Chapter VIII: Part 8

America possesses some valuable deposits of marble, which in the eastern States have been extensively worked. The crystalline limestones of western New England furnish an abundance of white and grey marble, while a beautiful material fit for statuary work has been quarried near Rutland in Vermont. A grey bird's-eye marble is obtained from central New York, and the greyish clouded limestones of Thomaston in Maine have been extensively quarried. Of the variegated and coloured marbles, perhaps the most beautiful are those from the northern part of Vermont, in the neighbourhood of Lake Champlain. A fine brecciated marble is found on the Maryland side of the Potomac, below Point of Rocks. Among the principal localities for black marble may be mentioned Shoreham in Vermont and Glen Falls in New York. In 1908 the American States producing marble were, in order of value, Vermont, Georgia, Tennessee, New York, Massachusetts, Alabama, Pennsylvania, Maryland, California, Colorado, Alaska, N. Carolina, Kentucky, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri and Idaho. In Canada the crystalline limestones of the pre-Cambrian series yield beautiful marbles.

In India we find important quarries at Makrana in Rajputana,--a locality which is said to have yielded the marble for the famous Taj Mahal at Agra. In the valley of the Nerbudda, near Jabalpur, there is a large development of marble. The white marble which is used for the delicately pierced screens called _jalee_ work is obtained from near Raialo, in Ulwar. (F. W. R.*)

_Petrography._--Marbles are uniformly crystalline, and hence have no
bedding or schistosity which would tend to make them fissile, but are
entirely massive and free from grain. The microstructure of pure
marble is comparatively simple. In thin sections they are seen to be
built up of somewhat rounded grains of calcite, fitting closely
together in a mosaic; very rarely do any grains show traces of
crystalline form. They are colourless and transparent, and are usually
traversed by a lattice-work of sharply defined cleavage cracks, which
correspond to the rhombohedral faces. In polarized light the colours
are pinkish or greenish white, or in very thin sections iridescent
because the mineral has a very strong double refraction. They may also
be crossed by bars or stripes, each of which indicates a twin plate,
for the crystals are usually polysynthetic. This twinning may be
produced by pressure acting either during the crystallization of the
rock or at a later period.

The purest marbles generally contain some accessory minerals, and in
many of these rocks they form a considerable proportion of the whole
mass. The commonest are quartz in small rounded grains, scales of
colourless or pale yellow mica (muscovite and phlogopite), dark
shining flakes of graphite and small crystals of pyrites or iron
oxides. Even fine Carrara marble leaves a residue of this sort when
dissolved in acid. Many marbles contain other minerals which are
usually silicates of lime or magnesia. The list of these accessories
is a very large one. Augite is very frequent and may be white
(malacolite) or pale green (coccolite, sahlite, diopside); hornblende
occurs as white bladed tremolite or pale green actinolite; feldspars
may be present also, such as orthoclase, or more frequently some
plagioclase such as albite, labradorite and anorthite; scapolite (or
wernerite); various kinds of garnet; vesuvianite, spinel, forsterite,
periclase, brucite, talc, zoisite and epidote, chondrodite, biotite,
datolite, sphene and apatite may be mentioned as typical accessory
minerals. The presence of metalliferous minerals such as galena, grey
or red silver ores, zinc blende, antimonite, chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, cassiterite, usually indicates impregnation by
ore-bearing solutions, especially if these substances occur in
workable quantities. The rubies of Burma are found in crystalline
limestones and are constantly accompanied by precious spinel (or
balas-ruby).

These minerals represent impurities in the original limestone which
crystallized at the time that the marble became crystalline. The
silicates derive their silica mainly from sand or infiltrated
siliceous deposits; the alumina represents an admixture of clay; the
iron came from limonite or hematite in the original state of the rock.
Where the silicates bulk largely because the original limestone was
highly impure, all the carbonic acid may be driven out and replaced by
silica during the process of recrystallization. The rock is then a
calc-silicate rock, hard, tough, flinty and no longer readily soluble
in acids. They are sometimes fine-grained hornstones (known as
calc-silicate hornfelses). Where white minerals predominate
(wollastonite, tremolite, feldspar) these rocks may have a close
resemblance to marbles, but often they are green from the abundance of
green augites and amphiboles, or brown (when garnet and vesuvianite
are present in quantity) or yellow (with epidote, chondrodite or
sphene). Decomposition induces further changes in colour owing to the
formation of green or yellow serpentine, pale green talc, red
hematite, and brown limonite. Most of the coloured or variegated
crystalline marbles have originated in this manner. Often bands of
calc-silicate rock alternate with bands of marble, and they may be
folded or bent; in other cases, nodules and patches of silicates occur
in a matrix of pure marble. Earth movements may shatter the rocks,
producing fissures afterwards filled with veins of calcite; in this
way the beautiful brecciated or veined marbles are produced. Sometimes
the broken fragments are rolled and rounded by the flow of the marble
under pressure and pseudo-conglomerates or "crush conglomerates"
result. In other cases the banding of the marble indicates the
original bedding of the calcareous sediments. Crystalline limestones
which contain much mica may be called cipollins; in them quartz,
garnet and hornblende often also occur. The ophicalcites are marbles
containing much serpentine, which has been formed by the decomposition
of forsterite, olivine or augite. The much-discussed _Eozoon_, at one
time supposed to be the earliest known fossil and found in Archaean
limestones in Canada, is now known to be inorganic and to belong to
the ophicalcites.

Many marbles, probably all of them, are metamorphosed limestones. The
passage of limestones rich in fossils into true marbles as they
approach great crystalline intrusions of granite is a phenomenon seen
in many parts of the world; occasionally the recrystallization of the
rock has not completely obliterated the organic structures (e.g. at
Carrara and at Bergen in Norway). The agencies which have induced the
metamorphism are heat and pressure, the heat arising from the granite
and the pressure from overlying masses of rock, for these changes took
place before the granite cooled and while it was still deeply buried
beneath the surface. In 1806 Sir James Hall described a series of
experiments proving this. He enclosed chalk in a gun-barrel securely
plugged and heated it to a high temperature in a furnace. Carbonic
acid was given off by the chalk and produced a great pressure in the
interior of the tube. After slow cooling the mass was found to have
become converted into granular crystalline marble. As rocks which have
undergone changes of this kind are commonest in the oldest and deepest
layers of the earth's crust, most marbles are Palaeozoic or
pre-Cambrian. They occur very often with mica schists, phyllites,
&c., which were beds of clay alternating with the original limestone.
Formerly it was supposed that some of these marbles were crystalline
sediments or even igneous rocks, but the tendency of modern geology is
to assume that they were ordinary limestones, many of which may have
been fossiliferous. In regions where the sedimentary rocks have been
converted into schists, gneisses and granulites, the limestones are
represented by calc schists, cipollins and marbles. Often no granite
or other intrusive rock is present which may be regarded as the cause
of the metamorphism. The marbles are often banded or schistose, and
under the microscope show crushing and deformation of the component
crystals, such as would have been produced by the earth pressures
which accompany rock-folding. These crush structures have been
obtained experimentally in marbles subjected to great pressures in
steel cylinders. In the recrystallization of these limestones the
direct heating action of igneous intrusions may have played no part,
but the rise of temperature and increase of pressure due to the
folding of great rock masses have probably been the operating causes.
This type of metamorphism has been distinguished by the name
_marmarosis_ (Sir A. Geikie, _Text Book of Geology_, 1882).

For descriptions of ancient marbles see F. Corsi, _Delle pietre
antiche_ (Rome, 1845); M. W. Porter, _What Rome was built with_
(Oxford, 1907), and for marbles in general consult E. Hull, _Building
and Ornamental Stones_ (1872); G. P. Merrill, _Stones for Building and
Decoration_ (3rd ed., 1905, New York). (J. S. F.)

MARBLEHEAD, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., occupying a rocky promontory on Massachusetts Bay, about 16 m. N. of Boston. Pop. (1890), 8202; (1900), 7582; (1905), 7209; (1910), 7338. Area, about 4 sq. m. Marblehead is served by the Boston & Maine railroad, and by electric railways connecting with Salem, Lynn and Boston. It is a quaint old town, with a number of houses dating back to the 17th and 18th centuries. Among the older buildings are the Lee mansion (1768), St Michael's church (P. E., 1714), and the old town-hall (1727), sometimes called Marblehead's "Cradle of Liberty." Abbot Hall (1877), the municipal building, also contains the public library and several noteworthy paintings, including "The Spirit of '76" or "Yankee Doodle" by Archibald M. Willard. The post office and custom-house was completed in 1904. There are several parks (Crocker, Fort Sewall, Seaside, and Fountain), and an old burying-ground, in which many of the early settlers and a number of soldiers of the War of Independence (including General John Glover) are buried; and a granite monument near the railway station commemorates the taking of the British supply and powder ship "Hope" off Marblehead in 1776 by Captain James Mugford, who was killed during the fight. The commodious harbour, nearly landlocked, is formed by a rocky peninsula known as Marblehead Neck. On this are the club-houses of the Eastern and Corinthian Yacht clubs; and Marblehead is a popular yachting centre. The manufacture of children's shoes is the principal industry. Shipbuilding, once important, has been superseded by yacht and launch construction.

Marblehead, originally a part of Salem, known as Marble Harbor, was settled about 1629 by English emigrants (probably mostly from Lincolnshire and Devonshire); later (after about 1700) many emigrants from the Channel Islands settled here, and to them the dialectical peculiarities of Marblehead have often (perhaps mistakenly) been attributed. Marblehead was separately incorporated as a town in 1649. In the colonial period Marblehead was an important commercial port, and at one time was one of the most populous places in Massachusetts. After the passage of the Boston Port Bill (1774) it was made the port of entry instead of Boston, but its merchants refused to take advantage of this opportunity and patriotically invited the Boston merchants to use their wharves and warehouses. During the War of Independence many "state cruisers" (chartered at the Continental expense) set out from this port, the most famous being the "Lee," commanded by John Manley[1] (1733-93); in November 1775 this cruiser captured the "Nancy" with military stores valued at £20,541, which were taken to the American army at Cambridge. The "Lee" was manned by fifty men of the "amphibious regiment," which under General John Glover (1732-1797) rendered invaluable services to Washington in conveying his troops across the East River after the battle of Long Island, and later in ferrying them across the Delaware before the battle of Trenton. Marblehead furnished more than 1000 men to the Continental army. During the war of 1812 the sea fight between the "Chesapeake" and the "Shannon" took place (June 1, 1813) off the adjacent coast. Marblehead was the scene of Benjamin (nicknamed "Flood") Ireson's ride, immortalized by J. G. Whittier.

See Samuel Roads, jun., _The History and Traditions of Marblehead_
(Boston, 1880; 3rd ed., Marblehead, 1897).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] See Robert E. Peabody, "Naval Career of Captain John Manley of
Marblehead", in _Essex Institute Historical Collections_ (Salem,
Mass.) for January 1909.

MARBLES, a children's game of great antiquity, wide distribution, and uncertain origin, played with small spheres of stone, glass, baked clay or other material, from one-third of an inch to two inches in diameter. The game was once popular with all classes. Tradition, both at Oxford and Cambridge, attests that the game was formerly prohibited among undergraduates on the steps of the Bodleian or the Senate House. There is a similar tradition at Westminster School that the boys were forbidden to play marbles in Westminster Hall on account of the complaints made by members of parliament and lawyers. An anonymous poem of the 17th century speaks of a boy about to leave Eton as

"A dunce at syntax, but a dab at taw."

Rogers, in _The Pleasures of Memory_, recalls how

"On yon grey stone that fronts the chancel-door,
Worn smooth by busy feet, now seen no more,
Each eve we shot the marble through the ring."

Defoe (1720) writes of the seer Duncan Campbell: "Marbles, which he used to call children's playing at bowls, yielded him mighty diversion; and he was so dexterous an artist at shooting that little alabaster globe from between the end of his forefinger and the knuckle of his thumb, that he seldom missed hitting plumb, as the boys call it, the marble he aimed at, though at the distance of two or three yards." The _locus classicus_ on marbles in the 19th century is in the trial in _Pickwick_, where Serjeant Buzfuz pathetically says of Master Bardell that "his 'alley tors' and his 'commoneys' are alike neglected; he forgets the long familiar cry of 'knuckle down,' and at tip-cheese, or odd and even, his hand is out." Many similar passages might be adduced to prove the former popularity of marbles with the young of all classes. In some rural parts of Sussex Good Friday was known as "marble-day" till late in the 19th century, since on that day both old and young, including many who would never have thought of playing marbles at other times, took part in the game. There was some traditional reason for regarding marbles as a Lenten sport--perhaps, as the Rev. W. D. Parish suggests, "to keep people from more boisterous and mischievous enjoyments."

The origin of the game is concealed in the mists of antiquity. Marbles used by Egyptian and Roman children before the Christian era are to be seen in the British Museum. Probably some of the small stone spheres found among neolithic remains, which Evans (_Ancient Stone Implements_, 2nd ed., p. 420) admits to be too small for projectiles, are prehistoric marbles. It is commonly assumed that the game which the youthful Augustus, like other Roman children, played with nuts was a form of marbles, and that the Latin phrase of _relinquere nuces_, in the sense of putting away childish things, referred to this game. Strutt believed that nuts of the roundest sort were the original "marbles." The earliest unmistakable reference to marbles in literature seems to be in a French poem of the 12th century, quoted by Littré s.v. _Bille_.

The marbles with which various games are nowadays played are small spheres of stone, glass or baked clay. In the 18th century they were mostly made from chips of marble (whence the name) or other stone, which were ground into a roughly spherical shape by attrition in a special iron mill. Nuremberg was then the centre of the trade in marbles, though some were made in Derbyshire, and indeed wherever there was a stonemason's yard to afford raw material. The "alley taw," as its name indicates, was made of alabaster. In the first decade of the 20th century English marbles were all imported from central Germany, and the alleys, or most valuable marbles, used for shooting, were mostly made of coloured glass, sold retail from ten a penny to a penny each. Coloured stone marbles and so-called china marbles--really of baked clay--were sold at prices varying from forty to a hundred a penny, though even the cheapest of these were painted by hand with concentric rings. The well-made and highly valued alleys of earlier times were no longer procurable, owing to the decline in popularity of the sport. In the United States, however, much more expensive and accurately rounded marbles were still manufactured, the latest being of hollow steel.

There has never been any recognized authority on the game of marbles,
and it is probable that, in the past as in the present, every parish
and school and set of boys made its own rules. There are, however,
three or four distinct games which are traditional, and may be found,
with trifling variations, wherever the game is played. Strutt, writing
at the end of the 18th century, describes these as follows: (1) "Taw,
wherein a number of boys put each of them one or two marbles in a ring
and shoot at them alternately with other marbles, and he who obtains
the most of them by beating them out of the ring is the conqueror."
The marbles placed in the ring--whence the game is often known as
"ring-taw"--are usually of the cheaper kind known as "commoneys,"
"stoneys" or "potteys," and the marble with which the player shoots is
a more valuable one, known as an "alley," or "alley taw," sometimes
spelt "tor," as by Dickens. Usually it is necessary that the alley
should emerge from the ring as well as drive out another marble; under
other rules the ring is smaller, not more than a foot in diameter, and
the player must be skilful enough to leave his alley inside it, whilst
driving the object marble outside. (2) "Nine holes: which consists in
bowling of marbles at a wooden bridge with nine arches." Each arch
bears a number, and the owner of the bridge pays that number of
marbles to the player who shoots through it, making his profit from
the missing marbles, which he confiscates; or the game may simply be
played so many up--usually 100. (3) "There is also another game of
marbles where four, five or six holes, and sometimes more, are made in
the ground at a distance from each other; and the business of every
one of the players is to bowl a marble by a regular succession into
all the holes, which he who completes in the fewest bowls obtains the
victory." This primitive form of golf is played by Zulu adults with
great enthusiasm, and is still popular among the car-drivers of
Belfast. (4) "Boss out, or boss and span, also called hit and span,
wherein one bowls a marble to any distance that he pleases, which
serves as a mark for his antagonist to bowl at, whose business it is
to hit the marble first bowled, or lay his own near enough to it for
him to span the space between them and touch both marbles; in either
case he wins, if not, his marble remains where it lay and becomes a
mark for the first player, and so alternately until the game be won."
In rural parts of England this was known as a "going-to-school game,"
because it helped the players along the road.

Mr F. W. Hackwood states that, in the middle of the 19th century,
taverns in the Black Country had regular marble alleys, consisting of
a cement bed 20 ft. long by 12 ft. wide and 18 in. from the ground,
with a raised wooden rim to prevent the marbles from running off.
Players knelt down to shoot, and had to "knuckle down" fairly--i.e. to
place the knuckle of the shooting hand on the ground, so that the flip
of the thumb was not aided by a jerk of the wrist. The game was
usually ring-taw. But marbles is now obsolete in England as a game for
adults (_Old English Sports_, London, 1907).

A writer in _Notes and Queries_ (IX. ii. 314) thus describes the
marbles used by English boys in the middle of the 19th century: "In
ring-taw the player put only commoneys in the ring, and shot with the
taws, which included stoneys, alleys and blood-alleys. Commoneys were
unglazed; potteys glazed in the kiln. Stoneys were made from common
pebbles such as were used for road-mending; alleys and blood-alleys
out of marble. The blood-alleys were highly prized, and were called by
this name because of the spots or streaks of red in them. In
Derbyshire, where large numbers were made, they had relative values.
The stoney was worth three commoneys or two potteys. An alley was
worth six commoneys or four potteys. Blood-alleys were worth more,
according to the depth and arrangement of colour--from twelve to fifty
commoneys and stoneys in proportion." "A taw with a history was prized
above rubies," another correspondent observes (IX. ii. 76). "All the
best-made marbles were taws, and no commoneys or potteys were used for
shooting with, either in ring-taw or the various hole-games." In
Belfast, 1854-1858, the marble season extended from Easter to June,
when the ground was usually dry and hard. The marbles were stoneys, of
composition painted; crockeries, of slightly glazed stone-ware, dark
brown and yellow; clayeys, of red brick clay baked in the fire;
marbles, of white marble; china alleys, with white glaze and painted
rings; and glass marbles. The two chief games were ring-taw and hole
and taw; in the latter three holes were made in a line, 6 ft. to 12
ft. apart, and the player had to go three times up and down according
to somewhat elaborate rules (_Notes and Queries_, IX. iii. 65). The
stoneys and crockeries were sold at twenty a penny; the clayeys were
cheaper and were not used as stakes; the marbles proper and china
alleys, used as taws for shooting, cost a halfpenny and a farthing
respectively. In other parts of the country the phraseology of marbles
affords some interesting problems for the philologist. We hear of
"alleys, barios, poppos and stoneys"; of "marididdles," home-made
marbles of rolled and baked clay; in Scotland of "bools, whinnies,
glassies, jauries"; of "Dutch alleys," and so forth. "Dubs, trebs and
fobs," stand for twos, threes and fours. To be "mucked" is to lose all
one's "mivvies" or marbles. When the taw stayed in the ring it was a
"chuck." "Phobbo slips" was a phrase used to forbid the correction of
an error.

The fullest account of the various games of marbles played by English
children is to be found in Mrs Gomme's _Traditional Games of England,
Scotland and Ireland_ (London, 1898), under the headings Boss-out,
Bridgeboard, Bun-hole, Cob, Ho-go, Holy Bang, Hundreds, Lag,
Long-Tawl, Marbles, Nine-Holes, Ring-taw, Three-Holes. Other games are
known as Plum-pudding, or Picking the Plums, in which one shoots at
marbles in a row; Pyramids, in which the marbles are arranged in a
pyramid; Bounce About, Bounce Eye, Conqueror, Die Shot,
Fortifications, Handers, Increase Pound, Knock Out, Rising Taw,
Spanners, Tip-shears; Strutt's _Sports and Pastimes_, ed. J. C. Cox
(London, 1902). Much information will also be found in _Notes and
Queries, passim_--especially the 9th series. For marbles in France see
Larousse, s.v. _Billes_. See also SOLITAIRE. (W. E. G. F.)

MARBOT, JEAN BAPTISTE ANTOINE MARCELIN, BARON DE (1782-1854), French soldier, son of General Jean Antoine de Marbot (1754-1800), who died in the defence of Genoa under Masséna, was born at La Rivière (Corrèze), on the 18th of August 1782. He joined the republican army as a volunteer in 1799, rose rapidly to commissioned rank, and was aide-de-camp to Marshal Augereau, commanding the VII. corps, in the war against Prussia and Russia in 1806-7. After this he served with great distinction in the Peninsular War under Lannes and Masséna, and showed himself to be a dashing leader of light cavalry in the Russian War of 1812 and the German campaign of the following year. After a slow recovery from the wounds he had received at Leipzig and Hanau, he was promoted general of brigade by Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and took part in, and was wounded at, the battle of Waterloo. He was exiled at the second restoration and only returned to France in 1819, after which, however, his intimacy with the duke of Orleans secured him important military positions. After the July restoration he was made _maréchal-de-camp_, and in this rank he was present at the siege of Antwerp in 1832. He was promoted lieutenant-general in 1836. From 1835 to 1840 he served in various Algerian expeditions, and in 1845 he was made a member of the Chamber of Peers. Three years later, at the fall of Louis Philippe, he retired into private life. He died at Paris on the 16th of November 1854. Marbot wrote two pamphlets, _Remarques critiques sur l'ouvrage de M. le général Roguet, intitulé Considérations sur l'art de la guerre_ (1820), and _La Nécessité d'augmenter les forces militaires de la France_ (1825), but his fame rests chiefly, if not indeed wholly, on the fascinating Memoirs of his _Life and Campaigns_ which were published in Paris in 1891 (Eng. trans., 1902). To ordinary readers and to students of history alike these give a picture of the Napoleonic age of warfare which for vividness and romantic interest has never been surpassed.

His elder brother, ANTOINE ADOLPHE MARCELIN DE MARBOT (1781-1844), was born at La Rivière, on the 22nd of March 1781, entered the army at an early age, obtained commissioned rank in the revolutionary wars and became aide-de-camp to Bernadotte. In 1802 he was arrested on the ground of being concerned in a plot of the Republicans against the Consulate, but he was released, though Napoleon continued to regard him as an opponent of the established régime. After a term of duty with the army in Santo Domingo he participated in the campaigns of 1806-7, and from 1808 to 1811 he was employed in the Peninsular War. In the Russian War of 1812 he was wounded and made prisoner. At the end of two years of captivity he returned to France at the general peace, was aide-de-camp to Marshal Davout during the Hundred Days, and thereafter passed into retirement, from which he did not emerge till 1830. He attained the rank of _maréchal-de-camp_ under Louis Philippe, and died at Bra, near Tulle, on the 2nd of June 1844.

MARBURG, a town of Austria, in Styria, 41 m. S. of Graz by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,501. It is very picturesquely situated on the left bank of the river Drave, on a plain called the Pettauer-Feld, at the base of the well-wooded Bachergebirge. To the north of the town the train passes through the Leitersberg tunnel (725 yds. long), opened in 1846, while the Drave, which has here a width of 200 yds., is spanned by a magnificent iron bridge, built in 1845. The principal buildings are the cathedral, dating from the 16th century, the tower of which, erected in 1623, is 136 ft. high, and the old castle. Its situation in the midst of a fertile vine and fruit-growing district, connected by the navigable Drave with Hungary, and by railway with Vienna, Trieste, Tirol and Carinthia, makes it the centre of a considerable traffic in wine and grain. Its industrial products are leather, boots and shoes, iron and tin wares, liqueurs and sparkling wine, and it also contains the extensive workshops of the South Austrian railway. Marburg is the seat of the bishop of Lavant, and is the native town of the famous Austrian admiral, Baron Wilhelm of Tegetthoff (1827-1871). Near Marburg is the village of Mariarast, the church of which is a popular place of pilgrimage.

MARBURG, an ancient university town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Lahn, 60 m. by rail N. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the main line to Cassel. Pop. (1905), 20,137. On the opposite bank of the river, here spanned by two bridges, lie the suburb of Weidenhausen and the railway station of the Prussian state railway. The hill on which the town lies is crowned by the extensive old Schloss, a fine Gothic building, the most noteworthy parts of which are the Rittersaal, dating from 1277-1312, and the beautiful little chapel. This Schloss was formerly the residence of the landgraves of Hesse, served afterwards as a prison, and is now the repository of the historically interesting and valuable archives of Hesse. The chief architectural ornament of Marburg is, however, the Elisabethenkirche, a veritable gem of the purest Early Gothic style, erected by the grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1235-1283, to contain the tomb of St Elizabeth of Hungary. The remains of the saint were deposited in a rich silver-gilt sarcophagus, which may still be seen, and were afterwards visited by myriads of pilgrims, until the Protestant zeal of Landgrave Philip the Generous caused him to remove the body to some unknown spot in the church. The church also contains the tombs of numerous Hessian landgraves and knights of the Teutonic Order. The Lutheran church is another good Gothic edifice, dating mainly from the 15th century. The town-hall, built in 1512, and several fine houses in the Renaissance style, also deserve mention. The university of Marburg, founded by Philip the Magnanimous in 1527, was the first university established without papal privileges, and speedily acquired a great reputation throughout Protestant Europe. It has a library of 140,000 volumes, is admirably equipped with medical and other institutes, which form some of the finest modern buildings in the town, and was attended, in 1905, by 1576 students. Marburg also possesses a gymnasium, a "Realschule," an agricultural school, a society of naturalists, a hospital, and an extensive lunatic asylum. It is the seat of a district court, and of superintendents of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches. Marburg pottery is renowned; and leather, iron wares and surgical instruments are also manufactured there. The environs are very picturesque.

Marburg is first historically mentioned in a document of the beginning of the 13th century, and received its municipal charter from the landgrave Louis of Thuringia in 1227. On his death it became the residence of his wife, Elizabeth of Hungary, who built a hospital there, and died in 1231, at the age of twenty-four, worn out with works of religion and charity. She was canonized in 1235 at the instance of the Teutonic Knights, who had settled in Marburg in 1233 and were zealous in promoting her cult. By 1247 Marburg had already become the second town of Hesse, and in the 15th and 16th centuries it alternated with Cassel as the seat of the landgraves. In 1529 the famous conference between Luther and Zwingli on the subject of Transubstantiation took place there in the Rittersaal of the Schloss (see MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF). During the Thirty Years' and Seven Years' Wars Marburg suffered considerably from sieges and famine. In 1806, and again in 1810, it was the centre of an abortive rising against the French, in consequence of which the fortifications of the castle were destroyed.

See Kolbe, _Marburg im Mittelalter_ (Marb., 1879); Bücking,
_Mittheilungen aus Marburgs Vorzeit_ (Marb., 1886); Schoof, _Marburg
die Perle des Hessenlandes_ (2nd ed., 1903).

MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF (_Marburger Religionsgespräch_), the name given to a conference of divines held in 1529 in the interests of the unity of Protestant Germany. The circumstances in which it was held, the influence of the men who conducted its deliberations, and the result of its proceedings, combine to render it of no small importance for the history of the Reformation in Germany.

After the Imperial Diet of Spires in 1526 had decreed that all states of the empire should observe the Edict of Worms (1521), banning Luther and his adherents, in such a manner that they should not be afraid to answer it before God and the emperor, the reform movement had received such an access of strength that the Catholic party felt itself menaced in earnest, and in 1529 again passed a resolution at Spires, deigned not merely to preclude any further expansion of the Reformation, but even to prevent it from maintaining the ground already won. This decision was at once challenged, on the 19th of April, by the protest of the Evangelical states (whence the name Protestants); and the effect of this disclaimer was not small. Still, it was devoid of political significance, unless backed by the united force of all the princes and states subscribing to the Evangelical teaching; and this unity was wanting. The feud which raged round the doctrine of the Lord's Supper had already broken out before the first diet of Spires, and had aroused great and immediate excitement. At a very early period, however, efforts were made to allay the dissension. Strassburg pronounced for conciliation: but the most powerful and zealous champion of peace was to be found in the landgrave Philip of Hesse, who recognized the absolute necessity--from a political standpoint--of the union of all German Protestants. It is probable that he had invited Luther to a religious conference as early as the year 1527; but on that occasion he met with a refusal. True, the impression conveyed by the attitude of the Catholic party at the second Diet of Spires had served to awaken the feeling for solidarity among the Evangelicals there assembled; and on the 22nd of April they had even secured the basis for a provisional alliance in the shape of a formula drawn up by Bucer and dealing with the Lord's Supper. But it was obvious that a permanent coalition could not be expected unless some definite understanding on the debated point could be attained; and on the very same day the landgrave despatched to Zwingli an invitation to a colloquy, and received his prompt acquiescence. Melanchthon, who in the tension which prevailed at the synod had shown himself inclined to negotiation, became suspicious on his return, and endeavoured to influence the elector of Saxony and Luther in accordance with his views. The landgrave, however, was so far successful that the beginning of October (1529) saw the colloquy opened in the castle at Marburg. With Zwingli, who had arrived on the 27th of September, he had several interviews of considerable political importance before the Wittenberg divines made their appearance. These interviews settled the preliminaries of an alliance; but they rested on the assumption that the theological feud between Wittenberg and Zürich could be removed, or its violence at least abated.

The proceedings opened on the 1st of October with conferences between Luther and Oecolampadius, and Melanchthon and Zwingli: then on the two following days the discussion proper--confined almost entirely to Luther and Zwingli--was held before the landgrave and his guest Duke Ulrich of Württemberg, in the presence of more than fifty persons. As regards the main point of contention, i.e. the doctrine of the Lord's Supper, no agreement was found practicable; and the private conversations on the 4th of October, which formed the sequel of the debate, carried matters no farther. "You have another spirit," said Luther. Since the landgrave, however, was reluctant to see the colloquy brought to an absolutely fruitless close, he requested Luther to draw up a list of the most important points of doctrine on which it might yet be possible to arrive at some degree of unanimity. This was done on the 4th of October; and a few alterations were introduced to meet the wishes of the Swiss deputies. The _Articles of Marburg_, which thus came into being, contain the doctrine of the Trinity, of the personality of Christ, of faith and justification, of the Scriptures, of baptism, of good works, of confession, of government, of tradition, and of infant baptism. The fifteenth article, treating of the Lord's Supper, defines the ground common to both parties even in this debateable region, recognizing the necessity of participation in both kinds, and rejecting the sacrifice of the Mass. It then proceeds to fix the point of difference in the fact that no agreement had been reached on the question "whether the true body and blood of Christ are corporeally present in the bread and wine" ("Nit vergleicht haben wir uns, ob der war leib und plut Christi leiblich im brot und wein sey"). Nevertheless, the adherents of each doctrine are recommended to display Christian charity to those of the other. These articles were signed by the ten official members of the colloquy: Luther, Jonas, Melanchthon, Osiander, Agricola, Brenz, Oecolampadius, Bucer, Hedio and Zwingli. The personal contact between Luther and Zwingli led to no mental _rapprochement_ between the two; but in the following year the Articles of Marburg did good service as one of the preliminaries to the Augsburg Confession, and remain a valuable document for the fundamental principles common to the Lutheran and Reformed Churches.

See T. Kolde, s.v. "Marburger Religionsgespräch," in _Realencyklopädie
f. protestant. Theologie_, 3rd ed. xii. 248 seq. (C. M.)

MARCA, PIERRE DE (1594-1662), French prelate and historian, was born at Gan, near Pau, on the 24th of January 1594. His family was known among judicial circles in the 16th century, and maintained the Roman Catholic faith after the official introduction of the Reformed religion into Navarre. After having studied law at the university of Toulouse he practised successfully at Pau. But he was ambitious, and turned to a larger sphere. He ardently called for the armed intervention of King Louis XIII. in Béarn, and on this occasion published his first writing, _Discours d'un Béarnais, très fidèle sujet du roi, sur l'édit du rétablissement de l'exercice de la religion catholique dans tout le Béarn_ (1618). After the easy campaign of 1620, the possessions which had been taken by the Protestants were given back to the Roman Catholic church; this task was performed, under his supervision, with judgment and moderation. During the siege of La Rochelle he performed a mission which brought him in touch with Richelieu, who shortly afterwards nominated him _intendant de justice_ in Béarn (1631), and in 1639 summoned him to Paris with the title of counsellor of state. The following year, the question of the intervention of kings in the election of bishops having been raised in a pamphlet by Charles Hersent (_Optalus Gallus de cavendo schismate_, 1640), Marca defended what were then called the liberties of the Gallican Church, in his celebrated treatise _De concordia sacerdotii et imperii, seu de libertalibus ecclesiae gallicanae_ (1641). He was soon rewarded for this service. Although he had not yet taken even the minor holy orders, he was nominated bishop of Couserans by the king on the 28th of December 1641, but the pope refused to give his sanction. It was only after Marca had formally denied those propositions contained in _De concordia_ which were displeasing to Rome that he was proclaimed in the consistory (Jan. 13, 1648). During this time, and until 1651, he was governor of the province of Catalonia, then occupied by the French. After the Treaty of the Pyrenees, he was sent to direct the conference which had been formed to fix the limits of Roussillon, which had just been ceded to France (1660). Marca now interested himself in the fortunes of Mazarin, and remained faithful to him even during the Fronde. As a recompense, he was nominated archbishop of Toulouse (May 28, 1652), but had to wait for the bulls of investiture till the 23rd of March 1654. It was difficult for him to please both pope and king. In the struggle against the Jansenists he used all the influence he had with the clergy to secure the passage of the apostolic constitution of the 31st of March 1653 (_Relation de ce qui s'est fait depuis 1653 dans les assemblées des évêques au sujet des cinq propositions_, 1657); but in the rebellion raised by Retz, archbishop of Paris, against the king, he took the part of the king against the pope. Michel Le Tellier having ordered him to refute a thesis of the college of Clermont on the infallibility of the pope, Marca wrote a treatise which was most Gallican in its ideas, but refused to publish it for fear of drawing down "the indignation of Rome." These tactics were successful, and when Retz, weary of a struggle without definite results, resigned the archbishopric, Marca became his successor (Feb. 26, 1662). He did not derive much profit from this new favour, as he died on the 29th of June following, without his nomination having been sanctioned by the pope.

Marca, clever and covetous, was also an historian of note. When very young he showed his interest in the past history of his native land, and in 1617, at the age of twenty-three, he had set to work looking through archives, copying charters, and corresponding with the principal men of learning of his time, the brothers Dupuy, André Duchesne and Jean Besly, whom he visited in Poitou. His _Histoire de Béarn_ was published at Paris in 1640. It was not so well received as his _De concordia_, but is more appreciated by posterity. If Marca's criticism is too often undecided, both in the ancient epochs, where he supports the text by a certain amount of guesswork and in certain points where he touches on religion, yet he always gives the text correctly. A number of chapters end with an interesting collection of charters. It is to be regretted that this incomplete work does not go beyond 1300. During his long stay in Catalonia he made preparations for a geographical and historical description of this province, which was bound to France by so many political and literary associations. Baluze, who became his secretary in 1656, helped him with the work and finished it, adding clever appendices and publishing the whole in 1688 under the title _Marca hispanica_.

Marca married Marguerite de Forgues on the 4th of June 1618, and had one son and three daughters. His son, Galactoire, who was president of the parlement of Navarre, died on the 10th of February 1689.

Marca's biography was written in Latin by two of his intimate friends,
Étienne Baluze, his secretary (_Epistola ad Samuelem Sorbierium, de
vita, gestis et scriptis Petri de Marca_, Paris, 1663), and his
cousin, Paul de Faget (at the beginning of a collection of Marca's
theological pamphlets, first published by Paul de Faget in 1668). This
contained four treatises on the Eucharist, the sacrifice of the Mass,
the erection of the patriarchate of Constantinople (in Latin), and the
sacrament of the Eucharist (in French). It was supposed to contain
heretical propositions and caused a good deal of scandal, inciting
Baluze against Faget, both of whom abused the other, to defend the
memory of the prelate.

See Bayle's article in the _Dictionnaire historique et critique_ (s.v.
"Marca"), and the Vie de Marca in the _Histoire de Béarn_ (vol. i.,
1894) of V. Dubarat.

MARCANTONIO [MARCANTONIO RAIMONDI], the chief Italian master of the art of engraving in the age of the Renaissance, and the first who practised it in order to reproduce, not designs of his own invention, as earlier craftsmen had commonly done, but those of other artists almost exclusively. The date of his birth is uncertain, nor is there any good authority for assigning it, as is commonly done, approximately to the year 1488. He was probably born some years at least earlier than this, inasmuch as he is mentioned by a contemporary writer, Achillini, as being an artist of repute in 1504. His earliest dated plate, illustrating the story of Pyramus and Thisbe, belongs to the following year, 1505. Marcantonio received his training in the workshop of the famous goldsmith and painter of Bologna, Francesco Raibolini, usually called Francia. "Having more aptitude in design," says Vasari, "than his master, and managing the graver with facility and grace, he made waist-buckles and many other things in niello, such being then greatly in fashion, and made them most beautifully, as being in truth most excellent in that craft." The real fame, however, of Marcantonio was destined to be founded on his attainments, not in the goldsmith's art generally, but in that particular development of it which consists of engraving designs on metal plates for the purpose of reproduction by the printing press. This art was not new in Italy in the days of Marcantonio's apprenticeship. It had been practised, in a more or less elementary form, for not less than forty or fifty years in the workshops alike of Venetia, the Emilia, Tuscany and Lombardy. But the technical aim of the Italian engravers had not hitherto been directed, like that of Schongauer or Dürer north of the Alps, towards securing such freedom and precision in the use of the burin as should impart to the impressions taken from their engraved plates both a striking decorative effect and a power of suggesting to the eye a complex variety of natural objects and surfaces in light and shade. The Italian masters had been satisfied with much more rudimentary effects. The Florentine primitives had been content either with very simple cloudy patches of cross-hatching in fine straight lines, or with broad open shadings in the manner of a bold pen-drawing. Mantegna and Pollaiuolo, the two chief original masters who practised the art, had used the latter method with great power but at the same time great simplicity.

By the beginning of the 16th century a desire for a more complicated kind of effects was already arising among the followers of the art in Italy. Both backgrounds and passages of foreground detail were often imitated, inartificially enough, from the works of the northern masters. Marcantonio himself was among the foremost in this movement. About eighty engravings can be referred to the first five or six years of his career (1505-1511). Their subjects are very various, including many of pagan mythology, and some of obscure allegory, along with those of Christian devotion. The types of figures and drapery, and the general character of the compositions, bespeak for the most part the inspiration, and sometimes the direct authorship, of Francia. But the influence of German example is very perceptible also, particularly in the landscape backgrounds, and in the endeavour to express form by means of light and shadow with greater freedom than had been hitherto the practice of the southern schools. In a few subjects also the figures themselves correspond to a coarse Teutonic, instead of to the refined Italian, ideal. But so far we find Marcantonio only indirectly leaning on the north for the sake of self-improvement. It must have been for the sake of commercial profit that he by-and-by produced a series of direct counterfeits on copper from Albert Dürer's woodcuts. These facsimiles are sixty-nine in number, including seventeen of Dürer's "Life of the Virgin," thirty-seven of his "Little Passion," on wood, and a number of single pieces. According to Vasari, Dürer's indignation over those counterfeits was the cause of his journey to Venice, where he is said to have lodged a complaint against Marcantonio, and induced the Senate to prohibit the counterfeiting of his monogram, at any rate, upon any future imitations of the kind. Vasari's account must certainly be mistaken, inasmuch as Dürer's journey to Venice took place in 1506, and neither of the two series of woodcuts imitated by Marcantonio was published until 1511. The greater part of the designs for the "Life of the Virgin" had, it is true, been made and engraved seven years earlier than the date of their publication; and it is to be remarked that, whereas Marcantonio's copies of the "Little Passion" leave out the monogram of Dürer, it is inserted in his copies of the "Life of the Virgin"; whence it would, after all, seem possible that he had seen and counterfeited a set of impressions of this series at the time when they were originally executed, and before their publication. But the real nature of the transaction, if transaction there was, which took place between Dürer and Marcantonio we cannot now hope to recover. Enough that the Bolognese engraver evidently profited, both in money and in education of the hand, by his work in imitating in a finer material the energetic characters of these northern woodcuts. He was soon to come under a totally different influence, and to turn the experience he had gained to account in interpreting the work of a master of a quite other stamp. Up till the year 1510 Marcantonio had lived entirely at Bologna, with the exception, it would appear, of a visit or visits to Venice. (A few of his early engravings are from drawings of the school of Giorgione.) Very soon afterwards he was attracted, for good and all, into the circle which surrounded Raphael at Rome. Where or when he had first made Raphael's acquaintance is uncertain. His passage to Rome by way of Florence has been supposed to be marked by an engraving, dated 1510, and known as "The Climbers," _Les Grimpeurs_ (Bartsch, 487), in which he has reproduced a portion of the design of Michelangelo's cartoon of the Soldiers surprised bathing, and has added behind the figures a landscape imitated from the then young Dutch engraver Lucas of Leiden. Contemporary or somewhat earlier than this is a large engraving done by him from a design by Baldassare Peruzzi, a Sienese artist drawn about the same time into the Raphael circle. The piece in which he is recorded to have first tried his hand after Raphael himself is the Lucretia (Bartsch 192). From that time until he disappears in the catastrophe of 1527, Marcantonio was almost exclusively engaged in reproducing by means of engraving the designs of Raphael or of his immediate pupils. Raphael, the story goes, was so delighted with the print of the Lucretia that he personally trained and helped Marcantonio afterwards. A printing establishment was set up under the charge of Raphael's colour-grinder, Il Baviera, and the profits, in the early stage of the business, were shared between the engraver and the printer. The sale soon became very great; pupils gathered round about Marcantonio, of whom the two most distinguished were Marco Dente, known as Marco da Ravenna, and Agostino de' Musi, known as Agostino Veneziano; and he and they, during the last ten years of Raphael's life, and for several years following his death, gave forth a great profusion of engravings after the master's work--not copying, in most instances, his finished paintings, but working up, with the addition of simple backgrounds and accessories, his first sketches and trials, which often give the composition in a different form from the finished work, and are all the more interesting on that account.

The best of these engravings produced in the workshop of Marcantonio--those, namely, done by his own hand, and especially those done during the first few years after he had attached himself to Raphael--count among the most prized and coveted examples of the art. In them he enters into the genius of his master, and loses little of the chastened science and rhythmical purity of Raphael's contours, or of the inspired and winning sentiment of his faces; while in the parts where he is left to himself--the rounding and shading, the background and landscape--he manages his burin with all the skill and freedom which he had gained by the imitation of northern models, but puts away the northern emphasis and redundance of detail. His work, however, does not long remain at the height marked by pieces like the Lucretia, the Dido, the Judgment of Paris, the Poetry, the Philosophy, or the first Massacre of the Innocents. Marcantonio's engravings after the works of Raphael's later years are cold, ostentatious, and soulless by comparison. Still more so, as is natural, were those which he and his pupils produced after the designs of the degenerate scholars of Raphael and Michelangelo, of a Giulio Romano, a Polidoro, or a Bandinelli. Marcantonio's association with Giulio Romano was the cause of his first great disaster in life. He engraved a series of obscene designs by that painter in illustration of the _Sonnetti lussuriosi_ of Pietro Aretino, and thereby incurred the anger of pope Clement VII., at whose order he was thrown into prison. Marcantonio's ruin was completed by the calamities attendant on the sack of Rome in 1527. He had to pay a heavy ransom in order to escape from the hands of the Spaniards, and fled from Rome, in the words of Vasari, "all but a beggar." It is said that he took refuge in his native city, Bologna; but he never again emerges from obscurity, and all we know with certainty is that in 1534 he was dead. (S. C.)

MARCASITE, a mineral with the same chemical composition as pyrites, being iron disulphide FeS2, but crystallizing in the orthorhombic instead of in the cubic system. The name is of Arabic origin and was long applied to crystallized pyrites (q.v.); it was restricted to the present species by W. Haidinger in 1845. The mineral was known to G. Agricola in 1546 under the names _Wasserkies_ or _Weisserkies_ and _Leberkies_, and it has been variously known as white pyrites, hepatic pyrites, lamellar pyrites, radiated pyrites (German _Strahlkies_) and prismatic pyrites. The orthorhombic form of the crystals, as distinct from the cubic form of pyrites, was recognized by Romé de l'Isle in 1772, though later R. J. Haüy considered the crystals to be only distorted cubic forms.

The crystals are isomorphous with mispickel (q.v.), but only rarely are they distinctly developed and simple (fig.). Usually they are twinned on a prism plane, M, producing pentagonal stellate groups of five crystals; twinning on the plain g, in which the crystals intercross at angles of nearly 60°, is less common. This frequent twinning gives rise to characteristic forms, with many re-entrant angles, to which the names "spear pyrites" and "cockscomb pyrites" are applied. The commonest state of aggregation is that of radially arranged fibres, the external surface of the mass being globular, nodular or stalactitic in form.