Chapter V: Front Matter (5)

_Germany._--The German law and practice are broadly similar to the
French, but the several states vary somewhat in detail. Under the
imperial law of 1879 inns or hotels and retail trade in spirits for on
or off consumption may not be carried on without a permit or licence
from the local authority which, however, can only be refused on the
ground of character or of unsuitability of premises. This is the
general law of the empire; but the state governments are empowered to
make the granting of a licence for retailing spirits dependent on
proof that it is locally required, and also to impose the same
condition on inn-keeping and the retailing of other drinks in places
with less than 15,000 inhabitants and in larger ones which obtain a
local statute to that effect. Before a licence is granted the opinion
of the police and other executive officers is to be taken. The
licensing authority is the mayor in towns and the chairman of the
district council in rural areas. The provisions with regard to the
dependence of a licence on local requirements have been adopted by
Prussia and other states, but apparently little or no use is made of
them. Permits are very freely granted, and the number of licensed
houses, though not so great as in France, is very high in proportion
to population. Three classes of establishment are recognized--(1)
_Gast-wirthschaft_, (2) _Schank-wirthschaft_, (3) _Klein-handel_.
_Gast-wirthschaft_ is inn-keeping, or the lodging of strangers in an
open house for profit, and includes "pensions" of a public character;
the imperial law provides that a licence may be limited to this
function and need not include the retailing of liquor.
_Schank-wirthschaft_ is the retailing for profit of all sorts of
drinks, including coffee and mineral waters; it corresponds to café in
France and refreshment house in England; but the mere serving of food
does not come under the law with which we are here concerned.
_Klein-handel_ is retail sale either for on or off consumption, and
the liquor for which a licence is required in this connexion is
described as _branntwein_ or _spiritus_, and is defined as distilled
alcoholic liquor, whether by itself or in combination. A licence for
_Schank-wirthschaft_ includes _Klein-handel_, but not vice-versa; none
is required for the retail sale of wine which is the seller's own
produce. Licences may be withdrawn for offences against the law.
Licensed houses are under the supervision of the police, who fix the
hours of closing; it is usually 10 P.M., but is commonly extended to
11 P.M. or midnight in the larger towns and still later in the case of
particular establishments. Some cafés in Berlin do not close till 3
A.M. and some never close at all. Persons remaining on the premises in
forbidden hours after being ordered to leave by the landlord are
liable to punishment. Serving drunkards and persons of school age is
forbidden. Drunkards, in addition to fines or imprisonment for
disorderly conduct, are liable to be deprived of control of their
affairs and placed under guardianship. For music and dancing special
permits are required. With regard to taxation, in Prussia all business
establishments beyond a certain value pay an annual tax and licensed
houses are on the same footing as the rest. Businesses producing less
than £75 a year or of less than £150 capital value are free; the rest
are arranged in four classes on a rising scale. In the three lower
classes the tax ranges from a minimum of 4s. to a maximum of £24; in
the highest class, which represents businesses producing £2500 and
upwards (or a capital value of £50,000 and upwards) the tax is 1% of
the profits. There is also a stamp duty on the licence ranging from
1s. 6d. to £5. The latter goes to the local revenue, the business tax
to the government. Beer and spirits are also subject to an excise tax,
from which the imperial revenue derived £7,700,000 in 1901; but the
total taxation of the liquor trade could only be calculated from the
returns of all the federated states.

The laws of France and Germany are fairly representative of the
European states, with some minor variations. In _Holland_ the number
of licensed spirit retailers is limited in proportion to population (1
to 500), and the taxation, which is both national and local, ranges
from 10 to 25% of the annual value.

In _Austria-Hungary_ and _Rumania_ the licence duty is graduated
according to the population of the place, as used to be the case in
Prussia. In 1877 a severe police law was applied to Galicia in order
to check the excesses of spirit-drinking. The Poles, it may be
observed, are spirit-drinkers, and the exceptional treatment of this
part of the Austrian empire is one more illustration of the trouble
arising from that habit, which forces special attempts to restrain it.
The law, just mentioned, in Holland is another instance; and the
particular cases of Russia and Scandinavia, described below, enforce
the same lesson. Where the drink of the people is confined to wine and
beer there is comparatively little trouble. In _Switzerland_ the
manufacture and wholesale sale of spirits has been a federal monopoly
since 1887, but the retailing is a licensed trade, as elsewhere, and
is less restricted than formerly. Before federation in 1874 the
cantons used to direct local authorities to restrict the number of
licences in proportion to population; but under the new constitution
the general principle of free trade was laid down, and the Federal
Council intimated to the cantonal authorities that it was no longer
lawful to refuse a licence on the ground that it was not needed.

_Russia._--In 1895 Russia entered upon an experiment in regard to the
spirit traffic and began to convert the previously existing licence
system into a state monopoly. The experiment was held to be successful
and was gradually extended to the whole country. Under this system,
which to some extent resembles that of South Carolina but is much less
rigid, the distilleries remain in private hands but their output is
under government control. The retail sale is confined to government
shops, which sell only in sealed bottles for consumption off the
premises, and to commercial establishments which sell on commission
for the government. Spirit bars are abolished and only in a few high
class restaurants are spirits sold by the glass; in ordinary
eating-houses and at railway refreshment rooms they are sold in sealed
government bottles but may be consumed on the premises. The primary
object was to check the excesses of spirit-drinking which were very
great in Russia among the mass of the people. The effect has been a
very large reduction in the number of liquor shops, which has extended
also to the licensed beer-houses though they are not directly affected
as such. Presumably when they could no longer sell spirits it did not
pay them to take out a licence for beer.

_Sweden and Norway._--In these countries the celebrated "Gothenburg"
or company system is in force together with licensing and local veto.
Like the Russian state monopoly the company system applies only to
spirits, and for the same reason; spirits are or were the common drink
of the people and excessive facilities in the early part of the 19th
century produced the usual result. The story is very similar to that
of England in the 18th century, given above. From 1774 to 1788
distilling in Sweden was a crown monopoly, but popular opposition and
illicit trade compelled the abandonment of this plan in favour of
general permission granted to farmers, innkeepers and landowners. At
the beginning of the 19th century the right to distil belonged to
every owner and cultivator of land on payment of a trifling licence
duty, and it was further extended to occupiers. In 1829 the number of
stills paying licence duty was 173,124 or 1 to every 16 persons; the
practice was in fact universal and the whole population was debauched
with spirits. The physical and moral results were the same as those
recorded in England a hundred years before. The supply was somewhat
restricted by royal ordinance in 1835, but the traffic was not
effectively dealt with until 1855 when a law was passed which
practically abolished domestic distilling by fixing a minimum daily
output of 200 gallons, with a tax of about 10d. a gallon. This turned
the business into a manufacture and speedily reduced the number of
stills. At the same time the retail sale was subjected to drastic
regulations. A licensing system was introduced which gave the local
authority power to fix the number of licences and put them up to
auction or to hand over the retail traffic altogether to a company
formed for the purpose of carrying it on. The latter idea, which is
the Gothenburg system, was taken from the example of Falun and
Jönköping which had a few years ago voluntarily adopted the plan. The
law of 1855 further gave rural districts the power of local veto.
Four-fifths of the population live in rural districts, and the great
majority of them immediately took advantage of the provision. The
company system, on the other hand, was not applied by the towns until
1865, when Gothenburg adopted it.

In Norway the course of events was very similar. There, too,
distilling and spirit-drinking were practically universal in the early
part of the century under the laws of 1816, but were checked by
legislation a few years sooner than in Sweden. In 1845 a special
licensing system was introduced, giving the local authority power to
fix the number of licences, and in 1848 the small and domestic stills
were stopped. The Gothenburg system was not adopted in Norway until
1871 and then with some modification. The essence of this method of
conducting the retail traffic is that the element of private gain is
eliminated. A monopoly is granted to a company consisting of a number
of disinterested citizens of standing with a capital, and they manage
the sale both for "on" and "off" consumption in the public interest.
The profits, after payment of 5% on the capital, originally went in
Sweden mainly to the municipality in relief of rates, in Norway to
objects of public utility. The latter was considered preferable
because it offers less temptation to make the profits as high as
possible. Fault has, however, been found with both methods, and
payment of profits to the state is now preferred. In 1894 a law was
passed in Norway providing for the following distribution: 65% to the
state, 20% to the company, and 15% to the municipality. In 1907 Sweden
adopted a law in the same direction. The intention is to eliminate
more completely the motive of gain from the traffic. In 1898 the net
profits of the companies exceeded half a million sterling in Sweden
and reached £117,500 in Norway.

The company system had in 1910 had more than half a century's trial;
it had gone through some vicissitudes and been subjected to much
criticism, which was balanced by at least as much eulogy. It had held
its own in Sweden, where 101 towns had adopted it in 1906. In Norway
at the same date it was in force in 32 towns while 29 had adopted
local veto, which was extended from the country districts, where it
had previously been optional, to the towns by the law of 1894.

As we have already said, it only applies to spirits. In both countries
the sale of beer and wine for "on" consumption is carried on in the
ordinary way under a licensing system; the sale of beer in bottles for
consumption off the premises is practically free. The beer traffic is
regarded by some as a "safety valve" and by others as a defect in the
system. The consumption has greatly increased in Sweden; in Norway it
increased up to 1900 and has since declined. But other more
deleterious substitutes for spirits have come into use in the shape of
concocted "wines" and methylated spirits. The company management has
had the following effects: it has greatly reduced the number of spirit
bars, improved their character and conduct, added eating-rooms, where
good and cheap meals are served, stopped drinking on credit and by
persons under 18 years of age, shortened the hours of sale, raised the
price and lowered the strength of spirits. But the restrictions placed
on the sale for consumption on the premises has stimulated the retail
bottle trade and home drinking.

_British Dominions._

_Canada._--Liquor legislation in Canada has been much influenced by
the proximity and example of the United States. Licensing, modified by
local veto, prevails throughout the Dominion except in the Indian
settlements; but the several provinces have their own laws, which vary
in stringency. As a whole the licensing system rather resembles the
American than the British type. The licensing authority is either a
board of commissioners or the municipality, and there has been the
same tendency as in the United States to substitute the former for the
latter. In British Columbia no new hotel licence is granted in cities
except on the request of two-thirds of the owners and occupiers of the
adjoining property, but their consent is not necessary for renewal. In
other provinces the municipal authority has power to limit as well as
regulate the licensed trade. Sunday closing is the rule; on week-days
the usual closing hour in the large towns is 11 P.M. The power of
locally prohibiting licensed houses by vote was introduced by the
Canada Temperance Act, a federal law passed in 1875 and commonly known
as the Scott Act. Extensive use has been made of it, especially in the
maritime provinces, where the temperance sentiment is very strong, but
in recent years it has rather lost ground. In 1908 it was in force in
22 counties or cities, of which ten were in Nova Scotia, ten in New
Brunswick and two in Manitoba; it was nowhere in force in the
remaining provinces. Three elections were held under the act in
1907-1908, two in Nova Scotia and one in New Brunswick, and in the
first two prohibition was defeated. In 1910 Nova Scotia, apparently
dissatisfied with the progress of local prohibition under the Scott
Act, passed a prohibitory law for the whole province, exempting
Halifax, the capital and only considerable town, but making provision
for its subsequent inclusion by a referendum to the ratepayers. There
is in Canada the same oscillation of public opinion as in the United
States, and the same toleration of evasion of the law. The writer has
stayed in hotels in several prohibition towns, where there was not
only a regular bar but a printed wine list from which anything could
be ordered at meals without any concealment at all. The chief
difference between the conduct of hotels under prohibition and under
licensing is that under licensing the bar is closed at the legal hour,
which is usually 11 o'clock, and under prohibition it remains open as
long as there are any customers to serve. The law is nominally
respected by imposing a periodical fine. In small towns and rural
districts local prohibition is much more effective. In short the
experience of Canada confirms that of the United States. In addition
to the federal law, the local authorities have power, in Quebec, to
prohibit as well as to regulate the trade. The high licence system has
not been adopted in Canada. The total revenue derived by the Dominion
government in 1908 from taxation of the liquor trade, including duties
and licence fees, was £1,800,000.

_Australia._--The licensing laws of Australia are less repressive and
the practice more resembles the British model. Queensland has adopted
local prohibition, but it is not applied. New South Wales has a
limited form of veto applying only to new licences; South Australia
has the same together with a provision for the optional reduction of
licences; Victoria, on the other hand, allows an option both ways, for
reducing or increasing the licences; West Australia and Tasmania
merely give the local ratepayers the right of protest; in West
Australia it holds good against new licences only and if a majority
object the licence is refused; in Tasmania protest may be made against
renewals and transfers also, but the decision lies with the licensing
authority. There is practically no prohibition in the Commonwealth.

_New Zealand._--This state has a licensing system with local option
provisions of its own. The licensing authority is a local committee,
and there are seven kinds of licence, of which two are for consumption
on the premises. The fees range from £1 for a wine licence to £40 for
a full publican's licence in towns, or £45 for one permitting an
additional hour's sale at night; the fees go to the revenue of the
local authority. In 1907 the total number of licences granted was 2179
and the fees paid amounted to £45,865. Of the whole number, 1367, or 1
to every 666 persons, were houses licensed for on consumption. The
closing hour is 10 P.M. except for houses specially licensed to be
open till 11 P.M. In 1893 local option was introduced by the Alcoholic
Liquors Sale Control Act, which provided for the taking of a poll on
the question of licences. The electoral districts for the purpose are
the same as for the House of Representatives, except that the cities
of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin each form a single
district for the licensing poll. It is taken at the same time as the
election of members of the House of Representatives, and three
questions are propounded--(1) continuance of existing licences, (2)
reduction, (3) no licences. A voter may vote for two proposals but not
more. An absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (1); an
absolute majority of all the votes recorded carries (2), whereupon the
licensing committee reduces the licences by any number from 5 to 25%
of the total. But if three-fifths of all the votes cast are in favour
of no licence then that supersedes (1) and (2). The poll taken in
December 1905 gave the following results: of the 68 districts 40
carried no proposal (which is equivalent to continuance of existing
licences), 18 carried continuance, 4 reduction, 6 no licence,
including 3 which had previously adopted no licence. Women, it must be
remembered, vote as well as men. The aggregate vote in favour of no
licence shows a large proportional increase since the first poll in
the present system in 1896.

AUTHORITIES.--Royal Commission on Liquor Licensing Laws 1896-1899,
Reports and Appendices; Licensing Statistics of England and Wales,
annual. Canada Year-book; New Zealand Year-book; _Code de Commerce_,
France; _Gewerbeordnung_, German Empire; Hand-book of Canada (British
Association); _New Encyclopedia of Social Reform; Brewers' Almanack_;
Committee of Fifty (New York), _The Liquor Problem in its Legislative
Aspects_ (F. H. Wines and J. Koren); E. L. Fanshawe, _Liquor
Legislation in the United States and Canada_; E.R.L. Gould, _The
Gothenburg System_ (Special Report of the United States Commissioner
of Labor); E. A. Pratt, _Licensing and Temperance in Sweden, Norway
and Denmark_; J. Rowntree and A. Sherwell, _The Temperance Problem and
Social Reform_; _The Taxation of the Liquor Trade_; A. Shadwell,
_Drink, Temperance and Legislation_; Strauss und Torney,
_Schanks-Konzessionswesen_; F. W. Thompson, _High Licence_. See also
TEMPERANCE. (A. Sl.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] In 1908 local option was adopted in Ohio.

LIRA, the Italian name (Lat. _libra_, pound) for a silver coin, the Italian unit of value in the Latin Monetary Union, corresponding to the French, Swiss and Belgian franc (q.v.), and the drachma of Greece, &c. The name is sometimes used of the Turkish pound, _medjidie_.

LIRI, or GARIGLIANO (anc. _Liris_), a river of central Italy, which rises at Cappadocia, 7 m. W. of Avezzano, and traverses a beautiful valley between lofty mountains, running S.S.E. as far as Arce. This valley is followed by the railway from Avezzano to Roccasecca. At Isola del Liri are two fine waterfalls. Below Ceprano, the ancient Fregellae, after it has issued from the mountains, the Liri is joined by the Sacco (anc. _Trerus_) formed by the union of several torrents between Palestrina and Segni, and the Melfa from the mountains N.E. of Atina, and runs E. through a broader valley. It then turns S. again through the mountains S.W. of the Via Latina (the line of which is followed by the modern railway to Naples), keeping W. of Rocca Monfina, and falls into the sea just below Minturnae, after a course of 104 m. It is not navigable at any point.

LIROCONITE, a rare mineral consisting of hydrous basic copper and aluminium arsenate, with the probable formula Cu9Al4(OH)15(AsO4)5·20H2O. It crystallizes in the monoclinic system, forming flattened octahedra almost lenticular in shape (hence the German name _Linsenkupfer_). Characteristic is the bright sky-blue colour, though sometimes, possibly owing to differences in chemical composition, it is verdigris-green. The colour of the streak or powder is rather paler; hence the name liroconite, from the Gr. [Greek: leiros], pale, and [Greek: konia], powder. The hardness is 2½, and the specific gravity 2.95. The mineral was found at the beginning of the 19th century in the copper mines near Gwennap in Cornwall, where it was associated with other copper arsenates in the upper, oxidized portions of the lodes. (L. J. S.)

LISBON (_Lisboa_), the capital of the kingdom of Portugal and of the department of Lisbon; on the right bank of the river Tagus, near its entrance into the Atlantic Ocean, in 38° 42´ 24´´ N. and 9° 11´ 10´´ W. Pop. (1900) 356,009. Lisbon, the westernmost of European capitals, is built in a succession of terraces up the sides of a range of low hills, backed by the granite mountains of Cintra. It fronts the Tagus, and the view from the river of its white houses, and its numerous parks and gardens, is comparable in beauty with the approach to Naples or Constantinople by sea. The lower reaches of the estuary form a channel (Entrada do Tejo) about 2 m. wide and 8 m. long, which is partially closed at its mouth by a bar of silt. Owing to the reclamation of the foreshore on the right, and the consequent narrowing of the waterway, the current flows very swiftly down this channel, which is the sole outlet for the immense volume of water accumulated in the Rada de Lisboa--a tidal lake formed by the broadening of the estuary in its upper part to fill a basin 11 m. long with an average breadth of nearly 7 m. The southern or left shore of the channel rises sharply from the water's edge in a line of almost unbroken though not lofty cliffs; the margin of the lake is flat, marshy and irregular. Lisbon extends for more than 5 m. along the shores of both channel and lake, and for more than 3 m. inland. Its suburbs, which generally terminate in a belt of vineyards, parks or gardens, interspersed with villas and farms, stretch in some cases beyond the Estrada Militar, or Estrada da Nova Circumvallação, an inner line of defence 25 m. long, supplementary to the forts and other military works at the mouth of the Tagus, on the heights of Cintra and Alverca, and at Caxias, Sacavem, Monsanto and Ameixoeira. The climate of Lisbon is mild and equable, though somewhat oppressive in summer. Extreme cold is so rare that in the twenty years 1856-1876 snow fell only thrice; and in the 18th and early 19th centuries Lisbon was justly esteemed as a winter health-resort. The mean annual temperature is 60.1° F., the mean for winter 50.9°, the average rainfall 29.45 in. As in 1906, when no rain fell between April and September, long periods of drought are not uncommon, although the proximity of the Atlantic and the frequency of sea-fogs keep the atmosphere humid; the mean atmospheric moisture is nearly 71 (100 = saturation). There is a good water supply, conveyed to the city by two vast aqueducts. The older of these is the Aqueducto das Aguas Livres, which was built in the first half of the 18th century and starts from a point near Bellas, 15 m. W.N.W. Its conduits, which are partly underground, are conveyed across the Alcantara valley through a magnificent viaduct of thirty-five arches, exceeding 200 ft. in height. At the Lisbon end of the aqueduct is the Mae d'Agua (i.e. "Mother of Water"), containing a huge stone hall in the midst of which is the reservoir. The Alviella aqueduct, opened in 1880, brings water from Alviella near Pernes, 70 m. N.N.E. Numerous fountains are among the means of distribution. Sewage is discharged into the Tagus, and the sanitation of the city is good, except in the older quarters.

_Divisions of the City._--The four municipal districts (_bairros_) into which Lisbon is divided are the _Alfama_, or old town, in the east; the _Cidade Baixa_, or lower town, which extends inland from the naval arsenal and custom house; the _Bairro Alto_, comprising all the high ground west of the Cidade Baixa; and the _Alcantara_, or westernmost district, named after the small river Alcantara, which flows down into the Tagus. Other names commonly used, though unofficial, are "Lisboa Oriental" as an alternative for Alfama; "Lisboa Occidental" for the slopes which lead from the Cidade Baixa to the Bairro Alto; "Buenos Ayres" (originally so named from the number of its South American residents) for the Bairro Alto S.W. of the Estrella Gardens and E. of the Necessidades Park; "Campo de Ourique" and "Rato" for the suburbs respectively N.W. and N.E. of Buenos Ayres.

_The Alfama._--The Alfama, which represents Roman and Moorish Lisbon, is less rich in archaeological interest than its great antiquity might suggest, although parts of a Roman temple, baths, &c., have been disinterred. But as the earthquake of 1755 did comparatively little damage to this quarter, many of its narrow, steep and winding alleys retain the medieval aspect which all other parts of the city have lost; and almost rival the slums of Oporto in picturesque squalor. The most conspicuous feature of the Alfama is the rocky hill surmounted by the Castello de São Jorge, a Moorish citadel which has been converted into a fort and barracks. The Sé Patriarchal, a cathedral founded in 1150 by Alphonso I., is said by tradition to have been a Moorish mosque. It was wrecked by an earthquake in 1344 and rebuilt in 1380, but the earthquake of 1755 shattered the dome, the roof and belfry were subsequently burned, and after the work of restoration was completed the choir and façade were the only parts of the 14th-century Gothic church unspoiled. In one of the side chapels is the tomb of St Vincent (d. 304), patron saint of Lisbon; a pair of ravens kept within the cathedral precincts are popularly believed to be the same birds which, according to the legend, miraculously guided the saint's vessel to the city. The armorial bearings of Lisbon, representing a ship and two ravens, commemorate the legend. Other noteworthy buildings in the Alfama are the 12th-century church of São Vicente de Fóra, originally, as its name implies, "outside" the city; the 13th-century chapel of Nossa Senhora do Monte; the 16th-century church of Nossa Senhora da Graça, which contains a reputed wonder-working statue of Christ and the tomb of Alphonso d'Albuquerque (1453-1515); and a secularized Augustinian monastery, used as the archbishop's palace.

_Modern Lisbon._--West of the Alfama the city dates chiefly from the period after the great earthquake. Its lofty houses, arranged in long straight streets, its gardens and open spaces, a few of its public buildings, and almost all its numerous statues and fountains, will bear comparison with those of any European capital. The centre of social and commercial activity is the district which comprises the Praça do Commercio, Rua Augusta, Rocío, and Avenida da Liberdade, streets and squares occupying the valley of a vanished tributary of the Tagus. The Praça do Commercio is a spacious square, one side of which faces the river, while the other three sides are occupied by the arcaded buildings of the custom house, post office and other government property. In the midst is a bronze equestrian statue of Joseph I., by J. M. de Castro, which was erected in 1775 and gives point to the name of "Black Horse Square" commonly applied to the Praça by the British. A triumphal arch on the north side leads to Rua Augusta, originally intended to be the cloth-merchants' street; for the plan upon which Lisbon was rebuilt after 1755 involved the restriction of each industry to a specified area. This plan succeeded in the neighbouring Rua Aurea and Rua da Prata, still, as their names indicate, famous for goldsmiths' and silversmiths' shops. Rua Augusta terminates on the north in the Rocío or Praça de Dom Pedro Quarto, a square paved with mosaic of a curious undulatory pattern and containing two bronze fountains, a lofty pillar surmounted by a statue of Pedro IV., and the royal national theatre (Teatro de Dona Maria Segunda), erected on the site which the Inquisition buildings occupied from 1520 to 1836. The narrow Rua do Principe, leading past the central railway station, a handsome Mauresque building, connects the Rocío with the Avenida da Liberdade, one of the finest avenues in Europe. The central part of the Avenida, a favourite open-air resort of Lisbon society, is used for riding and driving; on each side of it are paved double avenues of trees, with flower-beds, statues, ponds, fountains, &c., and between these and the broad pavements are two roadways for trams and heavy traffic. Thus the Avenida has the appearance of three parallel streets, separated by avenues of trees instead of houses. Its width exceeds 300 ft. It owes its name to an obelisk 98 ft. high, erected in 1882 at its southern end, to commemorate the liberation of Portugal from Spanish rule (December, 1640). North and north-east of the Avenida are the Avenida Park, the Edward VII. Park (so named in memory of a visit paid to Lisbon by the king of England in 1903), Campo Grande, with its finely wooded walks, and Campo Pequeno, with the bull-ring. Other noteworthy public gardens are the Passeio da Estrella, commanding magnificent views of the city and river, the Largo do Principe Real, planted with bananas and other tropical trees, the Tapada das Necessidades, originally the park of one of the royal residences, and the Botanical Gardens of the polytechnic school, with a fine avenue of palms and collections of tropical and subtropical flora hardly surpassed in Europe. There are large Portuguese cemeteries east and west of Lisbon, a German cemetery, and an English cemetery, known also as _Os Cyprestes_ from the number of its cypresses. This was laid out in 1717 at the cost of the British and Dutch residents and contains the graves of Henry Fielding (1707-1754), the novelist, and Dr Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), the Nonconformist divine.

Lisbon is the seat of an archbishop who since 1716 has borne _ex officio_ the honorary title of patriarch; he presides over the House of Peers and is usually appointed a cardinal. The churches of modern Lisbon are generally built in the Italian style of the 18th century; the interiors are overlaid with heavy ornament. Perhaps the finest is the Estrella church, with its white marble dome and twin towers visible for many miles above the city. The late Renaissance church of São Roque contains two beautiful chapels dating from the 18th century, one of which is inlaid with painted tiles, while the other was constructed in Rome of coloured marbles, and consecrated by the pope before being shipped to Lisbon. Its mosaics and lapis lazuli pillars are exceptionally fine. The 14th-century Gothic Igreja do Carmo was shattered by the great earthquake. Only the apse, pillared aisles and outer walls remain standing, and the interior has been converted into an archaeological museum. The church of Nossa Senhora da Conceição has a magnificent Manoeline façade.

The Palacio das Cortes, in which both Houses of Parliament sit, is a 16th-century Benedictine convent, used for its present purpose since 1834. It contains the national archives, better known as the Torre do Tombo collection, because in 1375 the archives were first stored in a tower of that name. The royal palace, or Paço das Necessidades, west of Buenos Ayres, is a vast 18th-century mansion occupying the site of a chapel dedicated to Nossa Senhora das Necessidades (i.e. "Our Lady who helps at need").

_The Suburbs of Ajuda and Belem._--In the extreme west of Lisbon,
beyond the Alcantara valley, are Belem (i.e. "Bethlehem"), beside the
Tagus, and Ajuda, on the heights above. The Paço de Belem, built in
1700 for the counts of Aveiro, became the chief royal palace under
John V. (1706-1750). The Torre de Belem, on the foreshore, is a small
tower of beautiful design, built in 1520 for the protection of
shipping. The finest ecclesiastical building in Portugal except the
monasteries of Alcobaça and Batalha also fronts the river. It is the
Convento dos Jeronymos, a Hieronymite convent and church, founded in
1499 to commemorate the discovery of the sea-route to India by Vasco
da Gama. It was built of white limestone by João de Castilho (d.
1581), perhaps the greatest of Manoeline architects. Its cloisters
form a square with blunted corners, surrounded by a two-storeyed
arcade, every available portion of which is covered with exquisite
sculptures. Parts of the building have been restored, but the
cloisters and the beautiful central gateway remain unspoiled. The
interior contains many royal tombs, including that of Catherine of
Braganza (d. 1705), the wife of Charles II. of England. The supposed
remains of Camoens and Vasco da Gama were interred here in 1880. In
1834, when the convent was secularized, its buildings were assigned to
the Casa Pia, an orphanage founded by Maria I. Since 1903 they have
contained the archaeological collections of the Portuguese
Ethnological Museum. The royal Ajuda palace, begun (1816-1826) by John
VI. but left unfinished, derives its name from the chapel of N. S. de
Ajuda ("Our Lady of Aid"). It contains some fine pictures and
historical trophies. In the coach-house there is an unsurpassed
collection of state coaches, the cars upon which figures of saints are
borne in procession, sedan chairs, old cabriolets and other curious
vehicles.

_The Environs of Lisbon._--The administrative district of Lisbon has
an area of 3065 sq. m., with a population of 709,509 in 1900. It
comprises the lower parts of the Tagus and Sado; the sea-coast from 5
m. S. of Cape Carvoeiro to within 3 m. of the bluff called the Escarpa
do Rojo; and a strip of territory extending inland for a mean distance
of 30 m. This region corresponds with the southern part of Estremadura
(q.v.). Its more important towns, Setubal, Cintra, Torres Vedras and
Mafra, are described in separate articles. Sines, a small seaport on
Cape Sines, was the birthplace of Vasco da Gama. On the left bank of
the Tagus, opposite Lisbon, are the small towns of Almada, Barreiro,
Aldeia Gallega and Seixal, and the hamlet of Trafaria, inhabited by
fishermen. The beautiful strip of coast west of Oeiras and south of
Cape Roca is often called the "Portuguese Riviera." Its fine climate,
mineral springs and sea-bathing attract visitors at all seasons to the
picturesque fortified bay of Cascaes, or to Estoril, Mont' Estoril and
São João do Estoril, modern towns consisting chiefly of villas, hotels
and gardens. The Boca do Inferno ("Mouth of Hell") is a cavity in the
rocks at Cascaes resembling the Bufador at Peñiscola (q.v.). The
villages of Carcavellos, Bucellas, Lumiar and Collares produce
excellent wines; at Carcavellos is the receiving station for cables,
with a large British staff, and a club and grounds where social and
athletic meetings are held by the British colony. Alhandra, on the
right bank of the Tagus, above Lisbon, was the birthplace of
Albuquerque; fighting bulls for the Lisbon arena are bred in the
adjacent pastures.

_Railways, Shipping and Commerce._--Lisbon has five railway stations--the central (Lisboa-Rocío), for the lines to Cintra, northern and central Portugal, and Madrid via Valencia de Alcántara; the Santa Apolonia or Caes dos Soldados, at the eastern extremity of the quays, for the same lines (excluding Cintra) and for southern Portugal and Andalusia; the Caes do Sodré and Santos, farther west along the quays, for Cascaes; and the Barreiro, on the left bank of the Tagus, for southern Portugal. In 1902 the railways north and south of the Tagus were connected near Lisbon by a bridge. In the previous year an extensive system of electric tramways replaced the old-fashioned cable cars and mule trams. Electric and hydraulic lifts are used where the streets are too steep for trams. Lisbon is lighted by both electricity and gas; it has an admirable telephone service, and is connected by the Carcavellos cable-station with Cornwall (England), Vigo in Galicia, Gibraltar, the Azores and Madeira.

Ships of the largest size can enter the Tagus, and the Barreiro inlet is navigable at low water by vessels drawing 16 ft. There are extensive quays along the right bank, with hydraulic cranes, two graving docks, a slipway, warehouses and lines of railway. The government and private docks are on the left bank. Loading and discharging are principally effected by means of lighters. The exports are wines, oil, fruit, tinned fish, salt, colonial produce, cork, pitwood, leather and wool. The imports include cotton and woollen goods, linen, ale and porter, butter, tea, hardware, tin plates, coal, iron, machinery, chemical manure, &c., from Great Britain; grain and petroleum from the United States; dried codfish from Norway and Newfoundland; silks, perfumery and fancy goods from France; hemp, flax, grain, petroleum and cloth from Russia; linen, machinery, hardware, sugar, &c., from Germany and Holland, iron, steel, timber, pitch and salt fish from the Baltic; cocoa, coffee, wax and rubber from the Portuguese colonies. Towards the close of the 19th century the tourist traffic from Great Britain and Germany attained considerable importance, and Lisbon has long been one of the principal ports of debarcation for passengers from Brazil and of embarcation for emigrants to South America. Shipbuilding, including the construction of vessels for the national navy, is a growing industry. The fisheries have always been important, and in no European fishmarket is the produce more varied. Sardines and tunny are cured and tinned for export. In addition to a fleet of about 600 sailing boats, the Tagus is the headquarters of a small fleet of steam trawlers. The industries of Lisbon include dyeing, distillation of spirits and manufactures of woollen, cotton, silk and linen fabrics, of pottery, soap, paper, chemicals, cement, corks, tobacco, preserved foods and biscuits.

_Education and Charity._--Although the seat of the only university in Portugal was fixed at Coimbra in 1527, Lisbon is the educational centre of the Portuguese world, including Brazil. Its chief learned societies are the Society of Medical Sciences, the Geographical Society, the Royal Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Fine Arts, the Royal Conservatory of Music and the Propaganda de Portugal. The museum of the Academy of Fine Arts contains the largest collection of pictures and statues by native and foreign artists in Portugal. The Geographical Society has gained an international reputation; it possesses a valuable library and museum. The National Library, founded in 1796, contains over 400,000 printed books, and upwards of 9000 MSS. There are also colonial, naval, artillery, natural history and commercial museums, meteorological and astronomical observatories, zoological gardens and an aquarium. Purely educational institutions include the medical, polytechnic, military and naval schools, commercial, agricultural and industrial institutes, a school of art, a central lyceum, a school for teachers, &c. The English college for British Roman Catholics dates from 1628. The Irish Dominicans have a seminary, and Portuguese ecclesiastical schools are numerous. There are hospitals for women, and for contagious diseases, almshouses, orphanages, a foundling hospital and a very large quarantine station on the south bank of the Tagus, founded in 1857 after an outbreak of yellow fever had devastated the city. Foremost among the theatres, circuses and other places of amusement is the royal opera-house of São Carlos, built in 1792-1793 on the model of the Scala at Milan.

_Population._--The population of Lisbon, 187,404[1] in 1878, rose to 301,206 in 1890 and 356,009 in 1900. It includes a large foreign colony, composed chiefly of Spaniards, British, Germans, French, Brazilians and immigrants from the Portuguese colonies, among whom are many half-castes. The majority of the Spaniards are domestic servants and labourers from Galicia, whose industry and easily gained knowledge of the kindred Portuguese language enables them to earn a better livelihood here than in their own homes. The British, German and French communities control a large share of the foreign trade. The Brazilians and colonial immigrants are often merchants and landowners who come to the mother-country to spend their fortunes in a congenial social environment.

The street life of the city is full of interest. The bare-footed,
ungainly fishwives, dressed in black and bearing flat trays of fish on
their heads; the Galician water-carriers, with their casks; the
bakers, bending beneath a hundredweight of bread slung in a huge
basket from their shoulders; the countrymen, with their sombreros,
sashes and hardwood quarter-staves, give colour and animation to their
surroundings; while the bag-pipes played by peasants from the north,
the whistles of the knife-grinders, and the distinctive calls of the
vendors of fruit, lottery tickets, or oil and vinegar, contribute a
babel of sound. For church festivals and holidays the country-folk
come to town, the women riding on pillions behind the men, adorned in
shawls, aprons and handkerchiefs of scarlet or other vivid hues, and
wearing the strings of coins and ornaments of exquisite gold and
silver filigree which represent their savings or dowries. The costumes
and manners of all classes may be seen at their best in the great
bull-ring of Campo Pequeno, a Mauresque building which holds many
thousands of spectators. A Lisbon bullfight is a really brilliant
exhibition of athletic skill and horsemanship, in which amateurs often
take part, and neither horses nor bulls are killed. There is a
Tauromachic Club solely for amateurs.

_History._--The name Lisbon is a modification of the ancient name _Olisipo_, also written _Ulyssippo_ under the influence of a mythical story of a city founded by Odysseus (Ulysses) in Iberia, which, however, according to Strabo, was placed by ancient tradition rather in the mountains of Turdetania (the extreme south of Spain). Under the Romans Olisipo became a _municipium_ with the epithet of _Felicitas Julia_, but was inferior in importance to the less ancient _Emerita Augusta_ (Mérida). From 407 to 585 it was occupied by Alaric, and thenceforward by the Visigoths until 711, when it was taken by the Moors. Under the Moors the town bore in Arabic the name of _Al Oshbuna_ or _Lashbuna_. It was the first point of Moslem Spain attacked by the Normans in 844. When Alphonso I. of Portugal took advantage of the decline and fall of the Almoravid dynasty to incorporate the provinces of Estremadura and Alemtejo in his new kingdom, Lisbon was the last city of Portugal to fall into his hands, and yielded only after a siege of several months (21st October 1147), in which he was aided by English and Flemish crusaders on their way to Syria. In 1184 the city was again attacked by the Moslems under the powerful caliph Abu Yakub, but the enterprise failed. In the reign of Ferdinand I., the greater part of the town was burned by the Castilian army under Henry II. (1373), and in 1384 the Castilians again besieged Lisbon, but without success. Lisbon became the seat of an archbishop in 1390, the seat of government in 1422. During the 16th century it gained much in wealth and splendour from the establishment of a Portuguese empire in India and Africa. From 1580 to 1640 Lisbon was a provincial town under Spanish rule, and it was from this port that the Spanish Armada sailed in 1588. In 1640 the town was captured by the duke of Braganza, and the independence of the kingdom restored.

For many centuries the city had suffered from earthquakes, and on the 1st of November 1755 the greater part of it was reduced almost in an instant to a heap of ruins. A tidal wave at the same time broke over the quays and wrecked the shipping in the Tagus; fire broke out to complete the work of destruction; between 30,000 and 40,000 persons lost their lives; and the value of the property destroyed was about £20,000,000. The shock was felt from Scotland to Asia Minor. Careful investigation by Daniel Sharpe, an English geologist, has delimited the area in and near Lisbon to which its full force was confined. Lisbon is built in a geological basin of Tertiary formation, the upper portion of which is loose sand and gravel destitute of organic remains, while below these are the so-called Almada beds of yellow sand, calcareous sandstone and blue clay rich in organic remains. The Tertiary deposits, which altogether cover an area of more than 2000 sq. m., are separated near Lisbon from rocks of the Secondary epoch by a great sheet of basalt. The uppermost of these Secondary rocks is the hippurite limestone. It was found that no building on the blue clay escaped destruction, none on any of the Tertiary deposits escaped serious injury, and all on the hippurite limestone and basalt were undamaged. The line at which the earthquake ceased to be destructive thus corresponded exactly with the boundary of the Tertiary deposits.

At the beginning of the 19th century the French invasion, followed by the removal of the court to Rio de Janeiro, the Peninsular War, the loss of Brazil and a period of revolution and dynastic trouble, resulted in the utter decadence of Lisbon, from which the city only recovered after 1850 (see PORTUGAL: _History_).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Every book which deals with the topography, trade or
history of Portugal as a whole necessarily devotes a portion of its
space to the capital; see PORTUGAL: _Bibliography_. The following
treat more exclusively of Lisbon: A. Dayot, _Lisbonne_ (No. ix. of the
"_Capitales du monde_" series) (Paris, 1892); Freire de Oliveira,
_Elementos para a historia do municipio de Lisboa_ (9 vols., Lisbon,
1885-1898); J. de Castilho, _Lisboa antiga_ (7 vols., Lisbon, 1890),
and (by the same author) _A Ribeira de Lisboa_ (Lisbon, 1893).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] This figure represents the population of a smaller area than that
of modern Lisbon, for the civic boundaries were extended by a decree
dated the 23rd of December 1886.

LISBURN, a market town, and cathedral city of Co. Antrim, Ireland, situated in a beautiful and fertile district on the Lagan, and on the Great Northern railway, 8 m. S.S.W. of Belfast. Pop. (1901) 11,461. Christ Church (1622) which possesses a fine octagonal spire, is the cathedral church of the united Protestant dioceses of Down, Connor and Dromore, and contains a monument to Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of the see. The public park was presented to the town by Sir Richard Wallace (d. 1890), and after his death the castle gardens were also given to the town. The staple manufacture is linen, especially damasks and muslins, originally introduced by Huguenots. There are also bleaching and dyeing works, and a considerable agricultural trade. The town is governed by an urban district council. The ruins of Castle Robin, 2 m. N. of the town, stand on a summit of the White Mountains, and the building dates from the time of Queen Elizabeth. At Drumbo, 3½ m. E. of Lisburn, is one of the finest examples of early fortification in Ireland, known as the Giant's Ring, with a cromlech in the centre. Here are also a round tower and the remains of a church ascribed to St Patrick.

In the reign of James I., Lisburn, which was then known as Lisnegarvy (Gambler's Fort), was an inconsiderable village, but in 1627 it was granted by Charles I. to Viscount Conway, who erected the castle for his residence, and laid the foundation of the prosperity of the town by the introduction of English and Welsh settlers. In November 1641 the town was taken by the insurgents, who on the approach of superior numbers set fire to it. The troops of Cromwell gained a victory near the town in 1648, and the castle surrendered to them in 1650. The church was constituted a cathedral in 1662 by Charles II., from whom the town received the privilege of returning two members to parliament, but after the Union it returned only one and in 1885 ceased to be a parliamentary borough. Lisburn gives the titles of earl and viscount to the family of Vaughan.

LISIEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 30 m. E. of Caen by rail. Pop. (1906) 15,194. Lisieux is prettily situated in the valley of the Touques at its confluence with the Orbiquet. Towers of the 16th century, relics of the old fortifications, remain, and some of the streets, bordered throughout by houses of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, retain their medieval aspect. The church of St Peter, formerly a cathedral, is reputed to be the first Gothic church built in Normandy. Begun in the latter half of the 12th century it was completed in the 13th and 16th centuries. There is a lantern-tower over the crossing and two towers surmount the west façade, one only of which has a spire, added towards the end of the 16th century. In the interior there is a Lady-Chapel, restored in the 15th century by Bishop Pierre Cauchon, one of the judges of Joan of Arc. The church of St Jacques (late 15th century) contains beautiful glass of the Renaissance, some remarkable stalls and old frescoes, and a curious picture on wood, restored in 1681. The church of St Désir (18th century) once belonged to a Benedictine abbey. The old episcopal palace near the cathedral is now used as a court-house, museum, library and prison, and contains a beautiful hall called the salle dorée. Lisieux is the seat of a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of trade arbitrators and a communal college. Its manufactures of woollens are important, and bleaching, wool and flax-spinning, tanning, brewing, timber-sawing, metal-founding, and the manufacture of machinery, hosiery and boots and shoes are carried on; there is trade in grain, cattle and cheese.

In the time of Caesar, Lisieux, under the name of _Noviomagus_, was the capital of the Lexovii. Though destroyed by the barbarians, by the 6th century it had become one of the most important towns of Neustria. Its bishopric, suppressed in 1802, dates from that period. In 877 it was pillaged by the Normans; and in 911 was included in the duchy of Normandy by the treaty of St Clair-sur-Epte. Civil authority was exercised by the bishop as count of the town. In 1136 Geoffrey Plantagenet laid siege to Lisieux, which had taken the side of Stephen of Blois. The town was not reduced till 1141, by which time both it and the neighbourhood had been brought to the direst extremities of famine. In 1152 the marriage of Henry II. of England to Eleanor of Guienne, which added so largely to his dominions, was celebrated in the cathedral. Thomas à Becket took refuge here, and some vestments used by him are shown in the hospital chapel. Taken by Philip Augustus and reunited to France in 1203, the town was a frequent subject of dispute between the contending parties during the Hundred Years' War, the religious wars, and those of the League.

LISKEARD, a market town and municipal borough in the Bodmin parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, 15 m. W.N.W. of Plymouth, on the Great Western and the Liskeard and Looe railways. Pop. (1901) 4010. It lies high, above two small valleys opening to that of the Looe river, in a hilly, picturesque district. The Perpendicular church of St Martin, with a tower of earlier date, having a Norman arch, is one of the largest ecclesiastical buildings in the county. The site of a castle built by Richard, brother of Henry III. and earl of Cornwall, is occupied by public gardens. At the grammar school, which formerly occupied a building in those gardens, Dr John Wolcot, otherwise known as Peter Pindar, was educated. Liskeard was formerly an important mining centre. Its manufactures include leather and woollen goods, and there are iron foundries. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2704 acres.