Chapter IV: PHILOSOPHY.--(1) An Essay concerning Human Understanding, in (3)

_Caloptenus spretus_ (fig. 4) is the "Rocky Mountain locust" or
"hateful grasshopper" of the North American continent. Though a
comparatively small insect, not so large as some of the grasshoppers
of English fields, its destructiveness has procured for it great
notoriety. By early travellers and settlers the species was not
recognized as distinct from some of its non-migratory congeners. But
in 1877, Congress appointed a United States Entomological Commission
to investigate the subject. The report of the commissioners (C. V.
Riley, A. S. Packard and C. Thomas) deals with the whole subject of
locusts both in America and the Old world. _C. spretus_ has its home
or permanent area in the arid plains of the central region east of the
Rocky Mountains, extending slightly into the southern portion of
Canada; outside this is a wide fringe to which the term sub-permanent
is applied, and this is again bounded by the limits of only occasional
distribution, the whole occupying a large portion of the North
American continent; but it is not known to have crossed the Rocky
Mountains westward, or to have extended into the eastern states.

As to remedial or preventive measures tending to check the ravages of
locusts, little unfortunately can be said; but anything that will
apply to one species may be used with practically all. Something can
be done (as is now done in Cyprus) by offering a price for all the
egg-tubes collected, which is the most direct manner of attacking
them. Some little can be done by destroying the larvae while in an
unwinged condition, and by digging trenches in the line of march into
which they can fall and be drowned or otherwise put an end to. Little
can be done with the winged hordes; starvation, the outcome of their
own work, probably here does much. In South Africa some success has
attended the spraying of the swarms with arsenic. It has been shown
that with all migratory locusts the breeding-places, or true homes,
are comparatively barren districts (mostly elevated plateaus); hence
the progress of colonization, and the conversion of those heretofore
barren plains into areas of fertility, may (and probably will)
gradually lessen the evil.

a, a, a, Female in different positions, ovipositing.
b, Egg-pod extracted from ground, with the end broken open.
c, A few eggs lying loose on the ground.
d, e show the earth partially removed, to illustrate an egg-mass
already in place, and one being placed.
f, shows where such a mass has been covered up.]

Locusts have many enemies besides man. Many birds greedily devour
them, and it has many times been remarked that migratory swarms of the
insects were closely followed by myriads of birds. Predatory insects
of other orders also attack them, especially when they are in the
unwinged condition. Moreover, they have still more deadly insect foes
as parasites. Some attack the fully developed winged insect. But the
greater part attack the eggs. To such belong certain beetles, chiefly
of the family _Cantharidae_, and especially certain two-winged flies
of the family _Bombyliidae_. These latter, both in the Old and New
World, must prevent vast quantities of eggs from producing larvae.

The larger Old World species form articles of food with certain
semi-civilized and savage races, by whom they are considered as
delicacies, or as part of ordinary diet, according to the race and the
method of preparation. (R. M'L.; R. I. P.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The Lat. _locusta_ was first applied to a lobster or other marine
shell-fish and then, from its resemblance, to the insect.

LOCUST-TREE, or CAROB-TREE (_Ceratonia siliqua_), a member of the tribe _Cassieae_ of the order Leguminosae, the sole species of its genus, and widely diffused spontaneously and by cultivation from Spain to the eastern Mediterranean regions. The name of the genus is derived from the often curved pod (Gr. [Greek: keration], a little horn). The flowers have no petals and are polygamous or dioecious (male, female and hermaphrodite flowers occur). The seed-pod is compressed, often curved, indehiscent and coriaceous, but with sweet pulpy divisions between the seeds, which, as in other genera of the _Cassieae_, are albuminous. The pods are eaten by men and animals, and in Sicily a spirit and a syrup are made from them. These husks being often used for swine are called swine's bread, and are probably referred to in the parable of the Prodigal Son. It is also called St John's bread, from a misunderstanding of Matt. iii. 4. The carob-tree was regarded by Sprengel as the tree with which Moses sweetened the bitter waters of Marah (Exod. xv. 25), as the _kharrúb_, according to Avicenna (p. 205), has the property of sweetening salt and bitter waters. Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1241) cultivated it in 1597, it having been introduced in 1570.

LODÈVE, a town of southern France, capital of an arrondissement of the department of Hérault, 36 m. W.N.W. of Montpellier by rail. Pop. (1906), 6142. It is situated in the southern Cévennes at the foot of steep hills in a small valley where the Soulondres joins the Lergue, a tributary of the Hérault. Two bridges over the Lergue connect the town with the faubourg of Carmes on the left bank of the river, and two others over the Soulondres lead to the extensive ruins of the château de Montbrun (13th century). The old fortified cathedral of St Fulcran, founded by him in 950, dates in its present condition from the 13th, 14th and 16th centuries; the cloister, dating from the 15th and 17th centuries, is in ruins. In the picturesque environs of the town stands the well-preserved monastery of St Michel de Grammont, dating from the 12th century and now used as farm buildings. In the neighbourhood are three fine dolmens. The manufacture of woollens for army clothing is the chief industry. Wool is imported in large quantities from the neighbouring departments, and from Morocco; the exports are cloth to Italy and the Levant, wine, brandy and wood. The town has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a communal college.

Lodève (Luteva) existed before the invasion of the Romans, who for some time called it _Forum Neronis_. The inhabitants were converted to Christianity by St Flour, first bishop of the city, about 323. After passing successively into the hands of the Visigoths, the Franks, the Ostrogoths, the Arabs and the Carolingians, it became in the 9th century a separate countship, and afterwards the domain of its bishops. During the religious wars it suffered much, especially in 1573, when it was sacked. It ceased to be an episcopal see at the Revolution.

LODGE, EDMUND (1756-1839), English writer on heraldry, was born in London on the 13th of June 1756, son of Edmund Lodge, rector of Carshalton, Surrey. He held a cornet's commission in the army, which he resigned in 1773. In 1782 he became Bluemantle pursuivant-at-arms in the College of Arms. He subsequently became Lancaster herald, Norroy king-at-arms, Clarencieux king-at-arms, and, in 1832, knight of the order of the Guelphs of Hanover. He died in London on the 16th of January 1839. He wrote _Illustrations of British History_, _Biography and Manners in the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, Elizabeth and James I._ ... (3 vols., 1791), consisting of selections from the MSS. of the Howard, Talbot and Cecil families preserved at the College of Arms; _Life of Sir Julius Caesar ..._ (2nd ed., 1827). He contributed the literary matter to _Portraits of Illustrious Personages of Great Britain_ (1814, &c.), an elaborate work of which a popular edition is included in Bohn's "Illustrated Library." His most important work on heraldry was _The Genealogy of the existing British Peerage ..._ (1832; enlarged edition, 1859). In _The Annual Peerage and Baronetage_ (1827-1829), reissued after 1832 as _Peerage of the British Empire_, and generally known as Lodge's Peerage, his share did not go beyond the title-page.

LODGE, HENRY CABOT (1850- ), American political leader and author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 12th of May 1850. He graduated at Harvard College in 1871 and at the Harvard Law School in 1875; was admitted to the Suffolk (Massachusetts) bar in 1876; and in 1876-1879 was instructor in American history at Harvard. He was a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1880-1881, and of the National House of Representatives in 1887-1893; succeeded Henry L. Dawes as United States Senator from Massachusetts in 1893; and in 1899 and in 1905 was re-elected to the Senate, where he became one of the most prominent of the Republican leaders, and an influential supporter of President Roosevelt. He was a member of the Alaskan Boundary Commission of 1903, and of the United States Immigration Commission of 1907. In the National Republican Convention of 1896 his influence did much to secure the adoption of the gold standard "plank" of the party's platform. He was the permanent chairman of the National Republican Convention of 1900, and of that of 1908. In 1874-1876 he edited the _North American Review_ with Henry Adams; and in 1879-1882, with John T. Morse, Jr., he edited the _International Review_. In 1884-1890 he was an overseer of Harvard College. His doctoral thesis at Harvard was published with essays by Henry Adams, J. L. Laughlin and Ernest Young, under the title _Essays on Anglo-Saxon Land Law_ (1876). He wrote: _Life and Letters of George Cabot_ (1877); _Alexander Hamilton_ (1882), _Daniel Webster_ (1883) and _George Washington_ (2 vols., 1889), in the "American Statesmen" series; _A Short History of the English Colonies in America_ (1881); _Studies in History_ (1884); _Boston_ (1891), in the "Historic Towns" series; _Historical and Political Essays_ (1892); with Theodore Roosevelt, _Hero Tales from American History_ (1895); _Certain Accepted Heroes_ (1897); _The Story of the American Revolution_ (2 vols., 1898); _The War with Spain_ (1899); _A Fighting Frigate_ (1902); _A Frontier Town_ (1906); and, with J. W. Garner, _A History of the United States_ (4 vols., 1906). He edited _The Works of Alexander Hamilton_ (9 vols., 1885-1886) and _The Federalist_ (1891).

His son, GEORGE CABOT LODGE (1873-1909), also became known as an author, with _The Song of the Wave_ (1898), _Poems, 1899-1902_ (1902), _The Great Adventure_ (1905), _Cain: a Drama_ (1904), _Herakles_ (1908) and other verse.

LODGE, SIR OLIVER JOSEPH (1851- ), English physicist, was born at Penkhull, Staffordshire, on the 12th of June 1851, and was educated at Newport (Salop) grammar school. He was intended for a business career, but being attracted to science he entered University College, London, in 1872, graduating D.Sc. at London University in 1877. In 1875 he was appointed reader in natural philosophy at Bedford College for Women, and in 1879 he became assistant professor of applied mathematics at University College, London. Two years later he was called to the chair of physics in University College, Liverpool, where he remained till in 1900 he was chosen first principal of the new Birmingham University. He was knighted in 1902. His original work includes investigations on lightning, the seat of the electromotive force in the voltaic cell, the phenomena of electrolysis and the speed of the ion, electromagnetic waves and wireless telegraphy, the motion of the aether near the earth, and the application of electricity to the dispersal of fog and smoke. He presided over the mathematical and physical section of the British Association in 1891, and served as president of the Physical Society in 1899-1900 and of the Society for Psychical Research in 1901-1904. In addition to numerous scientific memoirs he wrote, among other works, _Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards_, _Signalling without Wires_, _Modern Views of Electricity_, _Electrons_ and _The Ether of Space_, together with various books and papers of a metaphysical and theological character.

LODGE, THOMAS (c. 1558-1625), English dramatist and miscellaneous writer, was born about 1558 at West Ham. He was the second son of Sir Thomas Lodge, who was lord mayor of London in 1562-1563. He was educated at Merchant Taylors' School and Trinity College, Oxford; taking his B.A. degree in 1577 and that of M.A. in 1581. In 1578 he entered Lincoln's Inn, where, as in the other Inns of Court, a love of letters and a crop of debts and difficulties were alike wont to spring up in a kindly soil. Lodge, apparently in disregard of the wishes of his family, speedily showed his inclination towards the looser ways of life and the lighter aspects of literature. When the penitent Stephen Gosson had (in 1579) published his _Schoole of Abuse_, Lodge took up the glove in his _Defence of Poetry, Music and Stage Plays_ (1579 or 1580; reprinted for the Shakespeare Society, 1853), which shows a certain restraint, though neither deficient in force of invective nor backward in display of erudition. The pamphlet was prohibited, but appears to have been circulated privately. It was answered by Gosson in his _Playes Confuted in Five Actions_; and Lodge retorted with his _Alarum Against Usurers_ (1584, reprinted ib.)--a "tract for the times" which no doubt was in some measure indebted to the author's personal experience. In the same year he produced the first tale written by him on his own account in prose and verse, _The Delectable History of Forbonius and Prisceria_, both published and reprinted with the _Alarum_. From 1587 onwards he seems to have made a series of attempts as a playwright, though most of those attributed to him are mainly conjectural. That he ever became an actor is improbable in itself, and Collier's conclusion to that effect rested on the two assumptions that the "Lodge" of Henslowe's M.S. was a player and that his name was Thomas, neither of which is supported by the text (see C. M. Ingleby, _Was Thomas Lodge an Actor?_ 1868). Having, in the spirit of his age, "tried the waves" with Captain Clarke in his expedition to Terceira and the Canaries, Lodge in 1591 made a voyage with Thomas Cavendish to Brazil and the Straits of Magellan, returning home by 1593. During the Canaries expedition, to beguile the tedium of his voyage, he composed his prose tale of _Rosalynde, Euphues' Golden Legacie_, which, printed in 1590, afterwards furnished the story of Shakespeare's _As You Like It_. The novel, which in its turn owes some, though no very considerable, debt to the medieval _Tale of Gamelyn_ (unwarrantably appended to the fragmentary _Cookes Tale_ in certain MSS. of Chaucer's works), is written in the euphuistic manner, but decidedly attractive both by its plot and by the situations arising from it. It has been frequently reprinted. Before starting on his second expedition he had published an historical romance, _The History of Robert, Second Duke of Normandy, surnamed Robert the Divell_; and he left behind him for publication _Catharos, Diogenes in his Singularity_, a discourse on the immorality of Athens (London). Both appeared in 1591. Another romance in the manner of Lyly, _Euphues Shadow, the Battaile of the Sences_ (1592), appeared while Lodge was still on his travels. His second historical romance, the _Life and Death of William Longbeard_ (1593), was more successful than the first. Lodge also brought back with him from the new world _A Margarite of America_ (published 1596), a romance of the same description interspersed with many lyrics. Already in 1589 Lodge had given to the world a volume of poems bearing the title of the chief among them, _Scillaes Metamorphosis, Enterlaced with the Unfortunate Love of Glaucus_, more briefly known as _Glaucus and Scilla_ (reprinted with preface by S. W. Singer in 1819). To this tale Shakespeare was possibly indebted for the idea of _Venus and Adonis_. Some readers would perhaps be prepared to give up this and much else of Lodge's sugared verse, fine though much of it is in quality, largely borrowed from other writers, French and Italian in particular, in exchange for the lost _Sailor's Kalendar_, in which he must in one way or another have recounted his sea adventures. If Lodge, as has been supposed, was the Alcon in _Colin Clout's come Home Again_, it may have been the influence of Spenser which led to the composition of _Phillis_, a volume of sonnets, in which the voice of nature seems only now and then to become audible, published with the narrative poem, _The Complaynte of Elstred_, in 1593. _A Fig for Momus_, on the strength of which he has been called the earliest English satirist, and which contains eclogues addressed to Daniel and others, an epistle addressed to Drayton, and other pieces, appeared in 1595. Lodge's ascertained dramatic work is small in quantity. In conjunction with Greene he, probably in 1590, produced in a popular vein the odd but far from feeble play of _A Looking Glasse for London and England_ (printed in 1594). He had already written _The Wounds of Civile War. Lively set forth in the Tragedies of Marius and Scilla_ (produced perhaps as early as 1587, and published in 1594), a good second-rate piece in the half-chronicle fashion of its age. Mr F. G. Fleay thinks there were grounds for assigning to Lodge _Mucedorus and Amadine_, played by the Queen's Men about 1588, a share with Robert Greene in _George a Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield_, and in Shakespeare's 2nd part of _Henry VI._; he also regards him as at least part-author of _The True Chronicle of King Leir and his three Daughters_ (1594); and _The Troublesome Raigne of John, King of England_ (c. 1588); in the case of two other plays he allowed the assignation to Lodge to be purely conjectural. That Lodge is the "Young Juvenal" of Greene's _Groatsworth of Wit_ is no longer a generally accepted hypothesis. In the latter part of his life--possibly about 1596, when he published his _Wits Miserie_ and the _World's Madnesse_, which is dated from Low Leyton in Essex, and the religious tract _Prosopopeia_ (if, as seems probable, it was his), in which he repents him of his "lewd lines" of other days--he became a Catholic and engaged in the practice of medicine, for which Wood says he qualified himself by a degree at Avignon in 1600. Two years afterwards he received the degree of M.D. from Oxford University. His works henceforth have a sober cast, comprising translations of Josephus (1602), of Seneca (1614), a _Learned Summary_ of Du Bartas's _Divine Sepmaine_ (1625 and 1637), besides a _Treatise of the Plague_ (1603), and a popular manual, which remained unpublished, on _Domestic Medicine_. Early in 1606 he seems to have left England, to escape the persecution then directed against the Catholics; and a letter from him dated 1610 thanks the English ambassador in Paris for enabling him to return in safety. He was abroad on urgent private affairs of one kind and another in 1616. From this time to his death in 1625 nothing further concerning him remains to be noted.

Lodge's works, with the exception of his translations, have been
reprinted for the Hunterian Club with an introductory essay by Mr
Edmund Gosse. This preface was reprinted in Mr Gosse's _Seventeenth
Century Studies_ (1883). Of _Rosalynde_ there are numerous modern
editions. See also J. J. Jusserand, _English Novel in the Time of
Shakespeare_ (Eng. trans., 1890); F. G. Fleay, _Biographical Chronicle
of the English Drama_ (vol. ii., 1891). (A. W. W.)

LODGE, a dwelling-place, small and usually temporary, a hut, booth or tent. The word was in M. Eng. _logge_, from Fr. _loge_, arbour, in modern French a hut; also box in a theatre; the French word, like the Italian _loggia_, came from the Med. Lat. _laubia_ or _lobia_, the sheltered promenade in a cloister, from which English "lobby" is derived. The Latin is of Teutonic origin from the word which survives in the Mod. Ger. _Laube_, an arbour, but which earlier was used for any hut, booth, &c. The word is probably ultimately from the root which appears in "leaf," meaning a rough shelter of foliage or boughs. The word is especially used of a house built either in a forest or away from habitation, where people stay for the purpose of sport, as a "hunting lodge," "shooting lodge," &c. The most frequent use of the word is of a small building, usually placed at the entrance to an estate or park and inhabited by a dependant of the owner. In the same sense the word means the room or box inhabited by the porter of a college, factory or public institution. Among Freemasons and other societies the "lodge" is the name given to the meeting-place of the members of the branch or district, and is applied to the members collectively as "a meeting of the lodge." The governing body of the Freemasons presided over by the grand master is called the "Grand Lodge." At the university of Cambridge the house where the head of a college lives is called the "lodge." Formerly the word was used of the den or lair of an animal, but is now only applied to that of the beaver and the otter. It is also applied to the tent of a North American Indian, a wigwam or tepee, and to the number of inhabitants of such a tent. In mining the term is used of a subterraneous reservoir made at the bottom of the pit, or at different levels in the shaft for the purpose of draining the mine. It is used also of a room or landing-place next to the shaft, for discharging ore, &c.

LODGER AND LODGINGS. The term "lodger" (Fr. _loger_, to lodge) is used in English law in several slightly different senses. It is applied (i.) most frequently and properly to a person who takes furnished rooms in a house, the landlord also residing on the premises, and supplying him with attendance; (ii.) sometimes to a person, who takes unfurnished rooms in a house finding his own attendance; (iii.) to a boarder in a boarding-house (q.v.). It is with (i.) and (ii.) alone that this article is concerned.

Where furnished apartments are let for immediate use, the law implies an undertaking on the part of the landlord that they are fit for habitation, and, if this condition is broken, the tenant may refuse to occupy the premises or to pay any rent. But there is no implied contract that the apartments shall _continue_ fit for habitation; and the rule has no application in the case of unfurnished lodgings. In the absence of express agreement to the contrary, a lodger has a right to the use of everything necessary to the enjoyment of the premises, such as the door bell and knocker and the skylight of a staircase, whether the rent of apartments can be distrained for by the immediate landlord where he resides on the premises and supplies attendance is a question the answer to which is involved in some uncertainty. The weight of authority seems to support the negative view (see Foa, _Landlord and Tenant_, 3rd ed. p. 434). To make good a right to distrain it is necessary to show that the terms of the letting create a tenancy or exclusive occupation and not a mere licence, where the owner, although residing on the premises, does not supply attendance, the question depends on whether there is a real tenancy, giving the lodger an exclusive right of occupation as against the owner. The ordinary test is whether the lodger has the control of the outer door. But the whole circumstances of each case have to be taken account of. A lodger is rateable to the poor-rate where he is in exclusive occupation of the apartments let to him, and the landlord does not retain the control and dominion of the whole structure. As to distress on a lodger's goods for rent due by an immediate to a superior landlord, see RENT. As to the termination of short tenancies, as of apartments, see LANDLORD AND TENANT. The landlord has no lien on the goods of the lodger for rent or charges. Overcrowding lodging-houses may be dealt with as a nuisance under the Public Health Acts 1875 and 1891 and the Housing of the Working Classes Acts. As to the lodger franchise, see REGISTRATION OF VOTERS. It has been held in England that keepers of lodging-houses do not come within the category of those persons (see CARRIER; INNKEEPER) who hold themselves out to the public generally as trustworthy in certain employments; but that they are under an obligation to take reasonable care for the safety of their lodgers' goods; see _Scarborough_ v. _Cosgrove_, 1905, 2 K.B. 805. As to Scots Law see Bell's _Prin._ s. 236 (4).

In the United States, the English doctrine of an implied warranty of fitness for habitation on a letting of furnished apartments has only met with partial acceptance; it was repudiated, e.g. in the District of Columbia, but has been accepted in Massachusetts. In the French _Code Civil_, there are some special rules with regard to furnished apartments. The letting is reputed to be made for a year, a month or a day, according as the rent is so much per year, per month or per day; if that test is inapplicable, the letting is deemed to be made according to the custom of the place (art. 1758). There are similar provisions in the Civil Codes of Belgium (art. 1758), Holland (art. 1622) and Spain (Civil Code, art. 1581).

See also the articles, BOARDING HOUSE, and FLAT; and the
bibliographies to FLAT and LANDLORD AND TENANT. (A. W. R.)

LODI, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of Milan, 20½ m. by rail S.E. of that city, on a hill above the right bank of the Adda, 230 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 19,970 (town), 26,827 (commune). The site of the city is an eminence rising very gradually from the Lombard plain, and the surrounding country is one of the richest dairy districts in Italy. The cathedral (1158), with a Gothic façade and a 16th-century lateral tower, has a restored interior. The church of the Incoronata was erected by Battaggio (1488) in the Bramantesque style. It is an elegant octagonal domed structure, and is decorated with frescoes by the Piazza family, natives of the town, and four large altar-pieces by Calisto Piazza (died after 1561). There is a fine organ of 1507. The 13th-century Gothic church of San Francesco, restored in 1889, with 14th-century paintings, is also noticeable. The Palazzo Modegnani has a fine gateway in the style of Bramante, and the hospital a cloistered quadrangle. In the Via Pompeia is an early Renaissance house with fine decorations in marble and terra-cotta. Besides an extensive trade in cheese (Lodi producing more Parmesan than Parma itself) and other dairy produce, there are manufactures of linen, silk, majolica and chemicals.

The ancient Laus Pompeia lay 3½ m. W. of the present city, and the site is still occupied by a considerable village, Lodi Vecchio, with the old cathedral of S. Bassiano, now a brick building, which contains 15th-century frescoes. It was the point where the roads from Mediolanum to Placentia and Cremona diverged, and there was also a road to Ticinum turning off from the former, but it is hardly mentioned by classical writers. It appears to have been a _municipium_. No ruins exist above ground, but various antiquities have been found here. From which Pompeius, whether Cn. Pompeius Strabo, who gave citizenship to the Transpadani, or his son, the more famous Pompey, it took its name is not certain. In the middle ages Lodi was second to Milan among the cities of northern Italy. A dispute with the archbishop of Milan about the investiture of the bishop of Lodi (1024) proved the beginning of a protracted feud between the two cities. In 1111 the Milanese laid the whole place in ruins and forbade their rivals to restore what they had destroyed, and in 1158, when in spite of this prohibition a fairly flourishing settlement had again been formed, they repeated their work in a more thorough manner. A number of the Lodigians had settled on Colle Eghezzone; and their village, the Borgo d'Isella, on the site of a temple of Hercules, soon grew up under the patronage of Frederick Barbarossa into a new city of Lodi (1162). At first subservient to the emperor, Lodi was before long compelled to enter the Lombard League, and in 1198 it formed alliance offensive and defensive with Milan. The strife between the Sommariva or aristocratic party and the Overgnaghi or democratic party was so severe that the city divided into two distinct communes. The Overgnaghi, expelled in 1236, were restored by Frederick II. who took the city after three months' siege. Lodi was actively concerned in the rest of the Guelph and Ghibelline struggle. In 1416 its ruler, Giovanni Vignati, was treacherously taken prisoner by Filippo Maria Visconti, and after that time it became dependent on Milan. The duke of Brunswick captured it in 1625, in the interests of Spain; and it was occupied by the French (1701), by the Austrians (1706), by the king of Sardinia (1733), by the Austrians (1736), by the Spaniards (1745), and again by the Austrians (1746). On the 10th of May 1796 was fought the battle of Lodi between the Austrians and Napoleon, which made the latter master of Lombardy.

LODZ (_Lódz_; more correctly _Lodzia_), a town of Russian Poland, in the government of Piotrków, 82 m. by rail S.W. of Warsaw. It is situated on the Lodz plateau, which at the beginning of the 19th century was covered with impenetrable forests. Now it is the centre of a group of industrial towns--Zgerz, Leczyca, Pabianice, Konstantinov and Aleksandrov. Chiefly owing to a considerable immigration of German capitalists and workers, Lodz has grown with American-like rapidity. It consists principally of one main street, 7 m. long, and is a sort of Polish Manchester, manufacturing cottons, woollens and mixed stuffs, with chemicals, beer, machinery and silk. One of the very few educational institutions is a professional industrial school. The population, which was only 50,000 in 1872, reached 351,570 in 1900; the Poles numbering about 37%, Germans 40% and Jews 22½%.

LOESS (Ger. _Löss_), in geology, a variety of loam. Typical loess is a soft, porous rock, pale yellowish or buff in colour; one characteristic property is its capacity to retain vertical, or even over-hanging, walls in the banks of streams. These vertical walls have been well described by von Richthofen (_Führer für Forschungsreisende_, Berlin, 1886) in China, where they stand in some places 500 ft. high and contain innumerable cave dwellings; ancient roads too have worn their way vertically downwards deep into the deposit, forming trench-like ways. This character in the loess of the Mississippi region gave rise to the name "Bluff formation." A coarse columnar structure is often exhibited on the vertical weathered faces of the rock. Another characteristic is the presence throughout the rock of small capillary tubules, which appear to have been occupied by rootlets; these are often lined with calcite. Typical loess is usually calcareous; some geologists regard this as an essential property, and when the rock has become decalcified, as it frequently is on the surface by weathering, they call it "loess-loam" (_lösslehm_). In the lower portions of a loess deposit the calcium carbonate tends to form concretions, which on account of their mimetic forms have received such names as _lösskindchen_, _lösspuppen_, _poupées du loess_, "loess dolls." In deposits of this nature in South America these concretionary masses form distinct beds. Bedding is absent from typical loess. The mineral composition of loess varies somewhat in different regions, but the particles are always small; they consist of angular grains of quartz, fine particles of hydrated silicates of alumina, mica scales and undecomposed fragments of felspar, hornblende and other rock-forming silicates.

In Europe and America loess deposits are associated with the margins
of the great ice sheets of the glacial period; thus in Europe they
stretch irregularly through the centre eastwards from the north-west
of France, and are not found north of the 57th parallel. In both
regions loess deposits are found within and upon glacial deposits. For
this reason the loess is very commonly assigned to the Pleistocene
period; but some of the loess deposits of northern Europe have been in
process of formation intermittently from the Miocene period onward,
and in South America the great loess formations known as the Pampean
or Patagonian belong to the Eocene, Oligocene and Pleistocene periods.
Most geologists are agreed that the loess is an aeolian or wind-borne
rock, formed most probably during periods of tundra or steppe
conditions. The capillary tubules are supposed to have been caused by
the roots of grass and herbage which kept growing upon the surface
even while the deposit was slowly increasing. Others contend that
loess is of the nature of alluvial loam; this may be true of certain
deposits classed as loess, but it cannot be true of most of the
typical loess formations, for they lie upon older rocks quite
independently of altitude, from near sea level up to 5000 ft. in
Europe and to 11,500 ft. in China; they are often developed on one
side of a mountain range and not upon the other, and in a series of
approximately parallel valleys the loess is frequently found lying
upon one side and that the same in each case, facts pointing to the
agency of prevalent winds.

The thickness of loess deposits is usually not more than 33 ft., but
in China it reaches 1000 ft. or more; it also attains a great
thickness in South America. Numerous proboscidian and other mammalian
fossils have been found in the loess of Europe; the tapir, mastodon
and giant sloths occur in South America, but the most common fossils
are small land shells and such amphibious pond forms as _Succinea_.
Certain loess deposits in Turkestan have been attributed to rain-wash,
this is the so-called "lake-loess" (_see-löss_); according to Tukowski
the difference between sub-aerial and lake loess is that the former is
porous, dry and pervious, while the latter is laminated, plastic and
impervious. Two types of loess have been recognized in Russia, the
Hill- or Terrace-loess and the Low-level-loess, a product of the
weathering of underlying rocks. In South Germany the following order
has been recognized: (1) an upper unbedded, non-calcareous loess, (2)
the _gehanglöss_, mixed with subsoil rocks, and (3) the sand or
_thal-löss_, with some gravel. The effect of vegetation on the upper
layers of loess is to produce soils of great fertility, such as the
black earth (_Tschernozom_) of southern Russia, the dark _Bordelöss_
of the Magdeburg district, and the black "cotton soil" (_regur_) of
the Deccan.

LOFFT, CAPEL (1751-1824), English miscellaneous writer, was born in London on the 14th of November 1751. He was educated at Eton, and Peterhouse, Cambridge, which he left to become a member of Lincoln's Inn. He was called to the bar in 1775, and left by his father's and uncle's deaths with a handsome property and the family estates. He was a prolific writer on a variety of topics, and a vigorous contentious advocate of parliamentary and other reforms, and carried on a voluminous correspondence with all the literary men of his time. He became the patron of Robert Bloomfield, the author of _The Farmer's Boy_, and secured for him the very successful publication of that work. Byron, in a note to his _English Bards and Scotch Reviewers_, ridiculed Lofft as "the Maecenas of shoemakers and preface-writer general to distressed versemen; a kind of gratis _accoucheur_ to those who wish to be delivered of rhyme, but do not know how to bring forth." He died at Montcalieri, near Turin, on the 26th of May 1824.

His fourth son Capel Lofft, the younger (1806-1873), also a writer on various topics, inherited his father's liberal ideas and principles, and carried them in youth to greater extremes. In his old age he abandoned these theories, which had brought him into the company of some of the leading political agitators of the day. He died in America, where he had a Virginia estate.

LOFOTEN AND VESTERAALEN, a large and picturesque group of islands lying N.E. and S.W. off the N.W. coast of Norway, between 67° 30´ and 69° 20´ N., and between 12° and 16° 35´ E. forming part of the _amt_ (county) of Nordland. The extreme length of the group from Andenaes, at the north of Andö, to Röst, is about 150 m.; the aggregate area about 1560 sq. m. It is separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord, Tjaeldsund and Vaagsfjord, and is divided into two sections by the Raftsund between Hindö and Öst-Vaagö. To the W. and S. of the Raftsund lie the Lofoten Islands proper, of which the most important are Öst-Vaagö, Gimsö, Vest-Vaagö, Flakstadö, Moskenaesö, Mosken, Värö and Röst; E. and N. of the Raftsund are the islands of Vesteraalen, the chief being Hindö, Ulvö, Langö, Skogsö and Andö. The islands, which are all of granite or metamorphic gneiss, are precipitous and lofty. The highest points and finest scenery are found on Öst-Vaagö, in the neighbourhood of the narrow, cliff-bound Raftsund and Troldfjord. The principal peaks are Higrafstind (3811 ft.), Gjeitgaljartind (3555), Rulten (3483), the Noldtinder (3467), Svartsundtind (3506). The long line of jagged and fantastic peaks seen from the Vestfjord forms one of the most striking prospects on the Norwegian coast, but still finer is the panorama from the Digermuler (1150 ft.), embracing the islands, the Vestfjord, and the mountains of the mainland. The channels which separate the islands are narrow and tortuous, and generally of great depth; they are remarkable for the strength of their tidal currents, particularly the Raftsund and the famous Maelström or Moskenström between Moskenaes and Mosken. The violent tempests which sweep over the Vestfjord, which is exposed to the S.W., are graphically described in Jonas Lie's _Den Fremsynte_ (1870) and in H. Schultze's _Udvalgte Skrifter_ (1883), as the Maelström is imaginatively by Edgar Allan Poe. Though situated wholly within the Arctic circle, the climate of the Lofoten and Vesteraalen group is not rigorous when compared with that of the rest of Norway. The isothermal line which marks a mean January temperature of 32° F. runs south from the Lofotens, passing a little to the east of Bergen onward to Gothenburg and Copenhagen. The prevailing winds are from the S. and W., the mean temperature for the year is 38.5° F., and the annual rainfall is 43.34 in. In summer the hills have only patches of snow, the snow limit being about 3000 ft. The natural pasture produced in favourable localities permits the rearing of cattle to some extent; but the growth of cereals (chiefly barley, which here matures in ninety days) is insignificant. The islands yield no wood. The characteristic industry, and an important source of the national wealth, is the cod fishery carried on along the east coast of the Lofotens in the Vestfjord in spring. This employs about 40,000 men during the season from all parts of Norway, the population being then about doubled, and the surplus accommodated in temporary huts. The average yield is valued at about £35,000. The fish are taken in nets let down during the night, or on lines upwards of a mile in length, or on ordinary hand-lines. The fishermen are paid in cash, and large sums of money are sent to the islands by the Norwegian banks each February. Great loss of life is frequent during the sudden local storms. The fish, which is dried during early summer, is exported to Spain (where it is known as _bacalao_), Holland, Great Britain, Belgium, &c. Industries arising out of the fishery are the manufacture of cod-liver oil and of artificial manure. The summer cod fisheries and the lobster fishery are also valuable. The herring is taken in large quantities off the west coasts of Vesteraalen, but is a somewhat capricious visitant. The islands contain no towns properly so called, but Kabelvaag on Öst-Vaagö and Svolvaer on a few rocky islets off that island are considerable centres of trade and (in the fishing season) of population; Lödingen also, at the head of the Vestfjord on Hindö, is much frequented as a port of call. A church existed at Vaagen (Kabelvaag) in the 12th century, and here Hans Egede, the missionary of Greenland, was pastor. There are factories for fish guano at Henningvaer (Öst-Vaagö), Kabelvaag, Svolvaer, Lödingen, and at Bretesnäs on Store Molla. Regular means of communication are afforded by the steamers which trade between Hamburg or Christiania and Hammerfest, and also by local vessels; less accessible spots can be visited by small boats, in the management of which the natives are adepts. There are some roads on Hindö, Langö, and Andö. The largest island in the group, and indeed in Norway, is Hindö, with an area of 860 sq. m. The south-eastern portion of it belongs to the _amt_ of Tromsö. In the island of Andö there is a bed of coal at the mouth of Ramsaa.

LOFT (connected with "lift," i.e. raised in the air; O. Eng. _lyft_; cf. Ger. _Luft_; the French term is _grenier_ and Ger. _Boden_), the term given in architecture to an upper room in the roof, sometimes called "cockloft"; when applied over stabling it is known as a hay-loft; the gallery over a chancel screen, carrying a cross, is called a rood-loft (see ROOD). The term is also given to a gallery provided in the choir-aisle of a cathedral or church, and used as a watching-loft at night.

LOFTUS, ADAM (c. 1533-1605), archbishop of Armagh and Dublin, and lord chancellor of Ireland, the son of a Yorkshire gentleman, was educated at Cambridge. He accompanied the earl of Sussex to Ireland as his chaplain in 1560, and three years later was consecrated archbishop of Armagh by Hugh Curwen, archbishop of Dublin. In 1565 Queen Elizabeth, to supplement the meagre income derivable from the archiepiscopal see owing to the disturbed state of the country, appointed Loftus temporarily to the deanery of St Patrick's; and in the same year he became president of the new commission for ecclesiastical causes. In 1567 he was translated to the archbishopric of Dublin, where the queen looked to him to carry out reforms in the Church. On several occasions he temporarily executed the functions of lord keeper, and in August 1581 he was appointed lord chancellor of Ireland. Loftus was constantly occupied in attempts to improve his financial position by obtaining additional preferment. He had been obliged to resign the deanery of St Patrick's in 1567, and twenty years later he quarrelled violently with Sir John Perrot, the lord deputy, over the proposal to appropriate the revenues of the cathedral to the foundation of a university. Loftus, however, favoured the project of founding a university in Dublin, though on lines different from Perrot's proposal, and it was largely through his influence that the corporation of Dublin granted the lands of the priory of All Hallows as a beginning of the endowment of Trinity College, of which he was named first provost in the charter creating the foundation in 1591. Loftus, who had an important share in the administration of Ireland under successive lords deputy, and whose zeal and efficiency were commended by James I. on his accession, died in Dublin on the 5th of April 1605. By his wife, Jane Purdon, he had twenty children.

His brother Robert was father of ADAM LOFTUS (c. 1568-1643), who became lord chancellor of Ireland in 1619, and in 1622 was created Viscount Loftus of Ely, King's county, in the peerage of Ireland. Lord Loftus came into violent conflict with the lord deputy, Viscount Falkland, in 1624; and at a later date his quarrel with Strafford was still more fierce. One of the articles in Strafford's impeachment was based on his dealings with Loftus. The title, which became extinct on the death of his grandson, the 3rd viscount, in 1725 (when the family estate of Monasterevan, re-named Moore Abbey, passed to his daughter's son Henry, 4th earl of Drogheda), was re-granted in 1756 to his cousin Nicholas Loftus, a lineal descendant of the archbishop. It again became extinct more than once afterwards, but was on each occasion revived in favour of a descendant through the female line; and it is now held by the marquis of Ely in conjunction with other family titles.

See Richard Mant, _History of the Church of Ireland_ (2 vols., London,
1840); J. R. O'Flanagan, _Lives of the Lord Chancellors of Ireland_ (2
vols., London, 1870); John D'Alton, _Memoirs of the Archbishops of
Dublin_ (Dublin, 1838); Henry Cotton, _Fasti Ecclesiae Hibernicae_ (5
vols., Dublin, 1848-1878); William Monck Mason, _History and
Antiquities of the College and Cathedral Church of St Patrick, near
Dublin_ (Dublin, 1819); G. E. C., _Complete Peerage_ vol. iii., sub.
"Ely" (London, 1890).

LOG (a word of uncertain etymological origin, possibly onomatopoeic; the _New English Dictionary_ rejects the derivation from Norwegian _lág_, a fallen tree), a large piece of generally unhewn, wood. The word is also used in various figurative senses, and more particularly for the "nautical log," an apparatus for ascertaining the speed of ships. Its employment in this sense depends on the fact that a piece of wood attached to a line was thrown overboard to lie like a log in a fixed position, motionless, the vessel's speed being calculated by observing what length of line ran out in a given time ("common log"); and the word has been retained for the modern "patent" or "continuous" log, though it works in an entirely different manner.

The origin of the "common log" is obscure, but the beginnings of the "continuous log" may be traced back to the 16th century. By an invention probably due to Humfray Cole and published in 1578 by William Bourne in his _Inventions and Devices_, it was proposed to register a ship's speed by means of a "little small close boat," with a wheel, or wheels, and an axle-tree to turn clockwork in the little boat, with dials and pointers indicating fathoms, leagues, scores of leagues and hundreds of leagues. About 1668 Dr R. Hooke showed some members of the Royal Society an instrument for the same purpose, depending on a vane or fly which rotated as the vessel progressed (Birch, _History of the Royal Society_, iv. 231), and Sir Isaac Newton in 1715 reported unfavourably on the "marine surveyor" of Henry de Saumarez, which also depended on a rotator. Conradus Mel in his _Antiquarius Sacer_ (1719) described a "pantometron nauticum" which he claimed would show without calculation the distance sailed by the ship; and J. Smeaton in 1754 published improvements on the apparatus of Saumarez. William Foxon of Deptford in 1772, James Guerimand of Middlesex in 1776 (by his "marine perambulator"), and R. H. Gower in 1772, practically demonstrated the registration of a vessel's speed by mechanical means. Viscount de Vaux in 1807 made use of water-pressure, as did the Rev. E. L. Berthon in 1849, and C. E. Kelway invented an electrical log in 1876.

_Common Log._--To ascertain the ship's speed by the common log four articles are necessary--a log-ship or log-chip, log-reel, log-line and log-glass. The log-ship (fig. 1) is a wooden quadrant ½ in. thick, with a radius of 5 or 6 in., the circumference of which is weighted with lead to keep it upright and retard its passage through the water. Two holes are made near its lower angles. One end of a short piece of thin line is passed through one of these holes, and knotted; the other end has spliced to it a hard bone peg which is inserted in the other hole. The holes are so placed that the log-ship will hang square from the span thus formed. The log-line is secured to this span and consists of two parts. The portion nearest the log-ship is known as the "stray line"; its length varies from 10 to 20 fathoms, but should be sufficient to ensure that the log-ship shall be outside the disturbing element of the ship's wake. The point where it joins the other part is marked by a piece of bunting, and the line from this point towards its other end is marked at known intervals with "knots," which consist of pieces of cord worked in between its strands. A mean degree of the meridian being assumed to be 69.09 statute miles of 5280 ft., the nautical mile (1/60 degree) is taken as 6080 ft., which is a sufficiently close approximation for practical purposes, and the distances between the knots are made to bear the same relation to 6080 ft. as 28 seconds to an hour (3600 seconds); that is, they are placed at intervals of 47 ft. 3 in. The end of the first interval of this length (counting from the piece of bunting) is marked by a bit of leather, the second by a cord with two knots, the third by one with three knots, and so on; the middle of each of these lengths (half-knot) is also marked by a cord with one knot. It follows that, if, say, five knots of the line run out in 28 seconds, the ship has gone 5 × 47¼ ft. in that time, or is moving at the rate of 5 × 6080 ft. (= five nautical miles) an hour; hence the common use of knot as equivalent to a nautical mile. In the log-glass the time is measured by running sand, which, however, is apt to be affected by the humidity of the atmosphere. Sometimes a 30-second glass is used instead of a 28-second one, and the intervals between the knots on the log-line are then made 50 ft. 7 in. instead of 47 ft. 3 in. For speeds over six knots a 14-second glass is employed, and the speed indicated by the log-line is doubled.

The log-line, after being well soaked, stretched and marked with
knots, is wound uniformly on the log-reel, to which its inner end is
securely fastened. To "heave the log," a man holds the log-reel over
his head (at high speeds the man and portable reel are superseded by a
fixed reel and a winch fitted with a brake), and the officer places
the peg in the log-ship, which he then throws clear and to windward of
the ship, allowing the line to run freely out. When the bunting at the
end of the stray line passes his hand, he calls to his assistant to
turn the glass, and allows the line to pay out freely. When all the
sand has run through, the assistant calls "Stop!" when the log-line is
quickly nipped, the knots counted, and the intermediate portion
estimated. The strain on the log-ship when the log-line is nipped,
causes the peg to be withdrawn from it, and the log-ship is readily
hauled in. In normal circumstances, the log is hove every hour. In a
steam vessel running at high speed on an ocean route, with engines
working smoothly and uniformly, a careful officer with correct line
and glass can obtain very accurate results with the common log.

_Ground Log._--In the deltas of shoal rivers, with a strong tide or current and no land visible, a 5 lb. lead is substituted for the log-ship; the lead rests on the bottom, and the speed is obtained in a manner similar to that previously described. Such a "ground-log" indicates the actual speed over the ground, and in addition, when the log-line is being hauled in, it will show the real course the ship is making over the ground.

_Patent Log._--The screw or rotatory log of Edward Massey, invented in 1802, came into general use in 1836 and continued until 1861. The registering wheelwork was contained in a shallow rectangular box (fig. 2), with a float plate on its upper side, carrying three indicating dials, recording respectively fractions, units and tens of miles (up to a hundred). The rotator was connected to the log by a rope 6 ft. in length, actuating a universal joint on the first spindle of the register; it consisted of an air-tight thin metal tube with a coned fore-end, carrying flat metal vanes set at an angle. Alexander Bain in 1846 suggested enclosing the wheelwork in the rotator. In Thomas Walker's harpoon or frictionless log, introduced in 1861, the wheelwork was enclosed in a cylindrical case of the same diameter as the body of the rotator or fan, and the latter was brought close up to the register, forming a compact machine and avoiding the use of the 6-ft. line. Two years later a heart-shaped float plate was attached to the case, and the log called the A1 Harpoon ship log (fig. 3). The log should be washed in fresh water when practicable, to prevent oxidization of the wheels, and be lubricated with suitable oil through a hole in the case.