Chapter XV: Part 15

During the preceding period of fifty-four years the marine force appeared and disappeared with war. It was a military body, applied to naval purposes. Its main functions were three-fold--(1) for fighting in ships; (2) for seizing and holding land positions necessary or advantageous to the naval operations of war; (3) for maintaining discipline of the ships, and by "expertness in handling arms to incite our seamen to the imitation of them." Incidentally the force came to be regarded as so good a feeder for the navy that Admiral Vernon (1739) urged "the necessity of converting most of our marching regiments into marines, and if, as they became seamen they were admitted to be discharged as such, that would make a good nursery for the breeding of them."

The organization of the force was purely military. Regiments were embarked in fleets, and distributed in the ships. The officers were interchangeable with those of the guards and line. John Churchill (afterwards duke of Marlborough) and George Rooke (afterwards Admiral Sir George Rooke) were together at one time ensigns of marines. During this period the marines were never regarded as a reserve for the fleet. The navy in peace did without them. The necessities of maritime war demanded a mobile military force adapted to naval conditions and at naval disposal, and so in all naval operations during these eighty-four years the marines played a conspicuous part. The navy had been slowly groping towards a system. For example, sea officers had been granted a uniform, and a naval academy (1729) had been established for the education of young gentlemen for the sea service. But in its main features the navy remained in 1748 as it was in 1664. The sailor was kidnapped and forced into ships, to become an outcast when no longer wanted. The marine when not in a ship was comfortably housed and looked after by his officers in barracks on shore.

In 1755 the marine force once more reappeared under the Admiralty, and from that date its history has been continuous. But the regimental system was abandoned, and an entirely new principle of organization was applied. Companies were raised, and these companies were grouped into great depots, called divisions, at Portsmouth, Plymouth and Chatham. At these divisions this force could be increased and reduced at pleasure, without disturbing the basis of organization, and from them could be supplied as many or as few sea-soldiers as fleets or ships needed, while preserving in the varying units so provided all the essentials of uniformity of system, drill, training, ties of comradeship and _esprit de corps_. This force then and for ninety-eight years afterwards was the only continuously trained, disciplined and organized fighting force placed by the country at the disposal of naval officers. On the establishment of this new marine force the purchase of commissions was abolished, but interchange with the army was for a time permitted. When embarked, marines were under the naval code of discipline; when on shore, under the marine Mutiny Act, identical with that of the army. When the seamen of the fleet mutinied at the Nore, at the close of the 18th century, and turned their officers out of the ships, the marines, undaunted, stood firm by theirs.

Mutiny lurked beneath the deck of many a ship before and long years after that event. The control of admirals and captains over their own men was precarious in the extreme. This was the natural result of the country's neglect of its seamen. The discipline of the fleet in those days rested on the firm bayonets of the marines. What England owes to them may be gathered from Lord St Vincent's recorded testimony: "There never was an appeal made to them for honour, courage or loyalty, that they did not more than realize my highest expectation. If ever real danger should come to England, the marines will be found the country's sheet-anchor." At his earnest solicitation the marines were made a royal corps in 1802. It is worthy of note that in those days of masts, yards, sails and pure seamanship, this greatest of naval statesmen, this matchless naval strategist, whose practical experience of maritime war was unrivalled, strenuously advocated as the true policy for England what in these days of steam and mastless ships would be scouted and ridiculed. It was to make service afloat as marines a part of the duty of every regiment of the line in rotation.

Down to 1804 the marines were an infantry force; the improvement in artillery towards the close of the century had necessitated the occasional putting into the fleet of detachments of Royal Artillery. This, as regards gunnery duties in the fleet, was repeating on a smaller scale the expedient adopted in the time of Charles II. So much friction arose between the naval and the artillery officers that a special corps of Royal Marine Artillery was raised in 1804, on the recommendation of Nelson. This special corps fulfilled the expectations of its founders. It was charged with the care, equipment and working of the larger ordnance afloat and field-guns ashore, and was employed also as a body of gunnery instructors to the fleet. In 1831, a certain number of naval officers being thought to be sufficiently trained in gunnery, this corps, of which Napier wrote, "Never in my life have I seen soldiers like the Royal Marine Artillery," was, without warning, abolished. Then the marine force ceased to be composed of two corps, artillery and infantry, and it reverted to a single one of infantry. Very soon afterwards, however, the Admiralty began to build up what they had so suddenly and ruthlessly destroyed, by ordering the conversion of one company of each infantry marine division into artillery. The number of these artillery companies gradually increased, and were grouped in a separate depot. Just as the wars from Charles II. to George III. had demanded marines, so the Crimean War led to their increase. Thus in 1859 the artillery companies of marines were formed into a separate division, and in 1862 the old name of Royal Marine Artillery was restored.

The marines thus became once more and still remain two corps, the official designation of the whole being Royal Marine Forces. In 1855 the marine infantry corps became light infantry, and in 1869 the Woolwich division (added in 1805) was abolished; and more recently a marine depot, as a feeder of the other divisions, was established at Walmer. The headquarters of the R.M.A. are at Eastney, Southsea. The divisions R.M.L.I. are at Gosport, Chatham and Devonport. The uniform of the R.M.A. is blue with red facings, that of R.M.L.I. red with blue facings. The badge of both corps is the globe surrounded with the laurel wreath, with the motto "Per mare per terram." The Royal Marine Forces share with the 3rd Battalion Grenadier Guards, the East Kent Regiment (formerly the Buffs), and the Royal London Militia the privilege of marching through the city of London with colours flying, bands playing and bayonets fixed. This is due to a common original association with the London train bands.

_War Services._--To describe these would be to review the wars waged
by England by sea and by land for over 200 years. In every sea fight,
great or small, marines have taken part, and on every continent they
have served in big and little wars, sometimes as part of the army,
sometimes with naval contingents, sometimes alone.

Throughout the Napoleonic war the marines took part in every sort of
operation afloat and ashore. During the Crimean War, mortar-boat
flotillas in the Baltic and Black Sea were commanded and manned by
R.M.A., while comrades in the same corps served with the Royal
Artillery in the trenches before Sebastopol--a marine infantry brigade
occupying the heights of Balaclava. During the Indian Mutiny, marines
(artillery and infantry) served with the Naval Brigade under Peel. In
the China wars batteries and brigades of the marine force played a
prominent part, and likewise were represented in all the Egyptian and
Sudan campaigns, 1881 to 1898. In one action the R.M.A. gunners came
to the relief of the Royal Horse Artillery when exhausted, and fought
their guns; in another the R.M.A., out of the débris of the enemy's
Krupp guns captured, built up one complete gun and fought it with
effect; in the final campaign gunboats were brought up in pieces, put
together and fought by a detachment of the R.M.A.

In 1899 in the Boer War the marine artillery and infantry took part
with the Naval Brigade, maintaining their historic reputation, and at
the battle of Enslin their losses were exceptionally severe.

_Characteristics of Marine System._--The recruit first goes to the
depot at Walmer, and is trained as a soldier before joining his
division to complete instruction as a marine. His division is his
permanent military home, from which he goes on service and to which he
returns at its conclusion. Restrictions on marriage, necessary under
the army system, are not necessary in the marine forces. The permanent
home of the wife and family is not broken up by the marine going
abroad; the wife thus can continue any local goodwill in any business
her industry may secure. This fixed home enables a marine to learn a
trade in the workshops of his division which supply the clothing, &c.,
to the corps. Marines are enlisted for 12 years, and if of good
character they can re-engage to complete 21 years, entitling to
pension. The periods of service abroad for marines are shorter
(generally 3 years), but more constantly recurrent than for the army.
The administrative, as distinct from the instructional, staff
necessary for a marine division is more simple and less expensive than
that of a numerical army equivalent expressed in regiments. The system
of pay and accounts is also less complex. The following table shows
the relative proportions of marine forces to the whole navy at
different periods up to the South African War of 1899:--

+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+
| | Navy | Marines. | | Maritime. | Percent. | |
| Year.| proper. | Officers | Grand | Peace or | Marines | Nature of Ships. |
| | Officers | and Men. | Total. | War. | to Total | |
| | and Men. | | | | Forces. | |
+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+
| 1805 | 90,000 | 30,000 | 120,000 | War | 25 | Sailing. |
| | | | |(Trafalgar) | | |
| 1838 | 23,165 | 9,000 | 32,165 | \ | 28 | Sailing. |
| 1858 | 40,219 | 14,919 | 55,138 | > Peace | 27 | Sailing with auxiliary steam.|
| 1878 | 42,046 | 13,727 | 55,773 | | | 24 | Steam with auxiliary sail. |
| 1898 | 78,441[1]| 17,099 | 95,540 | / | 17 | Steam and mastless ships. |
+------+----------+----------+---------+------------+----------+------------------------------+

The above table indicates a gradual change in naval policy and
practice as regards marines. It will be observed that, concurrently
with the gradual disappearance of masts, sails and yards, the
proportion of marines has steadily declined. Down to very recent times
the marine spent more time ashore than afloat. Now the reverse is the
case.

By the introduction of the Continuous Service Act 1853, the
blue-jacket was placed on exactly the same footing as the marine in
respect of conditions of service and pension, and now the blue-jacket
when not afloat is quartered in barracks. The main difference between
the blue-jacket and marine is the dress and the pay. The blue-jacket
is better paid than the marine. As regards opportunity of discipline,
there is now no difference; and in short, all the reasons for the
existence of a marine force have disappeared except as regards duties
on shore incidental to naval operations of war, e.g. the holding of
ports and the seizing of minor positions necessary to prosecution of
maritime war. The facts that modern ships cannot now as formerly carry
a supernumerary force sufficient for such purposes, and are more
dependent on fixed bases of supply and repair than in old days, point
to a different method of using and applying the marine force to the
sole purpose for which they are now necessary as a distinct branch of
the naval service. If employed at the headquarters of a naval station,
their efficiency as marines could be preserved by occasional
embarcation of the officers and men in rotation. The substitution of
marine for army garrisons at coaling stations would also relieve the
army of a class of duties incidental to naval warfare which the marine
force formerly performed, and which prejudicially affects the
organization and arrangement of the army as a mobile field force.

_Marine Corps, United States._--This dates from the establishment of the American navy. It is a wholly separate military body, though under the control of the Navy Department. It was formed in 1775, and it has a history of brilliant services rendered by land and sea in all the wars of America since that date. The headquarters of the corps are at Washington, and the strength of the corps was fixed by Act of Congress (March 3, 1899) at 211 officers and 5920 non-commissioned officers and men. Its organization and system are based on the British model, and the dress corresponds to that of the United States army. The corps is commanded by a brigadier-general who bears to the secretary a relation similar to that of a chief of bureau. Although the organization closely follows the army system, regimental or even permanent battalion organizations are impracticable, owing to their numerous and widely-separated stations. Practically all shore stations have barracks where marines are enlisted and drilled. At these places they also do sentry, police and orderly duties. From such stations they are sent to ships for sea duty. Nearly all ships carry a body of marines known as the guard, varying in size from a few men commanded by a sergeant, on small ships, to eighty or more, with one or more commissioned officers, on large vessels. It is customary to cause all marines to serve at sea three of the four years of each enlistment. On board ship they perform sentry and orderly duty, and assist in police duties. They are also instructed in many exercises pertaining to the navy, as rowing, naval signalling, gun drill, &c. In action they act as riflemen, and on many ships serve a portion of the guns. When circumstances require a force to be landed from ships present to guard American interests in foreign countries, legations, &c., the marine guard is usually sent, though, if numerically insufficient, sailors are landed also. Marines also garrison places beyond the territorial limits of the United States which are under navy control. Candidates for first enlistment must be between the ages of 21 and 35 and unmarried, must be citizens of the United States, be able to read, write and speak English, and pass a physical examination. Second lieutenants are appointed from civil life after examination or from the graduates of the Naval Academy. Promotion is by seniority as in the navy.

Admiral Farragut's opinion that "the marine guard is one of the great
essentials of a man-of-war" is corroborated by that of Admiral Wilkes,
who considered that "marines constituted the great difference between
a man-of-war and a privateer." In the famous battles between the
"Bonhomme Richard" and "Serapis" in 1777, and in that between the
"Chesapeake" and "Shannon," the American marines displayed brilliant
gallantry; and while on the one hand they at Derne in 1803 first
planted the American flag on a fortress of the Old World, for which
exploit "Tripoli" is inscribed on their colours, they on the other
shared in the hard fighting of the Mexican War as well as all the
important coast actions of the Civil War of 1861-65. A proposal to
incorporate them with the army after the struggle met with universal
condemnation from the authorities best qualified to judge of their
value. A brigade of three battalions served in the Philippines in
1899. Their device is a globe resting on an anchor and surmounted by
an eagle. "Ever faithful" is the title which Captain Luce, the
historian of the force, appropriately applies to them.
(J. C. R. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Including 22,289 of the engineer branch providing the locomotion
of modern ships--just as seamen from 1805-1858 provided it for ships
of the past.

MARINETTE, a city and the county-seat of Marinette county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 162 m. N. of Milwaukee, on the W. shore of Green Bay, at the mouth of the Menominee River. Pop. (1890), 11,523; (1900), 16,195, of whom 5542 were foreign-born; (1905), 15,354; (1910), 14,610. It is served directly by the Wisconsin & Michigan, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Chicago & North-Western railways, and by several steamboat lines connecting with lake ports; and is connected by ferry with Frankfort, Michigan (served by the Ann Arbor railroad). The city has a fine harbour and a considerable commerce in iron and lumber products. Five bridges connect Marinette with Menominee, Michigan, on the other side of the river. Marinette has a Federal building; the Stephenson public library, founded by Senator Isaac Stephenson (b. 1829), a local "lumber king"; a county agricultural school and training school for rural teachers, and three public parks. The Northern Chautauqua Assembly holds its annual summer session in Chautauqua Park, on the shore of Green Bay. The growth of Marinette began with the development of the neighbouring pine forests; and the manufacture of lumber and lumber products has always been its principal industry. The water-power of the Menominee River is largely utilized for the manufacture of paper and flour. Other manufactures are boxes, furniture and woodware, boats, boilers and agricultural machinery. In 1905 the factory products were valued at $3,633,399. The first white settlement was made here on the site of a Menominee Indian village in 1830, and the city was named in honour of the daughter of an Indian chief, Marinette (Jacobs), whose name was a composite of Marie and Antoinette. A city charter was granted in 1887.

MARINI (or MARINO), GIAMBATTISTA (1560-1625), Italian poet, was born at Naples on the 18th of October 1569. After a somewhat disreputable youth, during which he became known for his _Canzone de' baci_, he secured the powerful patronage of Cardinal Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied from Rome to Ravenna and Turin. An edition of his poems, _La Lira_, was published at Venice in 1602-1614. His ungoverned pen and disordered life compelled him to leave Turin and take refuge from 1615 to 1622 in Paris, where he was favourably recognized by Marie de' Medici. There his long poem _Adone_ was published in 1623. He died at Naples on the 25th of March 1625. The licence, extravagance and conceits of Marini, the chief of the school of "Secentisti" (see ITALY: _Literature_), were characteristic of a period of literary decadence.

See M. Menghini, _G. B. Marini_ (Rome, 1888).

MARINO, a town of Italy, in the province of Rome, 15 m. S.E. of it by rail, and also accessible by electric tramway. Pop. (1901), 7307. It is picturesquely situated on a spur of the Alban Hills, 1165 ft. above sea level, and occupies the site of the ancient Castrimoenium, a _municipium_ of no great importance, though the surrounding district, which now produces much wine, is full of remains of ancient villas. The origin of the name is uncertain; perhaps it is derived from the medieval _Morena_ (itself derived from the Latin _Murena_, from one of the Roman owners of the district), a name originally given to the lower ground between the 9th and 11th mile of the Via Latina. In the early 13th century it belonged to the Frangipani family, but passed into the hands of the Orsini in 1266. In 1378 a battle took place here between the partisans of Urban VI. and those of the anti-pope Clement VII. of Geneva (the Orsini having taken the side of the latter), who were, however, defeated; and in 1399 Marino was apparently under the Papacy. In 1408 it passed to the Colonna family, to whom it still belongs. There are some remains of the medieval fortifications.

See G. Tomassetti, _La Via latina nel medio evo_ (Rome, 1886), p. 96
seq.; T. Ashby, in _Papers of the British School at Rome_, vol. iv.
(1907). (T. As.)

MARINUS, the name of two popes. MARINUS I., sometimes called Martin II., pope from 882 to 884, was the son of a Tuscan priest, and entered the church at an early age, becoming a deacon about 862. Three successive popes sent him as legate to Constantinople, his mission in each case having reference to the controversy excited by Photius (q.v.); and having become an archdeacon and a bishop, he also negotiated on behalf of pope John VIII. with the emperor Charles the Fat. About the end of December 882 he succeeded John VIII. as pope, but his election did not pass unchallenged either in eastern or in western Europe. However, having secured his position, Marinus restored Formosus, cardinal-bishop of Porto, and anathematized Photius. This pope was on friendly terms with the English king, Alfred the Great. He died in May 884, and was succeeded by Adrian III.

MARINUS II., sometimes called Martin III., pope from 942 to 946, was merely the puppet of Alberic (d. 954), prince and senator of the Romans. He died in May 946, and was succeeded by Agapetus II.

MARINUS, neo-Platonist philosopher, was born in Palestine and was early converted to the old Greek religion. He came to Athens at a time when, with the exception of Proclus, there was a great dearth of eminent men in the neo-Platonic school. It was for this reason rather than for any striking ability of his own that he succeeded to the headship of the school on the death of Proclus. During this period the professors of the old Greek religion suffered severe persecution at the hands of the Christians and Marinus was compelled to seek refuge at Epidaurus. His chief work was a biography of Proclus, which is extant. It was first published with the works of Marcus Antoninus in 1559; it was republished separately by Fabricius at Hamburg in 1700, and re-edited in 1814 by Boissonade with emendations and notes. Other philosophical works are attributed to him, including commentaries on Aristotle and on the _Philebus_. It is said that he destroyed the latter because Isidore, his successor, expressed disapproval of it.

MARINUS OF TYRE, geographer and mathematician, the founder of mathematical geography, flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He lived before Ptolemy, who acknowledges his great obligations to him. His chief merits were that he assigned to each place its proper latitude and longitude, and introduced improvements in the construction of his maps. He also carefully studied the works of his predecessors and the diaries of travellers. His geographical treatise is lost.

See A. Forbiger, _Handbuch der alten Geographie_, vol. i. (1842); E.
H. Bunbury, _Hist. of Ancient Geography_ (1879), ii. p. 519; and
especially E. H. Berger, _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde
der Griechen_ (1903).

MARIO, GIUSEPPE, COUNT OF CANDIA (1810-1883), Italian singer, the most famous tenor of the 19th century, son of General di Candia, was born at Cagliari in 1810. His career as a singer was the result of accidental circumstances. While serving as an officer in the Sardinian army he was imprisoned at Cagliari for some trifling offence. When his period of confinement was over, he resigned his commission. His resignation was refused, and he fled to Paris. There his success as an amateur vocalist produced an offer of an engagement at the Opera. He studied singing for two years under M. Ponchard and Signor Bordogni, and made his début in 1838 as the hero of Meyerheer's _Robert le Diable_. His success was immediate and complete, but he did not stay long at the Opera. In 1839 he joined the company of the Théâtre Italien, which then included Malibran, Sontag, Persiani and Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache. His first appearance here was made in the character of Nemorino in Donizetti's _Elisir d'Amore_. He sang in London for the first time in the same year. His success in Italian opera far surpassed that which he had won in French, and in a short time he acquired a European reputation. He had a handsome face and a graceful figure, and his voice, though less powerful than that of Rubini or that of Tamberlik, had a velvety softness and richness which have never been equalled. Experience gave him ease as an actor, but he never excelled in tragic parts. He was an ideal stage lover, and he retained the grace and charm of youth long after his voice had begun to show signs of decay. He created very few new parts, that of Ernesto in _Don Pasquale_ (1843) being perhaps the only one deserving of mention. Among the most successful of his other parts were Otello in Rossini's opera of that name, Gennaro in _Lucrezia Borgia_, Alamviva in _Il Barbiere di Siviglia_, Fernando in _La Favorita_, and Manrico in _Il Trovatore_. Mario made occasional appearances in oratorio singing at the Birmingham Festival of 1849 and at the Hereford Festival of 1855, and undertook various concert tours in the United Kingdom, but his name is principally associated with triumphs in the theatre. In 1856 he married Giulia Grisi, the famous soprano, by whom he had five daughters. Mario bade farewell to the stage in 1871. He died at Rome in reduced circumstances on the 11th of December 1883.

MARION, FRANCIS (1732-1795), American soldier, was born in 1732, probably at Winyah, near Georgetown, South Carolina, of Huguenot ancestry. In 1759 he settled on Pond Bluff plantation near Eutaw Springs, in St John's parish, Berkeley county. In 1761 he served as a lieutenant under William Moultrie in a campaign against the Cherokees. In 1775 he was a member of the South Carolina Provincial Congress; and on the 21st of June was commissioned captain in the 2nd South Carolina regiment under W. Moultrie, with whom he served in June 1776 in the defence of Fort Sullivan (Fort Moultrie), in Charleston Harbor. In September 1776 the Continental Congress commissioned him a lieutenant-colonel. In the autumn of 1779 he took part in the siege of Savannah, and early in 1780, under General Benjamin Lincoln, was engaged in drilling militia. After the capture of Charleston (May 12,1780) and the defeats of General Isaac Huger at Monk's Corner (Berkeley county, South Carolina) and Lieut.-Colonel Abraham Buford at the Waxhaws (near the North Carolina line, in what is now Lancaster county), Marion organized a small troop--which usually consisted of between 20 and 70 men--the only force then opposing the British in the state. Governor John Rutledge made him a brigadier-general of state troops, and in August 1780 Marion took command of the scanty militia, ill equipped and ill fed. With this force he was identified for almost all the remainder of the war in a partisan warfare in which he showed himself a singularly able leader of irregular troops. On the 20th of August he captured 150 Maryland prisoners, and about a score of their British guard; and in September and October repeatedly surprised larger bodies of Loyalists or British regulars. Colonel Banastre Tarleton, sent out to capture him, despaired of finding the "old swamp fox," who eluded him by following swamp paths. When General Nathanael Greene took command in the south, Marion and Colonel Henry Lee were ordered in January 1781 to attack Georgetown, but they were unsuccessful. In April, however, they took Fort Watson and in May Fort Motte, and they succeeded in breaking communications between the British posts in the Carolinas. On the 31st of August Marion rescued a small American force hemmed in by Major C. Fraser with 500 British; and for this he received the thanks of Congress. He commanded the right wing under General Greene at Eutaw Springs. In 1782, during his absence as state senator at Jacksonborough, his brigade deteriorated and there was a conspiracy to turn him over to the British. In June of the same year he put down a Loyalist uprising on the banks of the Pedee river; and in August he left his brigade and returned to his plantation. He served several terms in the state Senate, and in 1784, in recognition of his services, was made commander of Fort Johnson, practically a courtesy title with a salary of £500 per annum. He died on his estate on the 27th of February 1795. Marion was small, slight and sickly-looking. As a soldier he was quick, watchful, resourceful and calm, the greatest of partisan leaders in the bitter struggle in the Carolinas.

See the _Life_ (New York, 1844) by W. G. Simms; Edward McCrady, _South
Carolina in the Revolution_ (New York, 1901-1902); and a careful study
of Marion's ancestry and early life by "R. Y." in vols. i. and ii. of
the _Southern and Western Monthly Magazine and Review_ (Charleston,
1845).

MARION, HENRI FRANÇOIS (1846-1896), French philosopher and educationalist, was born at Saint-Parize-en-Viry (Nièvre) on the 9th of September 1846. He studied at Nevers, and at the École Normale, where he graduated in 1868. After occupying several minor positions, he returned to Paris in 1875 as professor of the Lycée Henri IV., and in 1880 he became _docteur-ès-lettres_. In the same year he was elected a member of the Council of Public Instruction, and devoted himself to improving the scheme of French education, especially in girls' schools. He was largely instrumental in the foundation of _écoles normales_ in provincial towns, and himself gave courses of lectures on psychology and practical ethics in their early days. He died in Paris on the 5th of April 1896.

His chief philosophical works were an edition of the _Théodicée_ of
Leibnitz (1874), a monograph on Locke (1878), _Devoirs et droits de
l'homme_ (1880), _Glissonius utrum Leibnitio de natura substantiae
cogitanti quidquam tribuerit_ (1880); _De La solidarité morale_ (4th
ed., 1893). His lectures at Fontenoy have been published in two
volumes entitled _Leçons de psychologie appliquée à l'éducation_, and
_Leçons de morale_; those delivered at the Sorbonne are collected in
_L'Éducation dans l'université_ (1892).

MARION, a city and the county-seat of Grant county, Indiana, U.S.A., about 60 m. N.E. of Indianapolis, on the Mississinewa River. Pop. (1910), 19,359. It is served by the Chicago, Cincinnati & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo, St Louis & Western railways, and by interurban electric lines connecting with Indianapolis, Muncie, Fort Wayne, Kokomo and many other towns and cities. The city is the seat of the Marion Normal College and Business University, and has a Carnegie library. Marion lies in a good farming country and in the centre of the state's natural gas region. Among the manufactures are glass, stoves, iron bedsteads, foundry and machine-shop products, steel, planing-mill products, paper and pulp, and leather. The total value of the factory products in 1905 was $4,290,166, the value of the glass product alone being $1,042,057, or 24.3% of the total. Marion was settled in 1832, and was named in honour of General Francis Marion.

MARION, a city and the county-seat of Marion county, Ohio, U.S.A., 44 m. N. by W. of Columbus. Pop. (1900), 11,862, including 782 foreign-born and 112 negroes; (1900), 18,232. Marion is served by the Pennsylvania, the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, and the Hocking Valley railways, and by interurban electric railway to Columbus. It is the trade centre of a rich farming district. Limestone is abundant, and the city has various manufactures, including lime, foundry and machine-shop products, agricultural implements, planing-mill products, engines, steam shovels, dredges, pianos and silks. In 1905 the value of factory products was $3,227,712, being 33.1% greater than in 1900. Marion was laid out in 1821, and was chartered as a city in 1890.

MARIONETTES (probably from Ital. _morio_, a fool or buffoon, but also said to be derived from the _mariolettes_, or little figures of the Virgin Mary), FANTOCCINI (from _fantino_, a child) or PUPPETS (Fr. _poupée_ Lat. _pupa_, a baby or doll), the names given to figures, generally below life-size, suspended by threads or wires and imitating with their limbs and heads the movements of living persons.

The high antiquity of puppets appears from the fact that figures with movable limbs have been discovered in the tombs of Egypt and among the remains of Etruria; they were also common among the Greeks, from whom they were imported to Rome. Plays in which the characters are represented by puppets or by the shadows of moving figures, worked by concealed performers who deliver the dialogue, are not only popular in India and China, but during several centuries past maintained an important position among the amusements of the people in most European countries. Goethe and Lessing deemed them worthy of attention; and in 1721 Le Sage wrote plays for puppets to perform.

The earliest performances in English were drawn or founded upon Bible narratives and the lives of the saints, in the same vein as the "morality" plays which they succeeded. Popular subjects in the 16th century were _The Prodigal Son_ and _Nineveh, with Jonah and the Whale_. And in a pamphlet of 1641, describing Bartholomew Fair, we read, "Here a knave in a fool's coat, with a trumpet sounding or a drum beating, invites you to see his puppets. Here a rogue like a wild woodman, or in an antic shape like an incubus, desires your company to view his motion." In 1667 Pepys recorded how at Bartholomew Fair he found "my Lady Castlemaine at a puppet play, Patient Grizill." Besides _The Sorrows of Griselda_, other puppet plays of the period were _Dick Whittington_, _The Vagaries of Merry Andrew_, and _The Humours of Bartholomew Fair_. Powell's noted marionette show was the subject of an article in _The Tatler_, 1709, and again in _The Spectator_, 1711. The latter refers also to Pinkethman, a "motion-maker," in whose scenes the divinities of Olympus ascended and descended to the strains of music. An idea of the class of representation may be gathered from an advertisement of Crawley, a rival of Pinkethman, which sets forth--"The Old Creation of the World, with the addition of Noah's Flood," also several fountains playing water during the time of the play. The best scene represented "Noah and his family coming out of the ark, with all the animals two by two, and all the fowls of the air seen in a prospect sitting upon trees; likewise over the ark is the sun rising in a gorgeous manner; moreover a multitude of angels in a double rank," the angels ringing bells. "Likewise machines descending from above, double, with Dives rising out of hell and Lazarus seen in Abraham's bosom; besides several figures dancing jiggs, sarabands, and country dances, with the merry conceits of Squire Punch and Sir John Spendall." Yates showed a moving picture of a city, with an artificial cascade, and a temple--with mechanical birds in which attention was called to the exact imitation of living birds, the quick motion of the bills, just swelling of the throat, and fluttering of the wings. The puppets were wax figures 5 ft. in stature. Toward the end of the 18th century, Flockton's show presented five hundred figures at work at various trades. Brown's Theatre of Arts showed at country fairs, from 1830 to 1840, the battle of Trafalgar, Napoleon's army crossing the Alps, and the marble palace of St Petersburg; and at a still later date Clapton's similar exhibition presented Grace Darling rescuing the crew of the "Forfarshire" steamer wrecked on the Fern Islands, with many ingenious moving figures of quadrupeds, and, in particular, a swan which dipped its head into imitation water, opened its wings, and with flexible neck preened and trimmed its plumage. In these mechanical scenes the figures, painted upon a flat surface and cut out, commonly of pasteboard, are slid along grooves arranged transversely in front of the set scenery, the actions of legs and arms being worked by wires from the hands of persons below the stage, though sometimes use is made of clockwork. In recent days the literature for the marionette stage has had an important literary recruit in the person of the Belgian author Maurice Maeterlinck.

Marionettes proper, and the dolls exhibited in puppet shows (not
including Punch and his companion actors), are constructed of wood or
of pasteboard, with faces of composition, sometimes of wax; and each
figure is suspended by a number of threads to a short bar of wood
which is commonly held in one hand of the hidden performer while the
finger of his other hand poses the figure or gives action to it by
means of the threads. In the mode of constructing the joints, and the
greater elaboration with which the several parts of the limbs are
supported and moved, and especially in the fine degrees of movement
given to the heads, marionettes have been so improved as to present
very exact imitations of the gestures of actors and actresses, and the
postures and evolutions of acrobats; and, in addition, ingenious
exhibitors such as Theodon, who introduced many novelties in the
'sixties of the 19th century, have employed mechanical arrangements
for accomplishing the tricks of pantomime harlequinade. Among the
puppet personages presented in the small street shows are generally
included a sailor who dances a hornpipe, a hoop-dancer, a dancer of
the Highland fling, a wooden-legged pensioner, a vaulter on a pole
also balancing two chairs, a clown playing with a butterfly, a dancing
figure without head until the head rises out of the body, gradually
displaying an enormously long neck, and a skeleton, seen at first in
scattered parts lying about the stage, but piece successively flying
to piece, the body first sitting up, then standing, and finally capped
by the skull, when the completed figure begins to dance.

_Ombres Chinoises_ are performances by means of the shadows of figures
projected upon a stretched sheet of thin calico or a gauze scene
painted as a transparency. The cardboard flat figures are held behind
this screen, illuminated from behind--the performer supporting each
figure by a long wire held in one hand while wires from all the
movable parts terminate in rings in which are inserted the fingers of
his other hand.

See also C. Magnin, _Histoire des marionettes_ (1852; 2nd ed., 1862);
L. de Neuville, _Histoire des marionettes_ (1892).

MARIOTTE, EDME (c. 1620-1684), French physicist, spent most of his life at Dijon, where he was prior of St Martin sous Beaune. He was one of the first members of the Academy of Sciences founded at Paris in 1666. He died at Paris on the 12th of May 1684. The first volume of the _Histoire et mémoires de l'Académie_ (1733) contains many original papers by him upon a great variety of physical subjects, such as the motion of fluids, the nature of colour, the notes of the trumpet, the barometer, the fall of bodies, the recoil of guns, the freezing of water, &c.

His _Essais de physique_, four in number, of which the first three
were published at Paris between 1676 and 1679, are his most important
works, and form, together with a _Traité de la percussion des corps_,
the first volume of the _Oeuvres de Mariotte_ (2 vols., Leiden, 1717).
The second of these essays (_De La nature de l'air_) contains the
statement of the law that the volume of a gas varies inversely as the
pressure, which, though very generally called by the name of Mariotte,
had been discovered in 1660 by Robert Boyle. The fourth essay is a
systematic treatment of the nature of colour, with a description of
many curious experiments and a discussion of the rainbow, halos,
parhelia, diffraction, and the more purely physiological phenomena of
colour. The discovery of the blind spot is noted in a short paper in
the second volume of his collected works.

MARIPOSAN, or YOKUTS, a linguistic stock of North American Indians, including some 40 small tribes. Its former territory was in southern California, around Tulare lake. The Mariposans were fishers and hunters. Their villages consisted of a single row of wedge-shaped huts, with an awning of brush along the front. In 1850 they numbered some 3000; in 1905 there were 154 on the Tule river reservation.

MARIS, JACOB (1837-1899), Dutch painter, first studied at the Antwerp Academy, and subsequently in Hébert's studio during a stay in Paris from 1865 till 1871. He returned to Holland when the Franco-Prussian War broke out, and died there in August 1899. Though he painted, especially in early life, domestic scenes and interiors invested with deeply sympathetic feeling, it is as a landscape painter that Maris will be famous. He was the painter of bridges and windmills, of old quays, massive towers, and level banks; even more was he the painter of water, and misty skies, and chasing clouds. In all his works, whether in water or oil colour, and in his etchings, the subject is always subordinate to the effect. His art is suggestive rather than decorative, and his force does not seem to depend on any preconceived method, such as a synthetical treatment of form or gradations of tone. And yet, though his means appear so simple, the artist's mind seems to communicate with the spectator's by directness of pictorial instinct, and we have only to observe the admirable balance of composition and truthful perspective to understand the sure knowledge of his business that underlies such purely impressionist handling. Maris has shown all that is gravest or brightest in the landscape of Holland, all that is heaviest or clearest in its atmosphere--for instance, in the "Grey Tower, Old Amsterdam," in the "Landscape near Dordrecht," in the "Sea-weed Carts, Scheveningen," in "A Village Scene," and in the numerous other pictures which have been exhibited in the Royal Academy, London, in Edinburgh (1885), Paris, Brussels and Holland, and in various private collections. "No painter," says M. Philippe Zilcken, "has so well expressed the ethereal effects, bathed in air and light through floating silvery mist, in which painters delight, and the characteristic remote horizons blurred by haze; or again, the grey yet luminous weather of Holland, unlike the dead grey rain of England or the heavy sky of Paris."

See Max Rooses, _Dutch Painters of the Nineteenth Century_ (London,
1899); R. A. M. Stevenson, "Jacob Maris," _Magazine of Art_ (1900);
Ph. Zilcken, _Peintres Hollandais modernes_ (Amsterdam, 1893); Jan
Veth, "Een Studie over Jacob Maris," _Onze Kunst_ (Antwerp, 1902).

MARITIME PROVINCE (Russ., _Primorskaya Oblast_), a province of Russia, in East Siberia. It consists of a strip of territory along the coast of the Pacific from Korea to the Arctic Ocean, including also the peninsula of Kamchatka, part of the island of Sakhalin, and several small islands along the coast. Its western boundary stretches northwards from a point S.W. of Peter the Great Bay (42° 40´ N.) by Lake Hanka or Khanka and along the Usuri, then goes due north from the mouth of the Usuri as far as 52° N., runs along the Stanovoi watershed, crosses the spurs of this plateau through barren _tundras_, and finally reaches the Arctic Ocean at Chaun Bay (70° N.). Area, 715,735 sq. m.

The northern part lies between the Arctic Ocean and the Seas of Bering
and Okhotsk, and has the character of a barren plateau 1000 to 2000
ft. high, deeply indented by the rivers of the Anadyr basin and by
long fiords, such as Kolyuchin Bay (the wintering-place of
Nordenskjöld s "Vega"), the Gulf of Anadyr, and the Bays of Penzhina
and Ghizhiga. To the north this plateau is bordered by a chain of
mountains, several summits of which reach 8000 ft. (Makachinga peak),
while the promontories by which the Asiatic continent terminates
towards Bering Strait run up to 1000 to 2000 ft. Only lichens and
mosses, with a few dwarf species of Siberian trees, grow in this
district. The fauna, however, is far richer than might be expected. A
few American birds and mammals cross the strait when it is frozen.
This country, and the seas which surround it, have for the last two
centuries supplied Siberian trade with its best furs. The blue fox and
black sable have been nearly exterminated, and the whale has become
very rare. The sea-otter is rapidly becoming extinct, as well as the
sea-lion (_Otaria stelleri_); while the sea-cow (_Rhytina stelleri_)
was completely extirpated in the course of forty years. The sea-bear
(_Otaria ursina_), which at one time seemed likely to meet with the
same fate, is now nearly domesticated, and multiplies rapidly. The
middle part of the province is a narrow strip (40 to 60 m. wide) along
the Sea of Okhotsk, including the basin of the Uda in the south. This
area is occupied by rugged mountains, 4000 to 7000 ft. high, forming
the eastern border of the high plateau of East Siberia. Thick forests
of larch clothe the mountains half way up, as well as the deep
valleys. The undulating hills of the basin of the Uda, which is a
continuation to the south-west, between the Stanovoi and Bureya
mountains, of the deep indentation of the Sea of Okhotsk, are covered
with forests and marshes.

The southern part of the province includes two distinct regions. From
the north-eastern extremity of the Bureya, or Little Khingan range, of
which the group of the Shantar Islands is a continuation, a wide, deep
depression runs south-west to the confluence of the Amur and the
Usuri, and thence to the lowlands of the lower Sungari. This is for
the most part less than 500 ft. above sea-level. The region on the
right banks of the Amur and the Usuri, between these rivers and the
coast, is occupied by several systems of mountains, usually
represented as a single range, the Sikhota-alin. The summits reach
5150 ft. (Golaya Gora), and the average elevation of the few passes is
about 2500 ft. There is, however, one depression occupied by Lake
Kidzi, which may have been at one time an outflow of the Amur to the
sea. The Sikhota-alin mountains are covered with impenetrable forests.
The flora and fauna of this region (especially in the Usuri district)
exhibit a striking combination of species of warm climates with those
of subarctic regions; the wild vine clings to the larch and the
cedar-pine, and the tiger meets the bear and the sable. The quantity
of fish in the rivers is immense, and in August the Amur and the Usuri
swarm with salmon.

The best part of the Maritime Province is at its southern extremity in
the valley of the Suifeng river, which enters the Pacific in the Gulf
of Peter the Great, and on the shores of the bays of the southern
coast. But even there the climate is very harsh. The warm sea-current
of the Kuro-Siwo does not reach the coasts of Siberia, while a cold
current originating in the Sea of Okhotsk brings its icy water and
chilling fogs to the coasts of Sakhalin, and flows along the Pacific
shore to the eastern coast of Korea. The high mountains of the
sea-coast and the monsoons of the Chinese Sea produce in the southern
parts of the Maritime Province cold winters and wet summers.
Accordingly, at Vladivostok (on the Gulf of Peter the Great), although
it has the same latitude as Marseilles, the average yearly temperature
is only 39.5° F., and the harbour is frozen for nearly three months in
the year; the Amur and the Usuri are frozen in November. Towards the
end of summer the moist monsoons bring heavy rains, which destroy the
harvests and give rise to serious inundations of the Amur. The
sea-coast farther north has a continental and arctic climate. At
Nikolayevsk, temperatures as low as -41.5° F. are observed in winter,
and as high as 94.6° in summer, the average yearly temperature being
below zero (-0.9°). At Ayan (56° 27´ N.) the average temperature of
the year is 25.5° (-0.4° in winter and 50.5° in summer), and at
Okhotsk (59° 21´ N.) it is 23° (-6° in winter and 52.5° in summer).

Russian settlements occur throughout the whole of the province, but,
with the exception of those on the banks of the Amur and the Usuri,
and the southern ports of the sea-coast, they are mere centres of
administration.

Okhotsk is one of the oldest towns of East Siberia, having been
founded in 1649. Nikolayevsk, on the left bank of the Amur, was
formerly the capital of the Maritime Province; but the difficulties of
navigation and of communication with the interior, and the complete
failure of the governmental colonization of the Amur, caused the seat
of government to be transferred to Khabarovsk. Since the loss (1905)
of Port Arthur to the Japanese, Vladivostok on Peter the Great Bay has
again become the chief naval station of Russia on the Pacific. The
trade is in the hands of the Chinese, who export stags' horns, seaweed
and mushrooms, and of the Germans, who import groceries and spirits.

The total population was 209,516 in 1897, of whom 57.7% were Russians,
the others being Tunguses, Golds, Orochons, Lamuts, Chuvantses,
Chukchis, Koryaks, Ghilyaks and Kamchadales. Their chief occupations
are hunting and fishing; the Russians carry on agriculture and trade
in furs. Active measures were taken in 1883-1897 for increasing the
Russian population in the South Usuri district, the result being that
over 29,000 immigrants, chiefly Little Russian peasants, settled
there; while Cossacks from the Don and Orenburg came to settle among
the Usuri Cossacks. Agriculture is gradually developing in the South
Usuri region. Gold-mining has been started on the Amguñ, a tributary
of the Amur. Coal is found near Vladivostok, as well as in Kamchatka.
Roads exist only in the South Usuri district. A railway runs from
Vladivostok to Nikolsk (69 m.), and thence to Khabarovsk along the
right bank of the Usuri (412 m.). At Nikolsk the Manchurian railway
begins. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)

MARITIME TERRITORY, a term used in international law to denote coastal waters which are not Territorial Waters though in immediate contact with the sea. In the case of Territorial Waters (q.v.) the dominion of the adjacent state is subject to a limitation. Dominion over maritime territory is not subject to any limitation. Thus any strait through which the right of passage of foreign vessels can be forbidden (as the Solent or the Inland Sea of Japan), or bays so land-locked that they cannot be held to form part of any ocean-highway, are maritime territory.

MARIUPOL, a seaport of Russia, on the north shore of the Sea of Azov, at the mouth of the Kalmius, in the government of Ekaterinoslav, 67 m. W. of Taganrog. Pop. (1900), 52,770, including the inhabitants of two suburbs, Mariinsk and Kara-su. The place is said to have been inhabited in remote times under the name of Adamakha; the present town was built only in 1779, by Greek emigrants from the Crimea. Its inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, cattle-breeding, fishing, and the manufacture of leather, agricultural implements, iron goods and bricks. In export trade Mariupol ranks next to Taganrog among the ports of the Sea of Azov; but its harbour is open to the south-east and shallow, though it is being gradually deepened by systematic dredging. The principal articles of export are cereals, with some oilcake, phosphate and coal; but the total value is only about £2,000,000 annually. The imports do not reach a quarter of a million sterling.

MARIUS OF AVENCHES (or AVENTICUM) (d. 593 or 594), chronicler and ecclesiastic, was born in the neighbourhood of Autun probably in 530, and became bishop of Avenches about 573. In addition to being a good bishop, Marius was a clever goldsmith; he was present at the council of Mâcon in 585, and transferred the seat of his bishopric from Avenches to Lausanne. He died on the 31st of December 593 or 594. As a continuation of the _Chronicon_ of Prosper of Aquitaine, Marius wrote a short _Chronicon_ dealing with the period from 455 to 581; and although he borrowed from various sources his work has some importance for the history of Burgundy. Regarding himself and his land as still under the authority of the Roman empire, he dates his _Chronicon_ according to the years of the Roman consuls and of the East Roman emperors.

The only extant manuscript of the _Chronicon_ is in the British
Museum. Among several editions may be mentioned the one in the
_Monumenta Germaniae historica, chronica minora_, Band II. (1893),
with introduction by T. Mommsen. See also W. Arndt, _Bischof Marius
von Aventicum_ (Leipzig, 1875); and W. Wattenbach, _Deutschlands
Geschichtsquellen_, Bd. I. (1904).