Chapter IV: PHILOSOPHY.--(1) An Essay concerning Human Understanding, in (2)

LOCKER-LAMPSON, FREDERICK (1821-1895), English man of letters, was born, on the 29th of May 1821, at Greenwich Hospital. His father, who was Civil Commissioner of the Hospital, was Edward Hawke Locker, youngest son of that Captain William Locker who gave Nelson the memorable advice "to lay a Frenchman close, and beat him." His mother, Eleanor Mary Elizabeth Boucher, was a daughter of the Rev. Jonathan Boucher, vicar of Epsom and friend of George Washington. After a desultory education, Frederick Locker began life in a colonial broker's office. Soon deserting this uncongenial calling, he obtained a clerkship in Somerset House, whence he was transferred to Lord Haddington's private office at the Admiralty. Here he became deputy-reader and _précis_ writer. In 1850 he married Lady Charlotte Bruce, daughter of the Lord Elgin who brought the famous marbles to England, and sister of Lady Augusta Stanley. After his marriage he left the Civil Service, in consequence of ill-health. In 1857 he published _London Lyrics_, a slender volume of 90 pages, which, with subsequent extensions, constitutes his poetical legacy. _Lyra Elegantiarum_ (1867), an anthology of light and familiar verse, and _Patchwork_ (1879), a book of extracts, were his only other publications. In 1872 Lady Charlotte Locker died. Two years later Locker married Miss Hannah Jane Lampson, the only daughter of Sir Curtis Miranda Lampson, Bart., of Rowfant, Sussex, and in 1885 took his wife's surname. At Rowfant he died on the 30th of May 1895. Chronic ill-health debarred Locker from any active part in life, but it did not prevent his delighting a wide circle of friends by his gifts as a host and _raconteur_, and from accumulating many treasures as a connoisseur. His books are catalogued in the volume called the _Rowfant Library_ (1886), to which an appendix (1900) was added, after his death, under the superintendence of his eldest son. As a poet, Locker belongs to the choir who deal with the gay rather than the grave in verse--with the polished and witty rather than the lofty or emotional. His good taste kept him as far from the broadly comic on the one side as his kind heart saved him from the purely cynical on the other. To something of Prior, of Praed and of Hood he added qualities of his own which lent his work distinction--a distinction in no wise diminished by his unwearied endeavour after directness and simplicity.

A posthumous volume of Memoirs, entitled _My Confidences_ (1896), and
edited by his son-in-law, Mr Augustine Birrell, gives an interesting
idea of his personality and a too modest estimate of his gifts as a
poet. (A. D.)

LOCKHART, GEORGE (1673-1731), of Carnwath, Scottish writer and politician, was a member of a Lanarkshire family tracing descent from Sir Simon Locard (the name being originally territorial, de Loch Ard), who is said to have accompanied Sir James Douglas on his expedition to the East with the heart of Bruce, which relic, according to Froissart, Locard brought home from Spain when Douglas fell in battle against the Moors, and buried in Melrose Abbey; this incident was the origin of the "man's heart within a fetterlock" borne on the Lockhart shield, which in turn perhaps led to the altered spelling of the surname. George Lockhart's grandfather was Sir James Lockhart of Lee (d. 1674), a lord of the court of session with the title of Lord Lee, who commanded a regiment at the battle of Preston. Lord Lee's eldest son, Sir William Lockhart of Lee (1621-1675), after fighting on the king's side in the Civil War, attached himself to Oliver Cromwell, whose niece he married, and by whom he was appointed commissioner for the administration of justice in Scotland in 1652, and English ambassador at the French court in 1656, where he greatly distinguished himself by his successful diplomacy. Lord Lee's second son, Sir George Lockhart (c. 1630-1689), was lord-advocate in Cromwell's time, and was celebrated for his persuasive eloquence; in 1674, when he was disbarred for alleged disrespect to the court of session in advising an appeal to parliament, fifty barristers showed their sympathy for him by withdrawing from practice. Lockhart was readmitted in 1676, and became the leading advocate in political trials, in which he usually appeared for the defence. He was appointed lord-president of the court of session in 1685; and was shot in the streets of Edinburgh on the 31st of March 1689 by John Chiesley, against whom the lord-president had adjudicated a cause. Sir George Lockhart purchased the extensive estates of the earls of Carnwath in Lanarkshire, which were inherited by his eldest son, George, whose mother was Philadelphia, daughter of Lord Wharton.

George Lockhart, who was member for the city of Edinburgh in the Scottish parliament, was appointed a commissioner for arranging the union with England in 1705. After the union he continued to represent Edinburgh, and later the Wigton burghs. His sympathies were with the Jacobites, whom he kept informed of all the negotiations for the union; in 1713 he took part in an abortive movement aiming at the repeal of the union. He was deeply implicated in the rising of 1715, the preparations for which he assisted at Carnwath and at Dryden, his Edinburgh residence. He was imprisoned in Edinburgh castle, but probably, through the favour of the duke of Argyll, he was released without being brought to trial; but his brother Philip was taken prisoner at the battle of Preston and condemned to be shot, the sentence being executed on the 2nd of December 1715. After his liberation Lockhart became a secret agent of the Pretender; but his correspondence with the prince fell into the hands of the government in 1727, compelling him to go into concealment at Durham until he was able to escape abroad. Argyll's influence was again exerted in Lockhart's behalf, and in 1728 he was permitted to return to Scotland, where he lived in retirement till his death in a duel on the 17th of December 1731. Lockhart was the author of _Memoirs of the Affairs of Scotland_, dealing with the reign of Queen Anne till the union with England, first published in 1714. These _Memoirs_, together with Lockhart's correspondence with the Pretender, and one or two papers of minor importance, were published in two volumes in 1817, forming the well-known "Lockhart Papers," which are a valuable authority for the history of the Jacobites.

Lockhart married Eupheme Montgomerie, daughter of Alexander, 9th earl of Eglinton, by whom he had a large family. His grandson James, who assumed his mother's name of Wishart in addition to that of Lockhart, was in the Austrian service during the Seven Years' War, and was created a baron and count of the Holy Roman Empire. He succeeded to the estates of Lee as well as of Carnwath, both of which properties passed, on the death of his son Charles without issue in 1802, to his nephew Alexander, who was created a baronet in 1806.

See _The Lockhart Papers_ (2 vols., London, 1817); Andrew Lang,
_History of Scotland_ (4 vols., London, 1900). For the story of Sir
Simon Lockhart's adventures with the heart of the Bruce, see Sir
Walter Scott's _The Talisman_. (R. J. M.)

LOCKHART, JOHN GIBSON (1794-1854), Scottish writer and editor, was born on the 14th of July 1794 in the manse of Cambusnethan in Lanarkshire, where his father, Dr John Lockhart, transferred in 1796 to Glasgow, was minister. His mother, who was the daughter of the Rev. John Gibson, of Edinburgh, was a woman of considerable intellectual gifts. He was sent to the Glasgow high school, where he showed himself clever rather than industrious. He fell into ill-health, and had to be removed from school before he was twelve; but on his recovery he was sent at this early age to Glasgow University, and displayed so much precocious learning, especially in Greek, that he was offered a Snell exhibition at Oxford. He was not fourteen when he entered Balliol College, where he acquired a great store of knowledge outside the regular curriculum. He read French, Italian, German and Spanish, was interested in classical and British antiquities, and became versed in heraldic and genealogical lore. In 1813 he took a first class in classics in the final schools. For two years after leaving Oxford he lived chiefly in Glasgow before settling to the study of Scottish law in Edinburgh, where he was called to the bar in 1816. A tour on the continent in 1817, when he visited Goethe at Weimar, was made possible by the kindness of the publisher Blackwood, who advanced money for a promised translation of Schlegel's _Lectures on the History of Literature_, which was not published until 1838. Edinburgh was then the stronghold of the Whig party, whose organ was the _Edinburgh Review_, and it was not till 1817 that the Scottish Tories found a means of expression in _Blackwood's Magazine_. After a somewhat hum-drum opening, _Blackwood_ suddenly electrified the Edinburgh world by an outburst of brilliant criticism. John Wilson (Christopher North) and Lockhart had joined its staff in 1817. Lockhart no doubt took his share in the caustic and aggressive articles which marked the early years of _Blackwood_; but his biographer, Mr Andrew Lang, brings evidence to show that he was not responsible for the virulent articles on Coleridge and on "The Cockney School of Poetry," that is on Leigh Hunt, Keats and their friends. He has been persistently accused of the later _Blackwood_ article (August 1818) on Keats, but he showed at any rate a real appreciation of Coleridge and Wordsworth. He contributed to _Blackwood_ many spirited translations of Spanish ballads, which in 1823 were published separately. In 1818 the brilliant and handsome young man attracted the notice of Sir Walter Scott, and the acquaintance soon ripened into an intimacy which resulted in a marriage between Lockhart and Scott's eldest daughter Sophia, in April 1820. Five years of domestic happiness followed, with winters spent in Edinburgh and summers at a cottage at Chiefswood, near Abbotsford, where Lockhart's two eldest children, John Hugh and Charlotte, were born; a second son, Walter, was born later at Brighton. In 1820 John Scott, the editor of the _London Magazine_, wrote a series of articles attacking the conduct of _Blackwood's Magazine_, and making Lockhart chiefly responsible for its extravagances. A correspondence followed, in which a meeting between Lockhart and John Scott was proposed, with Jonathan Henry Christie and Horace Smith as seconds. A series of delays and complicated negotiations resulted early in 1821 in a duel between Christie and John Scott, in which Scott was killed. This unhappy affair, which has been the subject of much misrepresentation, is fully discussed in Mr Lang's book on Lockhart.

Between 1818 and 1825 Lockhart worked indefatigably. In 1819 _Peter's Letters to his Kinsfolk_ appeared, and in 1822 he edited Peter Motteux's edition of _Don Quixote_, to which he prefixed a life of Cervantes. Four novels followed: _Valerius_ in 1821, _Some Passages in the Life of Adam Blair_, _Minister of Gospel at Cross Meikle_ in 1822, _Reginald Dalton_ in 1823 and _Matthew Wald_ in 1824. But his strength did not lie in novel writing, although the vigorous quality of _Adam Blair_ has been recognized by modern critics. In 1825 Lockhart accepted the editorship of the _Quarterly Review_, which had been in the hands of Sir John Taylor Coleridge since Gifford's resignation in 1824. He had now established his literary position, and, as the next heir to his unmarried half-brother's property in Scotland, Milton Lockhart, he was sufficiently independent, though he had abandoned the legal profession. In London he had great social success, and was recognized as a brilliant editor. He contributed largely to the _Quarterly Review_ himself, his biographical articles being especially admirable. He showed the old railing spirit in an amusing but violent article in the _Quarterly_ on Tennyson's _Poems_ of 1833, in which he failed to discover the mark of genius. He continued to write for _Blackwood_; he produced for _Constable's Miscellany_ in 1828 what remains the most charming of the biographies of Burns; and he undertook the superintendence of the series called "Murray's Family Library," which he opened in 1829 with a _History of Napoleon_. But his chief work was the _Life of Sir Walter Scott_ (7 vols., 1837-1838; 2nd ed., 10 vols., 1839). There were not wanting those in Scotland who taxed Lockhart with ungenerous exposure of his subject, but to most healthy minds the impression conveyed by the biography was, and is, quite the opposite. Carlyle did justice to many of its excellencies in a criticism contributed to the _London and Westminster Review_ (1837). Lockhart's account of the transactions between Scott and the Ballantynes and Constable caused great outcry; and in the discussion that followed he showed unfortunate bitterness by his pamphlet, "The Ballantyne Humbug handled." The _Life of Scott_ has been called, after Boswell's _Johnson_, the most admirable biography in the English language. The proceeds, which were considerable, Lockhart resigned for the benefit of Scott's creditors.

The close of Lockhart's life was saddened by family bereavement, resulting in his own breakdown in health and spirits. His eldest boy (the suffering "Hugh Littlejohn" of Scott's _Tales of a Grandfather_) died in 1831; Scott himself in 1832; Mrs Lockhart in 1837; and the surviving son, Walter Lockhart, in 1852. Resigning the editorship of the _Quarterly Review_ in 1853, he spent the next winter in Rome, but returned to England without recovering his health; and being taken to Abbotsford by his daughter Charlotte, who had become Mrs James Robert Hope-Scott, he died there on the 25th of November 1854. He was buried in Dryburgh Abbey, near Sir Walter Scott.

Lockhart's _Life_ (2 vols., London and New York, 1897) was written by
Andrew Lang. A. W. Pollard's edition of the _Life of Scott_ (1900) is
the best.

LOCKHART, SIR WILLIAM STEPHEN ALEXANDER (1841-1900), British general, was born in Scotland on the 2nd of September 1841, his father being a Lanarkshire clergyman. He entered the Indian army in 1858, in the Bengal native infantry. He served in the Indian Mutiny, the Bhutan campaign (1864-66), the Abyssinian expedition (1867-68; mentioned in despatches), the Hazara Black Mountain expedition (1868-69; mentioned in despatches). From 1869 to 1879 he acted as deputy-assistant and assistant quartermaster-general in Bengal. In 1877 he was military attaché with the Dutch army in Acheen. He served in the Afghan War of 1878-80, was mentioned in despatches and made a C.B., and from 1880 to 1885 was D.Q.G. in the intelligence branch at headquarters. He commanded a brigade in the Third Burmese War (1886-87), and was made K.C.B., C.S.I., and received the thanks of the government. An attack of fever brought him to England, where he was employed as assistant military secretary for Indian affairs; but in 1890 he returned to India to take command of the Punjab frontier force, and for five years was engaged in various expeditions against the hill tribes. After the Waziristan campaign in 1894-95 he was made K.C.S.I. He became full general in 1896, and in 1897 he was given the command against the Afridis and Mohmands, and conducted the difficult Tirah campaign with great skill. He was made G.C.B., and in 1898 became commander-in-chief in India. He died on the 18th of March 1900. Sir William Lockhart was not only a first-rate soldier, but also had a great gift for dealing with the native tribesmen. Among the latter he had the _sobriquet_ of Amir Sahib, on account of their respect and affection for him.

LOCK HAVEN, a city and the county-seat of Clinton county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the west branch of the Susquehanna river, near the mouth of Bald Eagle Creek, about 70 m. N.N.W. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 7210 (618 foreign-born and 122 negroes); (1910) 7772. It is served by branches of the Pennsylvania and the New York Central & Hudson River railways and by electric interurban railways. The city is pleasantly situated in an agricultural region, and there are large deposits of cement and of fire-brick clay in the vicinity. Lock Haven is the seat of the Central State Normal School (opened 1877), and has a public library and a hospital. There are various manufactures. The municipality owns and operates the water-works. The locality was settled in 1769. A town was founded in 1833, the Pennsylvania Canal (no longer in use here) was completed to this point in 1834, and the name of the place was suggested by two canal locks and the harbour, or haven, for rafts in the river. Lock Haven was made the county-seat immediately after the erection of Clinton county in 1839, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and first chartered as a city in 1870.

LOCKPORT, a city of Will county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the Des Plaines river and the Illinois & Michigan Canal, and the terminus of the Chicago Sanitary District Drainage Canal, about 33 m. S.W. of Chicago and 4 m. N.N.E. of Joliet. Pop. (1900) 2659 (552 being foreign-born and 130 negroes); (1910) 2555. Lockport is served by the Chicago & Alton, and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railways, and by the Chicago & Joliet Electric railway. It is in a picturesque farming country, and there are good limestone quarries in the valley of the Des Plaines river. It has manufactures and a considerable trade, especially in grain. A settlement was made here about 1827; in 1837 the site was chosen as headquarters for the Illinois & Michigan Canal and a village was laid out; it was incorporated in 1853, and was chartered as a city in 1904. In 1892 work was begun on the Chicago Drainage Canal, whose controlling works are here and whose plant, developing 40,000 h.p. from the 40 ft. fall between Joliet and Lockport, supplies Lockport with cheap power and has made it a manufacturing rather than a commercial city.

LOCKPORT, a city and the county-seat of Niagara county, New York, U.S.A., on the Erie Canal, 26 m. by rail N. by E. of Buffalo and 56 m. W. of Rochester. Pop. (1900) 16,581, of whom 2036 were foreign-born and 160 were negroes; (1910 census) 17,970. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, by the International railway (electric interurban), and by the Erie Canal. The city owes its name to the five double locks of the canal, which here falls 66 ft. (over a continuation of the Niagara escarpment locally known as "Mountain Ridge") from the level of Lake Erie to that of the Genesee river. In 1909 a scheme was on foot to replace these five locks by a huge lift lock and to construct a large harbour immediately W. of the city. The surplus water from Tonawanda Creek, long claimed both by the Canal and by the Lockport manufacturers, after supplying the canal furnishes water-power, and electric power is derived from Niagara. The factory products, mostly paper and wood-pulp, flour and cereal foods, and foundry and machine-shop products, were valued in 1905 at $5,807,980. Lockport lies in a rich farming and fruit (especially apple and pear) country, containing extensive sandstone and Niagara limestone quarries, and is a shipping point for the fruits and grains and the limestone and sandstone of the surrounding country. Many buildings in the business part of the city are heated by the Holly distributing system, which pipes steam from a central station or plant, and originated in Lockport. The city owns and operates the water-works, long operated under the Holly system, which, as well as the Holly distributing system, was devised by Birdsill Holly, a civil engineer of Lockport. In 1909 a new system was virtually completed, water being taken from the Niagara river at Tonawanda and pumped thence to a stand-pipe in Lockport.

The site, that of the most easterly village in New York state held by the Neutral Nation of Indians, was part of the tract bought by the Holland Company in 1792-1793. Subsequently most of the land on which the city stands was bought from the Holland Company by Esek Brown, the proprietor of a local tavern, and fourteen others, but there were few settlers until after 1820. In 1822 the place was made the county-seat, and in 1823 it was much enlarged by the settlement here of workmen on the Erie Canal, and was the headquarters for a time of the canal contractors. It was incorporated as a village in 1829, was reached by the Erie railway in 1852, and in 1865 was chartered as a city.

LOCKROY, ÉDOUARD (1838- ), French politician, son of Joseph Philippe Simon (1803-1891), an actor and dramatist who took the name of Lockroy, was born in Paris on the 18th of July 1838. He had begun by studying art, but in 1860 enlisted as a volunteer under Garibaldi. The next three years were spent in Syria as secretary to Ernest Renan, and on his return to Paris he embarked in militant journalism against the second empire in the _Figaro_, the _Diable à quatre_, and eventually in the _Rappel_, with which his name was thenceforward intimately connected. He commanded a battalion during the siege of Paris, and in February 1871 was elected deputy to the National Assembly where he sat on the extreme left and protested against the preliminaries of peace. In March he signed the proclamation for the election of the Commune, and resigned his seat as deputy. Arrested at Vanves he remained a prisoner at Versailles and Chartres until June when he was released without being tried. He was more than once imprisoned for violent articles in the press, and in 1872 for a duel with Paul de Cassagnac. He was returned to the Chamber in 1873 as Radical deputy for Bouches-du-Rhône in 1876, 1877 and 1881 for Aix, and in 1881 he was also elected in the 11th arrondissement of Paris. He elected to sit for Paris, and was repeatedly re-elected. During the elections of 1893 he was shot at by a cab-driver poet named Moore, but was not seriously injured. For the first ten years of his parliamentary life he voted consistently with the extreme left, but then adopted a more opportunist policy, and gave his unreserved support to the Brisson ministry of 1885. In the new Freycinet cabinet formed in January he held the portfolio of commerce and industry, which he retained in the Goblet ministry of 1886-1887. In 1885 he had been returned at the head of the poll for Paris, and his inclusion in the Freycinet ministry was taken to indicate a prospect of reconciliation between Parisian Radicalism and official Republicanism. During his tenure of the portfolio of commerce and industry he made the preliminary arrangements for the Exposition of 1889, and in a witty letter he defended the erection of the Tour Eiffel against artistic Paris. After the Panama and Boulangist scandals he became one of the leading politicians of the Radical party. He was vice-president of the Chamber in 1894 and in 1895, when he became minister of marine under Léon Bourgeois. His drastic measures of reform alarmed moderate politicians, but he had the confidence of the country, and held the same portfolio under Henri Brisson (1898) and Charles Dupuy (1898-1899). He gave his support to the Waldeck-Rousseau Administration, but actively criticized the marine policy of Camille Pelletan in the Combes ministry of 1902-1905, during which period he was again vice-president of the Chamber. M. Lockroy was a persistent and successful advocate of a strong naval policy, in defence of which he published _La Marine de Guerre_ (1890), _Six mois rue Royale_ (1897), _La Défense navale_ (1900), _Du Weser à la Vistula_ (1901), _Les Marines française et allemande_ (1904), _Le Programme naval_ (1906). His other works include _M. de Moltke et la guerre future_ (1891) and _Journal d'une bourgeoise pendant la Révolution_ (1881) derived from the letters of his great-grandmother. M. Lockroy married in 1877 Madame Charles Hugo, the daughter-in-law of the poet.

LOCKWOOD, SIR FRANK (1846-1897), English lawyer, was born at Doncaster. His grandfather and great-grandfather were mayors of Doncaster, and the former for some years filled the office of judge on the racecourse. He was educated at a private school, at Manchester grammar school, and Caius College, Cambridge. Called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1872, he joined the old midland circuit, afterwards going to the north-eastern, making in his first year 120 guineas and in the next 265 guineas. From that time he had a career of uninterrupted success. In 1882 he was made a queen's counsel, in 1884 he was made recorder of Sheffield, and in 1894 he became solicitor-general in Lord Rosebery's ministry, and was knighted, having first entered parliament as Liberal member for York in 1885, after two unsuccessful attempts, the one at King's Lynn in 1880, the other at York in 1883. He was solicitor-general for less than a year. In 1896 Lord Chief Justice Coleridge, Mr Montague Crackanthorpe and Sir Frank Lockwood went to the United States to attend, as specially invited representatives of the English bar, the nineteenth meeting of the American Bar Association. On this trip Sir Frank Lockwood sustained the reputation which he enjoyed in England as a humorous after-dinner speaker, and helped to strengthen the bond of friendship which unites the bench and bar of the United States with the bench and bar of England. He died in London on the 18th of December 1897. Lockwood had considerable talent for drawing, inherited from his father, which he employed, chiefly for the amusement of himself and his friends, in the making of admirable caricatures in pen and ink, and of sketches of humorous incidents, real or imaginary, relating to the topic nearest at hand. An exhibition of them was held soon after his death.

See Augustine Birrell's biography of Lockwood and _The Frank Lockwood
Sketch-Book_ (1898).

LOCKWOOD, WILTON (1861- ), American artist, was born at Wilton, Connecticut, on the 12th of September 1861. He was a pupil and an assistant of John La Farge, and also studied in Paris, becoming a well-known portrait and flower painter. He became a member of the Society of American Artists (1898), and of the Copley Society, Boston, and an associate of the National Academy of Design, New York.

LOCKYER, SIR JOSEPH NORMAN (1836- ), English astronomer, was born at Rugby on the 17th of May 1836. After completing his education on the Continent of Europe, he obtained a clerkship in the War Office in 1857. His leisure was devoted to the study of astronomy, and he was appointed in 1870 secretary to the duke of Devonshire's royal commission on science. In 1875 he was transferred to the Science and Art Department at South Kensington, and on the foundation of the Royal College of Science he became director of the solar physics observatory and professor of astronomical physics. Eight British government expeditions for observing total solar eclipses were conducted by him between 1870 and 1905. On the 26th of October 1868 he communicated to the Paris Academy of Sciences, almost simultaneously with Dr P. J. C. Janssen, a spectroscopic method for observing the solar prominences in daylight, and the names of both astronomers appear on a medal which was struck by the French government in 1872 to commemorate the discovery. Lockyer was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1869, and received the Rumford medal in 1874. He initiated in 1866 the spectroscopic observation of sunspots; applied Doppler's principle in 1869 to determine the radial velocities of the chromospheric gases; and successfully investigated the chemistry of the sun from 1872 onward. Besides numerous contributions to the _Proceedings_ of the Royal and the Royal Astronomical Societies, he published several books, both explanatory and speculative. The _Chemistry of the Sun_ (1887) is an elaborate treatise on solar spectroscopy based on the hypothesis of elemental dissociation through the intensity of solar heat. The _Meteoritic Hypothesis_ (1890) propounds a comprehensive scheme of cosmical evolution, which has evoked more dissent than approval, while the _Sun's Place in Nature_ (1897) lays down the lines of a classification of the stars, depending upon their supposed temperature-relations. Among Lockyer's other works are--_The Dawn of Astronomy_ (1894), to which _Stonehenge and other British Stone Monuments astronomically considered_ (1906) may be considered a sequel; _Recent and coming Eclipses_ (1897); and _Inorganic Evolution_ (1900). He was created K.C.B. in 1897, and acted as president of the British Association in 1903-1904. His fifth son, WILLIAM JAMES STEWART LOCKYER (b. 1868), devoted himself to solar research, and became chief assistant in the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington.

LOCLE, LE, a town in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel, 24 m. by rail N. of Neuchâtel, and 5 m. S.W. of La Chaux de Fonds. It is built (3035 ft. above the sea-level) on the Bied stream in a valley of the Jura, and is about 1 m. from the French frontier. In 1681 Daniel Jean Richard introduced watch-making here, which soon drove out all other industries. In 1900 the population was 12,559, mainly Protestants and French-speaking. The church tower dates from 1521, but the old town was destroyed by fire in 1833. The valley in which the town is situated used to be subject to inundations, but in 1805 a tunnel was constructed by means of which the surplus waters of the Bied are carried into the Doubs. About 1 m. W. of the town the Bied plunged into a deep chasm, on the steep rock face of which were formerly the subterranean mills of the Col des Roches, situated one above another; but the stream is now diverted by the above-mentioned tunnel, while another serves the railway line from Le Locle to Morteau in France (8 m.). (W. A. B. C.)

LOCMARIAQUER, a village of western France, on the W. shore of the Gulf of Morbihan, in the department of Morbihan, 8½ m. S. of Auray by road. Pop. (1906) 756. Locmariaquer has a small port, and oyster culture is carried on close to it. Roman remains are to be seen, but the place owes its celebrity to the megalithic monuments in the vicinity, some of which are among the largest extant. The menhir of Men-er-H'roeck (Fairy stone), which was broken into four pieces by lightning in the 18th century, previously measured about 67 ft. in height, and from 9 to 13 ft. in thickness.

LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA (Gr. [Greek: ha], priv., and [Greek: taxis], order; synonyms, _Tabes dorsalis_, _posterior spinal sclerosis_), a progressive degeneration of the nervous system, involving the posterior columns of the spinal cord with other structures, and causing muscular incoordination and disorder of gait and station. The essential symptoms of the disease--stamping gait, and swaying with the eyes shut, the occurrence of blindness and of small fixed pupils--were recognized by Romberg (1851), but it was the clinical genius of Duchenne and his masterly description of the symptoms which led to its acceptance as a definite disease (1858), and he named it locomotor ataxia after its most striking symptom. In 1869 Argyll Robertson discovered that the eye-pupil is inactive to light but acts upon accommodation in the great majority of cases. This most important sign is named the "Argyll Robertson pupil." With an ever-increasing knowledge of the widespread character of this disease and its manifold variations in the complex of symptoms, the tendency among neurologists is to revert to the term employed by Romberg--_tabes dorsalis_. "Locomotor ataxia," although it expresses a very characteristic feature of the disease, has this objection: it is a symptom which does not occur in the first (preataxic) stage of the disease; indeed a great number of years may elapse before ataxy comes on, and sometimes the patient, after suffering a very long time from the disease, may die from some intercurrent complication, having never been ataxic.

It is generally recognized by neurologists that persons who are not the subjects of acquired or hereditary syphilis do not suffer from this disease; and the average time of onset after infection is ten years (see NEUROPATHOLOGY). There are three stages: (1) The preataxic, (2) the ataxic, (3) the bed-ridden paralytic. The duration of the first stage may be from one or two years, up to twenty years or even longer. In this stage various symptoms may arise. The patient usually complains of shooting, lightning-like pains in the legs, which he may attribute to rheumatism. If a physician examines him he will almost certainly find the knee-jerks absent and Argyll Robertson pupils present; probably on inquiry he will ascertain that the patient has had some difficulty in starting urination, or that he is unable to retain his water or to empty his bladder completely. In other cases, temporary or permanent paralysis of one or more muscles of the eyeball (which causes squint and double vision), a failure of sight ending in blindness, attacks of vomiting (or gastric crises), painless spontaneous fractures of bones and dislocations of joints, failing sexual power and impotence, may lead the patient to consult a physician, when this disease will be diagnosed, although the patient may not as yet have had locomotor ataxy. All cases, however, if they live long enough, pass into the second ataxic stage. The sufferer complains now of difficulty of walking in the dark; he sways with his eyes shut and feels as if he would fall (Romberg's symptom); he has the sensation of walking on wool, numbness and formication of the skin, and many sensory disturbances in the form of partial or complete loss of sensibility to pain, touch and temperature. These disturbances affect especially the feet and legs, and around the trunk at the level of the fourth to the seventh ribs, giving rise to a "girdle sensation." There may be a numbed feeling on the inner side of the arm, and muscular incoordination may affect the upper limb as well as the lower, although there is no wasting or any electrical change. The ataxic gait is very characteristic, owing to the loss of reflex tonus in the muscles, and the absence of guiding sensations from all the deep structures of the limbs, muscles, joints, bones, tendons and ligaments, as well as from the skin of the soles of the feet; therefore the sufferer has to be guided by vision as to where and how to place his feet. This necessitates the bending forward of the body, extension of the knees and broadening of the basis of support; he generally uses a walking stick or even two, and he jerks the leg forward as if he were on wires, bringing the sole of the foot down on the ground with a wide stamping action. If the arm be affected, he is unable to touch the tip of his nose with the eyes shut. Sooner or later he passes into the _third_ bed-ridden stage, with muscles wasted and their tonus so much lost that he is in a perfectly helpless condition.

The complications which may arise in this disease are intercurrent affections due to septic conditions of the bladder, bedsores, pneumonia, vascular and heart affections. About 10% of the cases, at least, develop general paralysis of the insane. This is not surprising seeing that it is due to the same cause, and the etiology of the two diseases is such as to lead many neurologists to consider them one and the same disease affecting different parts of the nervous system. _Tabes dorsalis_ occurs with much greater frequency in men than in women (see NEUROPATHOLOGY).

The avoidance of all stress of the nervous system, whether physical, emotional or intellectual, is indicated, and a simple regular life, without stimulants or indulgence of the sexual passion, is the best means of delaying the progress of the disease. Great attention should be paid to micturition, so as to avoid retention and infection of the bladder. Drugs, even anti-syphilitic remedies, appear to have but little influence upon the course of the disease.

LOCO-WEEDS, or CRAZY-WEEDS, leguminous plants, chiefly species of _Astragalus_ and _Lupinus_, which produce a disease in cattle known as "loco-disease." The name is apparently taken from the Spanish _loco_, mad. The disease affects the nervous system of the animals eating the plants, and is accompanied by exhaustion and wasting.

LOCRI, a people of ancient Greece, inhabiting two distinct districts, one extending from the north-east of Parnassus to the northern half of the Euboean channel, between Boeotia and Malis, the other south-west of Parnassus, on the north shore of the Corinthian Gulf, between Phocis and Aetolia. The former were divided into the northern Locri Epicnemidii, situated on the spurs of Mount Cnemis, and the southern Locri Opuntii, so named from their chief town Opus (q.v.): and the name Opuntia is often applied to the whole of this easterly district. Homer mentions only these eastern Locrians: their national hero in the Trojan war is Ajax Oileus, who often appears afterwards on Locrian coins. From Hesiod's time onwards, the Opuntians were thought by some to be of "Lelegian" origin (see LELEGES), but they were Hellenized early (though matriarchal customs survived among them)--, and Deucalion, the father of Hellen himself, is described as the first king of Opus. The westerly Locri "in Ozolae" on the Corinthian Gulf, a rude and barbarous people, make no appearance in Greek history till the Peloponnesian war. It was believed that they had separated from the eastern Locrians four generations before the Trojan war; yet Homer has no hint of their existence. Probably the Locrians were once a single people, extending from sea to sea, till subsequent immigrations forced them apart into two separate districts. The Locrian dialect of Greek is little known, but resembles that of Elis: it has [Greek: st] for [Greek: sth]; uses [alpha]; and has [Greek: ois] in dat. plur. 3rd decl. A colony of Locrians (whether from Opus or Ozolae was disputed in antiquity) settled, about the end of the 8th century B.C., at the south-west extremity of Italy. They are often called Locri Epizephyrii from Cape Zephyrion 15 m. S. of the city. Their founder's name was Euanthes. Their social organization resembled that of the Opuntian Locri, and like them they venerated Ajax Oileus and Persephone. Aristotle (ap. Polyb. xii. 5 sqq.) records a tradition that these western Locrians were base-born, like the Parthenians of Tarentum; but this was disputed by his contemporary Timaeus. See LOCRI (town) below. (J. L. M.)

LOCRI, an ancient city of Magna Graecia, Italy. The original settlers took possession of the Zephyrian promontory (Capo Bruzzano some 12 m. N. of Capo Spartivento), and though after three or four years they transplanted themselves to a site 12 m. farther north, still near the coast, 2 m. S. of Gerace Marina below the modern Gerace, they still retained the name of Locri Epizephyrii ([Greek: Lokroi hoi epizephurioi]), which served to distinguish them from the Ozolian and Opuntian Locri of Greece itself (see preceding article). The foundation of Locri goes back to about 683 B.C. It was the first of all Greek communities to have a written code of laws given by Zaleucus in 664 B.C. From Locri were founded the colonies of Meisma and Heiponium (Hipponium). It succeeded in repelling the attacks of Croton (battle on the river Sagras, perhaps sometime in the 6th century), and found in Syracuse a support against Rhegium: it was thus an active adversary of Athenian aggrandisement in the west. Pindar extolls its uprightness and love of the heroic muse of beauty, of wisdom, and of war, in the 10th and 11th Olympian Odes. Stesichorus (q.v.) was indeed of Locrian origin. But it owed its greatest external prosperity to the fact that Dionysius I. of Syracuse selected his wife from Locri: its territory was then increased, and the circuit of its walls was doubled, but it lost its freedom. In 356 B.C. it was ruled by Dionysius II. From the battle of Heraclea to the year 205 (when it was captured by P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus Maior, and placed under the control of his legate Q. Pleminius), Locri was continually changing its allegiance between Rome and her enemies; but it remained an ally, and was only obliged like other Greek coast towns to furnish ships. In later Roman times it is often mentioned, but was apparently of no great importance. It is mentioned incidentally until the 6th century A.D., but was destroyed by the Saracens in 915.

Excavations in 1889-1890 led to the discovery of an Ionic temple (the Doric style being usual in Magna Graecia) at the north-west angle of the town--originally a cella with two naves, a closed pronaos on the E. and an adytum at the back (W.), later converted into a hexastyle peripheral temple with 34 painted terra-cotta columns. This was then destroyed about 400 B.C. and a new temple built on the ruins, heptastyle peripteral, with no intermediate columns in the cella and opisthodomos, and with 44 columns in all. The figures from the pediment of the twin Dioscuri, who according to the legend assisted Locri against Crotona, are in the Naples museum (see R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, _Griechische Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien_, Berlin, 1899, pp. l sqq.). Subsequent excavations in 1890-1891 were of the greatest importance, but the results remained unpublished up to 1908. From a short account by P. Orsi in _Atti del Congresso Storico_, vol. v. (Archeologia) Rome, 1904, p. 201, we learn that the exploration of the environs of the temple led to the discovery of a large number of archaic terra-cottas, and of some large trenches, covered with tiles, containing some 14,000 scyphoi arranged in rows. The plan of the city was also traced; the walls, the length of which was nearly 5 m., consisted of three parts--the fortified castles ([Greek: phrouria]) with large towers, on three different hills, the city proper, and the lower town--the latter enclosed by long walls running down to the sea. In the Roman period the city was restricted to the plain near the sea. Since these excavations, a certain amount of unauthorized work has gone on, and some of the remains have been destroyed. In the course of these excavations some prehistoric objects have been discovered, which confirm the accounts of Thucydides and Polybius that the Greek settlers found the Siculi here before them. (T. As.)

LÖCSE (Ger. _Leutschau_), the capital of the county of Szepes, in Hungary, 230 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 6845, mostly Germans and Slovaks. The county of Szepes is the highest part of Hungary, and its north-western portion is occupied by the Tátra Mountains. Löcse lies in an elevated position surrounded by mountains, and is one of the oldest towns of Hungary. The church of St James is a Gothic structure of the 13th century, with richly carved altar, several monuments, and a celebrated organ erected in 1623, and long reputed the largest in Hungary. The old town-hall, restored in 1894, contains a Protestant upper gymnasium, founded in 1544, and one of the oldest printing establishments in Hungary, founded in 1585. Bee-keeping and the raising of garden produce are the chief industries.

Founded by Saxon colonists in 1245, Löcse had by the early part of the 16th century attained a position of great relative importance. In 1599 a fire destroyed the greater part of the town, and during the 17th century it suffered repeatedly at the hands of the Transylvanian princes and leaders.

LOCUS (Lat. for "place"; in Gr. [Greek: topos]), a geometrical term, the invention of the notion of which is attributed to Plato. It occurs in such statements as these: the locus of the points which are at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point which moves so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point, is a circle; conversely a circle is the locus of the points at the same distance from a fixed point, or of a point moving so as to be always at the same distance from a fixed point; and so in general a curve of any given kind is the locus of the points which satisfy, or of a point moving so as always to satisfy, a given condition. The theory of loci is thus identical with that of curves (see CURVE and GEOMETRY: § _Analytical_). The notion of a locus applies also to solid geometry. Here the locus of the points satisfying a single (or onefold) condition is a surface; the locus of the points satisfying two conditions (or a twofold condition) is a curve in space, which is in general a twisted curve or curve of double curvature.

LOCUST.[1] In its general acceptation this term is applied only to certain insects of the order _Orthoptera_, family _Acridiidae_. The family _Locustidae_ is now viewed zoologically in a sense that does not admit of the species best known as "locusts" being included therein. The idea of a very destructive insect is universally associated with the term; therefore many orthopterous species that cannot be considered true locusts have been so-called; in North America it has even embraced certain _Hemiptera-Homoptera_, belonging to the _Cicadidae_, and in some parts of England cockchafers are so designated. In a more narrow definition the attribute of migration is associated with the destructive propensities, and it therefore becomes necessary that a true locust should be a migratory species of the family _Acridiidae_. Moreover, the term has yet a slightly different signification as viewed from the Old or New World. In Europe by a locust is meant an insect of large size, the smaller allied species being ordinarily known as "grasshoppers," hence the "Rocky Mountain locust" of North America is to Eastern ideas rather a grasshopper than a locust.

In Europe, and a greater part of the Old World, the best known migratory locust is that which is scientifically termed _Pachytylus cinerascens_ with which an allied species _P. migratorius_ has been often confounded. Another locust found in Europe and neighbouring districts is _Caloptenus italicus_, and still another, _Acridium peregrinum_, has once or twice occurred in Europe, though its home (even in a migratory sense) is more properly Africa and Asia. These practically include all the locusts of the Old World, though a migratory species of South Africa known as _Pachytylus pardalinus_ (presumed to be distinct from _P. migratorius_) should be mentioned. The Rocky Mountain locust of North America is _Caloptenus spretus_, and in that continent there occurs an _Acridium_ (_A. americanum_) so closely allied to _A. peregrinum_ as to be scarcely distinct therefrom, though there it does not manifest migratory tendencies. In the West Indies and Central America _A. peregrinum_ is also reported to occur.

The females excavate holes in the earth in which the eggs are deposited in a long cylindrical mass enveloped in a glutinous secretion. The young larvae hatch and immediately commence their destructive career. As these insects are "hemimetabolic" there is no quiescent stage; they go on increasing rapidly in size, and as they approach the perfect state the rudiments of the wings begin to appear. Even in this stage their locomotive powers are extensive and their voracity great. Once winged and perfect these powers become infinitely more disastrous, redoubled by the development of the migratory instinct. The laws regulating this instinct are not perfectly understood. Food and temperature have a great deal to do with it, and there is a tendency for the flights to take a particular direction, varied by the physical circumstances of the breeding districts. So likewise each species has its area of constant location, and its area of extraordinary migration. Perhaps the most feasible of the suggestions as to the causes of the migratory impulse is that locusts naturally breed in dry sandy districts in which food is scarce, and are impelled to wander to procure the necessaries of life; but against this it has been argued that swarms bred in a highly productive district in which they have temporarily settled will seek the barren home of their ancestors. Another ingenious suggestion is that migration is intimately connected with a dry condition of the atmosphere, urging them to move on until compelled to stop for food or procreative purposes. Swarms travel considerable distances, though probably generally fewer than 1000 m., though sometimes very much more. As a rule the progress is only gradual, and this adds vastly to the devastating effects. When an extensive swarm temporarily settles in a district, all vegetation rapidly disappears, and then hunger urges it on another stage. The large Old World species, although undoubtedly phytophagous, when compelled by hunger sometimes attack at least dry animal substances, and even cannibalism has been asserted as an outcome of the failure of all other kinds of food. The length of a single flight must depend upon circumstances. From peculiarities in the examples of _Acridium peregrinum_ taken in England in 1869, it has been asserted that they must have come direct by sea from the west coast of Africa; and what is probably the same species has been seen in the Atlantic at least 1200 m. from land, in swarms completely covering the ship; thus, in certain cases flight must be sustained for several days and nights together. The height at which swarms fly, when their horizontal course is not liable to be altered by mountains, has been very variously estimated at from 40 to 200 ft., or even in a particular case to 500 ft. The extent of swarms and the number of individuals in a swarm cannot be accurately ascertained. They come sometimes in such numbers as to completely obscure the sun, when the noise made by the rustling of the wings is deafening. Nevertheless some idea on this point may be formed from the ascertained fact that in Cyprus in 1881, at the close of the season, 1,600,000,000 egg-cases, each containing a considerable number of eggs, had been destroyed; the estimated weight exceeding 1300 tons. Yet two years later, it is believed that not fewer than 5,076,000,000 egg-cases were again deposited in the island.

In Europe the best known and ordinarily most destructive species is
_Pachytylus cinerascens_, and it is to it that most of the numerous
records of devastations in Europe mainly refer, but it is probably not
less destructive in many parts of Africa and Asia. That the arid
steppes of central Asia are the home of this insect appears probable;
still much on this point is enveloped in uncertainty. In any case the
area of permanent distribution is enormous, and that of occasional
distribution is still greater. The former area extends from the
parallel of 40° N. in Portugal, rising to 48° in France and
Switzerland, and passing into Russia at 55°, thence continuing across
the middle of Siberia, north of China to Japan; thence south to the
Fiji Islands, to New Zealand and North Australia; thence again to
Mauritius and over all Africa to Madeira. The southern distribution is
uncertain and obscure. Taking exceptional distribution, it is well
known that it occasionally appears in the British Isles, and has in
them apparently been noticed as far north as Edinburgh; so also does
it occasionally appear in Scandinavia, and it has probably been seen
up to 63° N. in Finland. Looking at this vast area, it is easy to
conceive that an element of uncertainty must always exist with regard
to the exact determination of the species, and in Europe especially is
this the case, because there exists a distinct species, known as _P.
migratorius_, the migratory area of which appears to be confined to
Turkestan and eastern Europe.

_P. cinerascens_ is certainly the most common of the "locusts"
occasionally found in the British Isles, and E. de Selys-Longchamps is
of opinion that it breeds regularly in Belgium, whereas the true _P.
migratorius_ is only accidental in that country.

A South African species allied to the preceding and provisionally
identified as _Pachytylus salcicollis_ is noteworthy from the
manifestation of the migratory instinct in immature wingless
individuals. The families of young, after destroying the vegetation of
a district, unite in a vast army and move away in search of fresh
pastures, devastating the country as they go and proceeding of
necessity on foot, hence they are known to the Dutch as "voetgangers."
Travelling northwards towards the centre of the continent, the home of
their parents before migration, they are diverted from their course by
no obstacles. Upon reaching a river or stream they search the bank for
a likely spot to cross, then fearlessly cast themselves upon the water
where they form floating islands of insects, most of which usually
succeed in gaining the opposite bank, though many perish in the
attempt.

_Acridium peregrinum_ (fig. 2) can scarcely be considered even an
accidental visitor to Europe; yet it has been seen in the south of
Spain, and in many examples spread over a large part of England in the
year 1869. It is a larger insect than _P. migratorius_. There is every
reason to believe that it is the most destructive locust throughout
Africa and in India and other parts of tropical Asia, and its ravages
are as great as those of _P. migratorius_. Presumably it is the
species occasionally noticed in a vast swarm in the Atlantic, very far
from land, and presumably also it occurs in the West Indies and some
parts of Central America. In the Argentine Republic a (possibly)
distinct species (_A. paranense_) is the migratory locust.

_Caloptenus italicus_ (fig. 3) is a smaller insect, with a less
extended area of migration; the destruction occasioned in the
districts to which it is limited is often scarce less than that of its
more terrible allies. It is essentially a species of the Mediterranean
district, and especially of the European side of that sea, yet it is
also found in North Africa, and appears to extend far into southern
Russia.