left of the colic impression is a smaller one for the second part of the duodenum. Next comes the _gall bladder_, a pear-shaped bag, the fundus of which is in front and below, the neck behind and above. From the neck passes the _cystic duct_, which is often twisted into the form of an S. To the left of the gall bladder is the _quadrate lobe_, which is in contact with the pylorus of the stomach. To the left of this is the _left lobe_ of the liver, separated from the quadrate lobe by the umbilical fissure in which lies the _round ligament_ of the liver, the remains of the umbilical vein of the foetus. Sometimes this fissure is partly turned into a tunnel by a bridge of liver substance known as the _pons hepatis_. The under surface of the left lobe is concave for the interior surface of the stomach (see ALIMENTARY CANAL: _Stomach Chamber_), while a convexity, known as the _tuber omentale_, fits into the lesser curvature of that organ. The posterior boundary of the quadrate lobe is the _transverse fissure_, which is little more than an inch long and more than half an inch wide. This fissure represents the hilum of the liver, and contains the right and left hepatic ducts and the right and left branches of the hepatic artery and portal vein, together with nerves and lymphatics, the whole being enclosed in some condensed subperitoneal tissue known as _Glisson's capsule_. Behind the transverse fissure the lower end of the Spigelian lobe is seen as a knob called the _tuber papillare_, and from the right of this a narrow bridge runs forward and to the right to join the Spigelian lobe to the right lobe and to shut off the transverse fissure from that for the vena cava. This is the _caudate lobe_. The right surface of the liver is covered with peritoneum and is in contact with the diaphragm, outside which are the pleura and lower ribs. From its lower margin the _right lateral ligament_ is reflected on to the diaphragm. A similar fold passes from the tip of the left lobe as the _left lateral ligament_, and both these are the lateral margins of the coronary ligament. Sometimes, especially in women, a tongue-shaped projection downward of the right lobe is found, known as _Riedel's lobe_; it is of clinical interest as it may be mistaken for a tumour or floating kidney (see C. H. Leaf, _Proc. Anat. Soc_., February 1899; _Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. ix.). The right and left _hepatic ducts_, while still in the transverse fissure, unite into a single duct which joins the cystic duct from the gall bladder at an acute angle. When these have united the duct is known as the _common bile duct_, and runs down to the second part of the duodenum (see ALIMENTARY CANAL).

FIG. 1.--The Liver from below and behind, showing the whole of the visceral surface and the posterior area of the parietal surface. The portal fissure has been slightly opened up to show the vessels passing through it; the other fissures are represented in their natural condition--closed. In this liver, which was hardened _in situ_, the impressions of the sacculations of the colon are distinctly visible at the colic impression. The round ligament and the remains of the ductus venosus are hidden in the depths of their fissures.]

i, i, i, Interlobular veins ending in the intralobular capillaries.
c, c, Central veins joined by the intralobular capillaries. At a, a
the capillaries of one lobule communicate with those adjacent to it.]

_Minute Structure of the Liver._--The liver is made up of an enormous
number of _lobules_ of a conical form (see fig. 3). If the portal vein
is followed from the transverse fissure, it will be seen to branch and
rebranch until minute twigs called _interlobular veins_ (fig. 2, i)
ramify around the lobules. From these _intralobular capillaries_ run
toward the centre of the lobule, forming a network among the polygonal
hepatic cells. On reaching the core of the conical lobule they are
collected into a central or _intralobular vein_ (fig. 2, c) which
unites with other similar ones to form a _sublobular vein_ (fig. 3,
s). These eventually reach the hepatic radicles, and so the blood is
conducted into the vena cava. In man the lobules are not distinctly
separated one from the other, but in some animals, e.g. the pig,
each one has a fibrous sheath derived from Glisson's capsule (fig. 3,
ct.).

_Embryology._--The liver first appears as an entodermal hollow
longitudinal outgrowth from the duodenum into the ventral mesentery.
The upper part of this forms the future liver, and grows up into the
_septum transversum_ from which the central part of the diaphragm is
formed (see DIAPHRAGM). From the cephalic part of this primary
diverticulum solid rods of cells called the _hepatic cylinders_ grow
out, and these branch again and again until a cellular network is
formed surrounding and breaking up the umbilical and vitelline veins.
The liver cells, therefore, are entodermal, but the supporting
connective tissue mesodermal from the septum transversum. The lower
(caudal) part of the furrow-like outgrowth remains hollow and forms
the gall bladder. At first the liver is embedded in the septum
transversum, but later the diaphragm and it are constricted off one
from the other, and soon the liver becomes very large and fills the
greater part of the abdomen. At birth it is proportionately much
larger than in the adult, and forms one-eighteenth instead of
one-fortieth of the body weight, the right and left lobes being nearly
equal in size.

c, c, Central veins receiving the intralobular capillaries.
s, Sublobular vein.
ct, Interlobular connective tissue forming the capsules of the
lobules.
i, i, Interlobular veins.]

_Comparative Anatomy._--In the Acrania (Amphioxus) the liver is
probably represented by a single ventral diverticulum from the
anterior end of the intestine, which has a hepatic portal circulation
and secretes digestive fluid. In all the Craniata a solid liver is
developed. In the adult lamprey among the Cyclostomata the liver
undergoes retrogression, and the bile ducts and gall bladder
disappear, though they are present in the larval form (Ammocoetes). In
fishes and amphibians the organ consists of right and left lobes, and
a gall-bladder is present. The same description applies to the
reptiles, but a curious network of cystic ducts is found in snakes and
to a less extent in crocodiles. In the Varanidae (Monitors) the
hepatic duct is also retiform (see F. E. Beddard, _Proc. Zool. Soc_.,
1888, p. 105). In birds two lobes are also present, but in some of
them, _e.g_. the pigeon, there is no gall-bladder.

u, Umbilical vein of the foetus, represented by the round ligament
in the adult, lying in the umbilical fissure.
dv, The ductus venosus.
vc, The inferior vena cava.
p, The vena portae entering the transverse fissure.
llf, The left lateral fissure.
rlf, The right lateral fissure.
cf, The cystic fissure.
ll, The left lateral lobe.
lc, The left central lobe.
rc, The right central lobe.
rl, The right lateral lobe.
s, The Spigelian lobe.
c, The caudate lobe.
g, The gall bladder.]

In mammals Sir William Flower pointed out that a generalized type of
liver exists, from which that of any mammal may be derived by
suppression or fusion of lobes. The accompanying diagram of Flower
(fig. 4) represents an ideal mammalian liver. It will be seen that the
umbilical fissure (u) divides the organ into right and left halves, as
in the lower vertebrates, but that the ventral part of each half is
divided into a central and lateral lobe. Passing from right to left
there are therefore: right lateral (rl), right central (rc), left
central (lc), and left lateral (ll) lobes. The gall-bladder (g), when
it is present, is always situated on the caudal surface or in the
substance of the right central lobe. The Spigelian (s) and caudate
lobes (c) belong to the right half of the liver, the latter being
usually a leaf-shaped lobe attached by its stalk to the Spigelian, and
having its blade flattened between the right lateral lobe and the
right kidney. The vena cava (vc) is always found to the right of the
Spigelian lobe and dorsal to the stalk of the caudate. In tracing the
lobulation of man's liver back to this generalized type, it is evident
at once that his quadrate lobe does not correspond to any one
generalized lobe, but is merely that part of the right central which
lies between the gall bladder and the umbilical fissure. From a
careful study of human variations (see A. Thomson, _Journ. Anat. and
Phys_. vol. 33, p. 546) compared with an Anthropoid liver, such as
that of the gorilla, depicted by W. H. L. Duckworth (_Morphology and
Anthropology_, Cambridge, 1904, p. 98), it is fairly clear that the
human liver is formed, not by a suppression of any of the lobes of the
generalized type, but by a fusion of those lobes and obliteration of
certain fissures. This fusion is, probably correctly, attributed by
Keith to the effect of pressure following the assumption of the erect
position (Keith, _Proc. Anat. Soc. of Gt. Britain, Journ. Anat. and
Phys_. vol. 33, p. xii.). The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) shows an
abnormal human liver in the Anatomical Department of St Thomas's
Hospital which reproduces the generalized type. In its lobulation it
is singularly like, in many details, that of the baboon (_Papio
maimon_) figured by G. Ruge (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 35, p. 197); see F.
G. Parsons, _Proc. Anat. Soc_., Feb. 1904, _Journ. Anat. and Phys_.
vol. 33, p. xxiii. Georg Ruge "Die äusseren Formverhältnisse der Leber
bei den Primaten," (_Morph. Jahrb_., Bd. 29 and 35) gives a critical
study of the primate liver, and among other things suggests the
recognition of the Spigelian and caudate lobes as parts of a single
lobe, for which he proposes the name of lobus venae cavae. This
doubtless would be an advantage morphologically, though for human
descriptive a natomy the present nomenclature is not likely to be
altered.

The gall-bladder is usually present in mammals, but is wanting in the
odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla) and Procavia (Hyrax). In the
giraffe it may be absent or present. The cetacea and a few rodents are
also without it. In the otter the same curious network of bile ducts
already recorded in the reptiles is seen (see P. H. Burne, _Proc.
Anat. Soc., Journ. Anat. and Phys_. vol. 33, p. xi.). (F. G. P.)

SURGERY OF LIVER AND GALL-BLADDER.--Exposed as it is in the upper part of the abdomen, and being somewhat friable, the human liver is often torn or ruptured by blows or kicks, and, the large blood-vessels being thus laid open, fatal haemorrhage into the belly-cavity may take place. The individual becomes faint, and the faintness keeps on increasing; and there are pain and tenderness in the liver-region. The right thing to do is to open the belly in the middle line, search for a wound in the liver and treat it by deep sutures, or by plugging it with gauze.

_Cirrhosis of the Liver._--As the result of chronic irritation of the liver increased supplies of blood pass to it, and if the irritation is unduly prolonged inflammation is the result. The commonest causes of this chronic hepatitis are alcoholism and syphilis. The new fibrous tissue which is developed throughout the liver, as the result of the chronic inflammation, causes general enlargement of the liver with, perhaps, nausea, vomiting and jaundice. Later the new fibrous tissue undergoes contraction and the liver becomes smaller than natural. Blood then finds difficulty in passing through it, and, as a result, dropsy occurs in the belly (ascites). This may be relieved by tapping the cavity with a small hollow needle (Southey's trocar), or by passing into it a large sharp-pointed tube. This relieves the dropsy, but it does not cure the condition on which the dropsy depends. A surgical operation is sometimes undertaken with success for enabling the engorged veins to empty themselves into the blood-stream in a manner so as to avoid the liver-route.

_Inflammation of the Liver_ (hepatitis) may also be caused by an attack of micro-organisms which have reached it through the veins coming from the large intestine, or through the main arteries. There are, of course, as the result, pain and tenderness, and there is often jaundice. The case should be treated by rest in bed, fomentations, calomel and saline aperients. But when the hepatitis is of septic origin, suppuration is likely to occur, the result being an hepatic abscess.

_Hepatic Abscess_ is especially common in persons from the East who have recently undergone an attack of dysentery. In addition to the local pain and tenderness, there is a high temperature accompanied with shiverings or occasional rigors, the patient becoming daily more thin and miserable. Sometimes the abscess declares itself by a bulging at the surface, but if not an incision should be made through the belly-wall over the most tender spot, and a direct examination of the surface of the liver made. A bulging having been found, that part of the liver which apparently overlies the abscess should be stitched up to the sides of the opening made in belly-wall, and should then be explored by a hollow needle. Pus being found, the abscess should be freely opened and drained. It is inadvisable to explore for a suspected abscess with a hollow needle without first opening the abdomen, as septic fluid might thus be enabled to leak out, and infect the general peritoneal cavity. If an hepatic abscess is injudiciously left to itself it may eventually discharge into the chest, lungs or belly, or it may establish a communication with a piece of intestine. The only safe way for an abscess to evacuate itself is on to the surface of the body.

_Hydatic Cysts_ are often met with in the liver. They are due to a peculiar development of the eggs of the tape-worm of the dog, which have been received into the alimentary canal with infected water or uncooked vegetables, such as watercress. The embryo of the taenia echinococcus finds its way from the stomach or intestine into a vein passing to the liver, and, settling itself in the liver, causes so much disturbance there that a capsule of inflammatory material forms around it. Inside this wall is the special covering of the embryo which shortly becomes distended with clear hydatid fluid. The cyst should be treated like a liver-abscess, by incision through the abdominal or thoracic wall, by circumferential suturing and by exploration and drainage.

_Tumours of the Liver_ may be innocent or malignant. The most important of the former is the _gumma_ of tertiary syphilis; this may steadily and completely disappear under the influence of iodide of potassium. The commonest form of malignant tumour is the result of the growth of cancerous elements which have been brought to the liver by the veins coming up from a primary focus of the large intestine. Active surgical treatment of such a tumour is out of the question. Fortunately it is, as a rule, painless.

_The Gall-bladder_ may be ruptured by external violence, and if bile escapes from the rent in considerable quantities peritonitis will be set up, whether the bile contains septic germs or not. If, on opening the abdomen to find out what serious effects some severe injury has caused, the gall-bladder be found torn, the rent may be sewn up, or, if thought better, the gall-bladder may be removed. The peritoneal surfaces in the region of the liver should then be wiped clean, and the abdominal wound closed, except for the passage through it of a gauze drain.

Biliary concretions, known as _gall stones_, are apt to form in the gall-bladder. They are composed of crystals of bile-fat, cholesterine. Sometimes in the course of a _post-mortem_ examination a gall-bladder is found packed full of gall-stones which during life had caused no inconvenience and had given rise to no suspicion of their presence. In other cases gall-stones set up irritation in the gall-bladder which runs on to inflammation, and the gall-bladder being infected by septic germs from the intestine (_bacilli coli_) an abscess forms.

_Abscess of the Gall-bladder_ gives rise to a painful, tender swelling near the cartilage of the ninth rib of the right side. If the abscess is allowed to take its course, adhesions may form around it and it may burst into the intestine or on to the surface of the abdomen, a _biliary fistula_ remaining. Abscess in the gall-bladder being suspected, an incision should be made down to it, and, its covering having been stitched to the abdominal wall, the gall-bladder should be opened and drained. The presence of concretions in the gall-bladder may not only lead to the formation of abscess but also to invasion of the gall-bladder by cancer.