Chapter XIX: Part 19

In _Edward the Second_ the interest rises and the execution improves as visibly and as greatly with the course of the advancing story as they decline in _The Jew of Malta_. The scene of the king's deposition at Kenilworth is almost as much finer in tragic effect and poetic quality as it is shorter and less elaborate than the corresponding scene in Shakespeare's _King Richard II_. The terror of the death-scene undoubtedly rises into horror; but this horror is with skilful simplicity of treatment preserved from passing into disgust. In pure poetry, in sublime and splendid imagination, this tragedy is excelled by _Doctor Faustus_; in dramatic power and positive impression of natural effect it is certainly the masterpiece of Marlowe. It was almost inevitable, in the hands of any poet but Shakespeare, that none of the characters represented should be capable of securing or even exciting any finer sympathy or more serious interest than attends on the mere evolution of successive events or the mere display of emotions (except always in the great scene of the deposition) rather animal than spiritual in their expression of rage or tenderness or suffering. The exact balance of mutual effect, the final note of scenic harmony, between ideal conception and realistic execution is not yet struck with perfect accuracy of touch and security of hand; but on this point also Marlowe has here come nearer by many degrees to Shakespeare than any of his other predecessors have ever come near to Marlowe.

Of _The Massacre at Paris_ (acted in 1593, printed 1600?) it is impossible to judge fairly from the garbled fragment of its genuine text which is all that has come down to us. To Mr Collier, among numberless other obligations, we owe the discovery of a noble passage excised in the piratical edition which gives us the only version extant of this unlucky play, and which, it must be allowed, contains nothing of quite equal value. This is obviously an occasional and polemical work, and being as it is overcharged with the anti-Catholic passion of the time has a typical quality which gives it some empirical significance and interest. That antipapal ardour is indeed the only note of unity in a rough and ragged chronicle which shambles and stumbles onward from the death of Queen Jeanne of Navarre to the murder of the last Valois. It is possible to conjecture, what it would be fruitless to affirm, that it gave a hint in the next century to Nathaniel Lee for his far superior and really admirable tragedy on the same subject, issued ninety-seven years after the death of Marlowe.

In the tragedy of _Dido Queen of Carthage_ (completed by Thomas Nash, produced and printed 1594), a servile fidelity to the text of Virgil's narrative has naturally resulted in the failure which might have been expected from an attempt at once to transcribe what is essentially inimitable and to reproduce it under the hopelessly alien conditions of dramatic adaptation. The one really noble passage in a generally feeble and incomposite piece of work is, however, uninspired by the unattainable model to which the dramatists have been only too obsequious in their subservience. It is as nearly certain as anything can be which depends chiefly upon cumulative and collateral evidence that the better part of what is best in the serious scenes of _King Henry VI._ is mainly the work of Marlowe. That he is at any rate the principal author of the second and third plays passing under that name among the works of Shakespeare, but first and imperfectly printed as _The Contention between the two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster_, can hardly be now a matter of debate among competent judges. The crucial difficulty of criticism in this matter is to determine, if indeed we should not rather say to conjecture, the authorship of the humorous scenes in prose, showing as they generally do a power of comparatively high and pure comic realism to which nothing in the acknowledged works of any pre-Shakespearian dramatist is even remotely comparable. Yet, especially in the original text of these scenes as they stand unpurified by the ultimate revision of Shakespeare or his editors, there are tones and touches which recall rather the clownish horseplay and homely ribaldry of his predecessors than anything in the lighter interludes of his very earliest plays. We find the same sort of thing which we find in their writings, only better done than they usually do it, rather than such work as Shakespeare's a little worse done than usual. And even in the final text of the tragic or metrical scenes the highest note struck is always, with one magnificent and unquestionable exception, rather in the key of Marlowe at his best than of Shakespeare while yet in great measure his disciple.

_A Taming of a Shrew_, the play on which Shakespeare's comedy was founded, has been attributed, without good reason, to Marlowe. The passages in the play borrowed from Marlowe's works provide an argument against, rather than for his authorship; while the humorous character of the play is not in keeping with his other work. He may have had a share in _The Troublesome Raigne of King John_ (1591), and Fleay conjectured that the plays _Edward III._ and _Richard III._ usually included in editions of Shakespeare are at least based on plays by Marlowe. _Lust's Dominion_, printed in 1657, was incorrectly ascribed to him, and a play no longer extant, _The True History of George Scanderbage_, was assumed by Fleay on the authority of an obscure passage of Gabriel Harvey to be his work. _The Maiden's Holiday_, assigned to Day and Marlowe, was destroyed by Warburton's cook. Day was considerably Marlowe's junior, and collaboration between the two is not probable.

Had every copy of Marlowe's boyish version or perversion of Ovid's _Elegies_ (P. Ovidii Nasonis _Amorum_ compressed into three books) deservedly perished in the flames to which it was judicially condemned by the sentence of a brace of prelates, it is possible that an occasional bookworm, it is certain that no poetical student, would have deplored its destruction, if its demerits could in that case have been imagined. His translation of the first book of Lucan alternately rises above the original and falls short of it,--often inferior to the Latin in point and weight of expressive rhetoric, now and then brightened by a clearer note of poetry and lifted into a higher mood of verse. Its terseness, vigour and purity of style would in any case have been praiseworthy, but are nothing less than admirable, if not wonderful, when we consider how close the translator has on the whole (in spite of occasional slips into inaccuracy) kept himself to the most rigid limit of literal representation, phrase by phrase and often line by line. The really startling force and felicity of occasional verses are worthier of remark than the inevitable stiffness and heaviness of others, when the technical difficulty of such a task is duly taken into account.

One of the most faultless lyrics and one of the loveliest fragments in the whole range of descriptive and fanciful poetry would have secured a place for Marlowe among the memorable men of his epoch, even if his plays had perished with himself. His _Passionate Shepherd_ remains ever since unrivalled in its way--a way of pure fancy and radiant melody without break or lapse. The untitled fragment, on the other hand, has been very closely rivalled, perhaps very happily imitated, but only by the greatest lyric poet of England--by Shelley alone. Marlowe's poem of _Hero and Leander_ (entered at Stationers' Hall in September 1593; completed and brought out by George Chapman, who divided Marlowe's work into two sestiads and added four of his own, 1598), closing with the sunrise which closes the night of the lovers' union, stands alone in its age, and far ahead of the work of any possible competitor between the death of Spenser and the dawn of Milton. In clear mastery of narrative and presentation, in melodious ease and simplicity of strength, it is not less pre-eminent than in the adorable beauty and impeccable perfection of separate lines or passages. It is doubtful whether the heroic couplet has ever been more finely handled.

The place and the value of Christopher Marlowe as a leader among English poets it would be almost impossible for historical criticism to over-estimate. To none of them all, perhaps, have so many of the greatest among them been so deeply and so directly indebted. Nor was ever any great writer's influence upon his fellows more utterly and unmixedly an influence for good. He first, and he alone, guided Shakespeare into the right way of work; his music, in which there is no echo of any man's before him, found its own echo in the more prolonged but hardly more exalted harmony of Milton's. He is the greatest discoverer, the most daring and inspired pioneer, in all our poetic literature. Before him there was neither genuine blank verse nor a genuine tragedy in our language. After his arrival the way was prepared, the paths were made straight, for Shakespeare. (A. C. S.)

Marlowe's fame, so finely appreciated by Shakespeare and Drayton, was
in obscuration from the fall of the theatres until the generation of
Lamb and Hazlitt. A collected edition was brought out by Pickering in
1826. This was greatly improved upon by A. Dyce (1858, 1865, 1876). A
one-volume edition was prepared by Colonel Francis Cunningham in 1871.
The standard edition of Mr A. H. Bullen in 3 vols. appeared in
1884-1885 and is now under revision. The "Best Plays" were edited for
the Mermaid series by Havelock Ellis with an Introduction by J. A.
Symonds (1887-1889). The best modern text is that edited by C. F.
Tucker Brooke (Oxf. Univ. Press, 1910). A sketch in outline of
Marlowe's Life was essayed by J. G. Lewis (Canterbury, 1891). A not
very conclusive monograph on _Christopher Marlowe and his Associates_
by J. H. Ingram, followed in 1904. For further information the reader
should consult the histories of the stage by Collier, Ward, Fleay,
Schelling, and the studies of Shakespeare's Predecessors by Symonds,
Mezières, Boas, Manley, Churton Collins, Feuillerat and J. M.
Robertson. See also Verity's _Essay on Marlowe's Influence_ (1886);
_Mod. Lang. Rev._ iv. 167 (M. at Cambridge); Swinburne, _Study of
Shakespeare_ (1880); Elze, _Notes_, and Hazlitt _Dramatic Lit. of the
Age of Elizabeth_; _Fortnightly Review_, xiii., lxxi., and Sept.-Oct.,
1905; Jusserand, _Hist. of English Lit._; the _Cambridge Hist. of
English Lit._; Seccombe and Allen, _Age of Shakespeare_ (vol. ii. 3rd
ed., 1909), and the separate editions of _Dr Faustus_, _Edward II._,
&c. The main sources of Marlowe were as follows: for _Tamburlaine_,
Pedro Mexia's _Life of Timur_ in his _Silva_ (Madrid, 1543),
anglicized by Fortescue in his _Foreste_ (1571) and Petrus Perondinus
_Vita Magni Tamerlanis_ (1551); for _Faustus_: a contemporary English
version of the Faust-buch or _Historia von D. Johann Fausten_
(Frankfort, 1587), and for _Edward II._, the _Chronicles_ of Fabyan
(1516), Holinshed (1577) and Stow (1580). (T. Se.)

MARLOWE, JULIA [SARAH FRANCES FROST] (1870- ), American actress, was born near Keswick, England, on the 17th of August 1870, and went with her family to America in 1875. Her first formal appearance on the stage was in New York in 1887, although she had before that travelled with a juvenile opera company in _H.M.S. Pinafore_, and afterwards was given such parts as Maria in _Twelfth Night_ in Miss Josephine Riley's travelling company. Her first great success was as Parthenia in _Ingomar_, and her subsequent presentations of Rosalind, Viola, and Julia in _The Hunchback_ confirmed her position as a "star." In 1894 she married Robert Taber, an actor, with whom she played until their divorce in 1900. Subsequently she had great success as Barbara Frietchie in Clyde Fitch's play of that name, and other dramas; and from 1904 to 1907 she acted with E. H. Sothern in a notable series of Shakespeare plays, as well as in modern drama.

MARLY-LE-ROI, a village of northern France in the department of Seine-et-Oise, 5 m. N. by W. of Versailles by road. Pop. (1906), 1409. Notwithstanding some fine country houses, Marly is dull and unattractive, and owes all its celebrity to the sumptuous château built towards the end of the 17th century by Louis XIV., and now destroyed. It was originally designed as a simple hermitage to which the king could occasionally retire with a few of his more intimate friends from the pomp of Versailles, but gradually it grew until it became one of the most ruinous extravagances of the Grand Monarque. The central pavilion (inhabited by the king himself) and its twelve subsidiary pavilions were intended to suggest the sun surrounded by the signs of the zodiac. Seldom visited by Louis XV., and wholly abandoned by Louis XVI., it was demolished after the Revolution, its art treasures having previously been dispersed, and the remains now consist of a large basin, the Abreuvoir, a few mouldering ivy-grown walls, some traces of parterres with magnificent trees, the park, and the forest of 8½ sq. m., one of the most pleasant promenades of the neighbourhood of Paris, containing the shooting preserves of the President of the Republic.

Close to the Seine, half-way between Marly-le-Roi and St Germain, is the village of Port-Marly, and one mile farther up is the hamlet of Marly-la-Machine. Here, in 1684, an immense hydraulic engine, driven by the current of the river, was erected; it raised the water to a high tower, where the aqueduct of Marly began (700 yds. in length, 75 in height, with 36 arches, still well-preserved), carrying the waters of the Seine to Versailles.

MARMALADE (adopted from Fr. _marmelade_, from _marmelo_, a quince, derived through the Lat. _melimelum_, from Gr. [Greek: meli], honey, and [Greek: mêlon], an apple, an apple grafted on a quince), a preserve originally made of quinces, but now commonly of Seville oranges. The "marmalade-tree" (_Lucuma mammosa_) bears a fruit whose thick pulp resembles marmalade and is called natural marmalade. "Marmalade box" is the name of the fruit of the _Genipa Americana_, which opens in the same manner as a walnut, the nut being replaced by a soft pulp.

MARMANDE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Lot-et-Garonne, 35 m. N.W. of Agen, on the Southern railway from Bordeaux to Cette. Pop. (1906), town 6373; commune, 9748. Marmande is situated at the confluence of the Trec with the Garonne on the right bank of the latter river, which is here crossed by a suspension bridge. Public institutions include the sub-prefecture, the tribunals of first instance and commerce, the communal college and schools of commerce and industry and of agriculture. Apart from the administrative offices, the only building of importance is the church of Nôtre-Dame, which dates from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The graceful windows of the nave, the altarpiece of the 18th century, and in particular, the Renaissance cloister adjoining the south side, are its most interesting features. Among the industries are iron-founding, steam sawing, the manufacture of woollens, carriage-making, cooperage and brandy-distilling. There is a large trade in wine, plums, cattle, grain and other agricultural produce.

Marmande was a _bastide_ founded about 1195 on the site of a more ancient town by Richard Coeur de Lion, who granted it a liberal measure of self-government. Its position on the banks of the Garonne made it an important place of toll. It soon passed into the hands of the counts of Toulouse, and was three times besieged and taken during the Albigensian crusade, its capture by Amaury de Montfort in 1219 being followed by a massacre of the inhabitants. It was united to the French crown under Louis IX. A short occupation by the English in 1447, an unsuccessful siege by Henry IV. in 1577 and its resistance of a month to a division of Wellington's army in 1814, are the chief events in its subsequent history.

MARMIER, XAVIER (1809-1892), French author, was born at Pontarlier, in Doubs, on the 24th of June 1809. He had a passion for travelling, and this he combined throughout his life with the production of literature. After journeying in Switzerland, Belgium and Holland, he was attached in 1835 to the Arctic expedition of the "Recherche"; and after a couple of years at Rennes as professor of foreign literature, he visited (1842) Russia, (1845) Syria, (1846) Algeria, (1848-1849) North and South America, and numerous volumes from his pen were the result. In 1870 he was elected to the Academy, and he was for many years prominently identified with the Sainte-Geneviève library. He did much to encourage the study of Scandinavian literature in France, publishing translations of Holberg, Oehlenschläger and others. He died in Paris on the 11th of October 1892.

MARMONT, AUGUSTE FRÉDÉRIC LOUIS VIESSE DE, DUKE OF RAGUSA (1774-1852), marshal of France, was born at Châtillon-sur-Seine, on the 20th of July 1774. He was the son of an ex-officer in the army who belonged to the _petite noblesse_ and adopted the principles of the Revolution. His love of soldiering soon showing itself, his father took him to Dijon to learn mathematics prior to entering the artillery, and there he made the acquaintance of Bonaparte, which he renewed after obtaining his commission when he served in Toulon. The acquaintance ripened into intimacy; Marmont became General Bonaparte's aide-de-camp, remained with him during his disgrace and accompanied him to Italy and Egypt, winning distinction and promotion to general of brigade. In 1799 he returned to Europe with his chief; he was present at the _coup d'état_ of the 18th Brumaire, and organized the artillery for the expedition to Italy, which he commanded with great effect at Marengo. For this he was at once made general of division. In 1801 he became inspector-general of artillery, and in 1804 grand officer of the Legion of Honour, but was greatly disappointed at being omitted from the list of officers who were made marshals. In 1805 he received the command of a corps, with which he did good service at Ulm. He was then directed to take possession of Dalmatia with his army, and occupied Ragusa. For the next five years he was military and civil governor of Dalmatia, and traces of his beneficent régime still survive both in great public works and in the memories of the people. In 1808 he was made duke of Ragusa, and in 1809, being summoned by Napoleon to take part in the Austrian War, he marched to Vienna and bore a share in the closing operations of the campaign. Napoleon now made him a marshal and governor-general of all the Illyrian provinces of the empire. In July 1810 Marmont was hastily summoned to succeed Masséna in the command of the French army in the north of Spain. The skill with which he manoeuvred his army during the year he commanded it has been always acknowledged. His relief of Ciudad Rodrigo in the autumn of 1811 in spite of the presence of the English army was a great feat, and in the manoeuvring which preceded the battle of Salamanca he had the best of it. But Wellington more than retrieved his position in the battle (see SALAMANCA), and inflicted a severe defeat on the French, Marmont himself being gravely wounded in the right arm and side. He retired to France to recover, and was still hardly cured when in April 1813 Napoleon, who soon forgot his fleeting resentment for the defeat, gave him the command of a corps. With it he served at the battles of Lützen, Bautzen and Dresden, and throughout the great defensive campaign of 1814 until the last battle before Paris, from which he drew back his forces to the commanding position of Essonne. Here he had 20,000 men in hand, and was the pivot of all thoughts. Napoleon said of this camp of Essonne, "C'est là que viendront s'addresser toutes les intrigues, toutes les trahisons; aussi y ai-je placé Marmont, mon enfant élevé sous ma tente." Marmont then took upon himself a political rôle which has, no doubt justly, been stigmatized as ungrateful and treasonable. A secret convention was concluded, and Marmont's corps was surrounded by the enemy. Napoleon, who still hoped to retain the crown for his infant son, was prostrated, and said with a sadness deeper than violent words, "Marmont me porte le dernier coup."

This act was never forgiven by Marmont's countrymen. On the restoration of the Bourbons he was indeed made a peer of France and a major-general of the royal guard, and in 1820 a knight of the Saint Esprit and a grand officer of the order of St Louis; but he was never trusted. He was the major-general of the guard on duty in July 1830, and was ordered to put down with a strong hand any opposition to the ordinances (see FRANCE). Himself opposed to the court policy, he yet tried to do his duty, and only gave up the attempt to suppress the revolution when it became clear that his troops were outmatched. This brought more obloquy upon him, and the duc d'Angoulême even ordered him under arrest, saying, "Will you betray us, as you betrayed him?" Marmont did not betray them; he accompanied the king into exile and forfeited his marshalate thereby. His desire to return to France was never gratified and he wandered in central and eastern Europe, settling finally in Vienna, where he was well received by the Austrian government, and strange to say made tutor to the duke of Reichstadt, the young man who had once for a few weeks been styled Napoleon II. He died at Venice on the 22nd of March 1852.

Much of his time in his last years was spent upon his _Mémoires_, which are of great value for the military history of his time, though they must be read as a personal defence of himself in various junctures rather than as an unbiased account of his times. They show Marmont, as he really was, an embittered man, who never thought his services sufficiently requited, and above all, a man too much in love with himself and his own glory to be a true friend or a faithful servant. His strategy indeed tended to become pure virtuosity, and his tactics, though neat, appear frigid and antiquated when contrasted with those of the instinctive leaders, the fighting generals whom the theorists affect to despise. But his military genius is undeniable, and he was as far superior to the mere theorist as Lannes and Davout were to the pure _divisionnaire_ or "fighting" general.

His works are _Voyage en Hongrie_, &c. (4 vols., 1837); _Voyage en
Sicile_ (1838); _Esprit des institutions militaires_ (1845); _César_;
_Xenophon_; and _Mémoires_ (8 vols., published after his death in
1856). See the long and careful notice by Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du
Lundi_, vol. vi.

MARMONTEL, JEAN FRANÇOIS (1723-1799), French writer, was born of poor parents at Bort, in Cantal, on the 11th of July 1723. After studying with the Jesuits at Mauriac, he taught in their colleges at Clermont and Toulouse; and in 1745, acting on the advice of Voltaire, he set out for Paris to try for literary honours. From 1748 to 1753 he wrote a succession of tragedies which,[1] though only moderately successful on the stage, secured the admission of the author to literary and fashionable circles. He wrote for the _Encyclopédie_ a series of articles evincing considerable critical power and insight, which in their collected form, under the title _Éléments de Littérature_, still rank among the French classics. He also wrote several comic operas, the two best of which probably are _Sylvain_ (1770) and _Zémire et Azore_ (1771). In the Gluck-Piccini controversy he was an eager partisan of Piccini with whom he collaborated in _Didon_ (1783) and _Pénélope_ (1785). In 1758 he gained the patronage of Madame de Pompadour, who obtained for him a place as a civil servant, and the management of the official journal _Le Mercure_, in which he had already begun the famous series of _Contes moraux_. The merit of these tales lies partly in the delicate finish of the style, but mainly in the graphic and charming pictures of French society under Louis XV. The author was elected to the French Academy in 1763. In 1767 he published a romance, _Bélisaire_, now remarkable only on account of a chapter on religious toleration which incurred the censure of the Sorbonne and the archbishop of Paris. Marmontel retorted in _Les Incas_ (1778) by tracing the cruelties in Spanish America to the religious fanaticism of the invaders.

He was appointed historiographer of France (1771), secretary to the Academy (1783), and professor of history in the Lycée (1786). In his character of historiographer Marmontel wrote a history of the regency (1788) which is of little value. Reduced to poverty by the Revolution, Marmontel in 1792 retired during the Terror to Evreux, and soon after to a cottage at Abloville in the department of Eure. To that retreat we owe his _Mémoires d'un père_ (4 vols., 1804) giving a picturesque review of his whole life, a literary history of two important reigns, a great gallery of portraits extending from the venerable Massillon, whom more than half a century previously he had seen at Clermont, to Mirabeau. The book was nominally written for the instruction of his children. It contains an exquisitely drawn picture of his own childhood in the Limousin; its value for the literary historian is very great. Marmontel lived for some time under the roof of Mme Geoffrin, and was present at her famous dinners given to artists; he was, indeed, an _habitué_ of most of the houses where the encyclopaedists met. He had thus at his command the best material for his portraits, and made good use of his opportunities. After a short stay in Paris when elected in 1797 to the Conseil des Anciens, he died on the 31st of December 1799 at Abloville.

See Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, iv.; Morellet, _Éloge_ (1805).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] _Denys le Tyran_ (1748); _Aristomène_ (1749); _Cléopâtre_ (1750);
_Héraclides_ (1752); _Egyptus_ (1753).

MARMORA (anc. _Proconnesus_), an island in the sea of the same name. Originally settled by Greeks from Miletus in the 8th century B.C., Proconnesus was annexed by its powerful neighbour Cyzicus in 362. The island has at all times been noted for its quarries of white marble which supplied the material for several famous buildings of antiquity (e.g. the palace of Mausolus at Halicarnassus).

See C. Texier, _Asie mineure_ (Paris, 1839-1849); M. I. Gedeon,
[Greek: Proikonnêsos] (Constantinople, 1895); an exhaustive monograph
by F. W. Hasluek in _Journ. Hell. Stud._, xxix., 1909.

MARMORA, SEA OF (anc. _Propontis_; Turk. _Mermer Denisi_), the small inland sea which (in part) separates the Turkish dominions in Europe from those in Asia, and is connected through the Bosporus with the Black Sea (q.v.) and through the Dardanelles with the Aegean. It is 170 m. long (E. to W.) and nearly 50 m. in extreme width, and has an area of 4500 sq. m. Its greatest depth is about 700 fathoms, the deepest parts (over 500 fathoms) occurring in three depressions in the northern portion--one close under the European shore to the south of Rodosto, another near the centre of the sea, and a third at the mouth of the Gulf of Ismid. There are several considerable islands, of which the largest, Marmora, lies in the west, off the peninsula of Kapu Dagh, along with Afsia, Aloni and smaller islands. In the east, off the Asiatic shore between the Bosporus and the Gulf of Ismid, are the Princes' Islands.

MARMOSET, a name derived from Fr. _marmouset_ (meaning "of a gross figure"), and used to designate the small tropical American monkeys classed by naturalists in the family _Hapalidae_ (or _Chrysothricidae_). Marmosets are not larger than squirrels, and present great variation in colour; all have long tails, and many have the ears tufted. They differ from the other American monkeys in having one pair less of molar teeth in each jaw. The common marmoset, _Hapale_ (or _Chrysothrix_) _jacchus_, is locally known as the _oustiti_, while the name piriché is applied to another species (see PRIMATES).

MARMOT, the vernacular name of a large, thickly built, burrowing Alpine rodent mammal, allied to the squirrels, and typifying the genus _Arctomys_, of which there are numerous species ranging from the Alps through Asia north of (but including the inner ranges of) the Himalaya, and recurring in North America. All these may be included under the name marmot. In addition to their stout build and long thickly haired tails, marmots are characterized by the absence of cheek-pouches, and the rudimentary first front-toe, which is furnished with a flat nail, as well as by certain features of the skull and cheek-teeth. Europe possesses two species, the Alpine or true marmot (_A. marmotta_), and the more eastern bobac (_A. bobac_); and there are numerous kinds in Central Asia, one of which, the red marmot (_A. caudata_), is a much larger animal, with a longer tail. Marmots inhabit open country, either among mountains, or, more to the north, in the plains; and associate in large colonies, forming burrows, each tenanted by a single family. During the daytime the hillock at the entrance to the burrow is frequently occupied by one or more members of the family, which at the approach of strangers sit up on their hind-legs in order to get a better view. If alarmed they utter a shrill loud whistle, and rush down the burrow, but reappear after a few minutes to see if the danger is past. In the winter when the ground is deep in snow, marmots retire to the depths of their burrows, where as many as ten or fifteen may occupy the same chamber. No store of food is accumulated, and the winter sleep is probably unbroken. From two to four is the usual number of young in a litter. In America marmots are known as "wood-chucks" (q.v.), the commonest species being _A. monax_. The so-called prairie-dogs, which are smaller and more slender North American rodents with small cheek-pouches, form a separate genus, _Cynomys_; while the term pouched-marmots denotes the various species of souslik (q.v.), _Spermophilus_ (or _Citillus_), which are common to both hemispheres, and distinguished by the presence of large cheek-pouches (see RODENTIA). (R. L.*)

MARNE, a river of northern France, rising on the Plateau of Langres, 3 m. S. by E. of Langres, and uniting with the Seine at Charenton, an eastern suburb of Paris. Leaving Langres on the left the river flows northward, passing Chaumont, as far as a point a little above St Dizier. Here it turns west and enters the department of Marne, where it waters the Perthois and the wide plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse. Soon after its entrance into this department it receives the Blaise; and turning north-west passes Vitry-le-François where it receives the Saulx, Châlons, below which it resumes a westerly course, and Epernay, where it enters picturesque and undulating country. Its subsequent course lies through the departments of Aisne, where it flows through Chateau-Thierry; Seine-et-Marne, where it drives the picturesque mills of Meaux; Seine-et-Oise and Seine. Its chief tributaries in those departments are the Petit-Morin, the Ourcq and the Grand-Morin. The length of the Marne is 328 m., the area of its basin 4894 sq. m. It is joined a mile from its source of the Marne-Saône canal which is continued at Rouvroy by the Haute-Marne canal as far as Vitry-le-François. From that town, which is the starting-point of the canal between the Marne and the Rhine, it is accompanied by the lateral canal of the Marne to Dizy where its own channel is canalized. At Condé, above Epernay, the river is joined by the canal connecting it with the Aisne. From Lizy, above Meaux, it is accompanied on the right bank, though at some distance, by the Ourcq canal.

MARNE, a department of north-eastern France, made up from Champagne-Pouilleuse, Rémois, Haute-Champagne, Perthois, Tardenois, Bocage and Brie-Pouilleuse, districts formerly belonging to Champagne, and bounded W. by Seine-et-Marne and Aisne, N. by Aisne and Ardennes, E. by Meuse, and S. by Haute-Marne and Aube. Pop. (1906), 434,157. Area 3167 sq. m.

About one-half consists of Champagne-Pouilleuse, a monotonous and barren plain covering a bed of chalk 1300 ft. in thickness. On the west and on the east it is commanded by two ranges of hills. The highest point in the department (920 ft.) is in the hill district of Reims, which rises to the south-west of the town of the same name, between the Vesle and the Marne. The lowest level (164 ft.) where the Aisne leaves the department, is not far distant. To the south of the Marne the hills of Reims are continued by the heights of Brie (700 to 800 ft.). All these belong geologically to the basin of Paris. They slope gently towards the west, but command the plain of Champagne-Pouilleuse by a steep descent on the east. On the farther side of the plain are the heights of Argonne (860 ft.) formed of beds of the Lower Chalk, and covered by forests; they unite the calcareous formations of Langres to the schists of Ardennes, and a continuation of them stretches southward into Perthois and the marshy Bocage. The department belongs entirely to the Seine basin, but includes only 13 miles of that river, in the south-west; it there receives the Aube, which flows for 10 miles within the department. The principal river is the Marne, which runs through the department for 105 miles in a great sweep concave to the south-west. The Aisne enters the department at a point 12 miles from its source, and traverses it for 37 miles. Two of its affluents on the left, the Suippes and the Vesle, on which stands Reims, have a longer course from south-east to north-west across the department.

Marne has the temperate climate of the region of the Seine; the annual mean temperature is 50° F., the rainfall about 24 in. Oats, wheat, rye and barley among the cereals, lucerne, sainfoin and clover, and potatoes, mangold-wurzels and sugar-beet are the principal agricultural crops. The raising of sheep of a mixed merino breed and of other stock together with bee-farming are profitable. The vineyards, concentrated chiefly round Reims and Épernay, are of high value; the manufacture of the sparkling Champagne wines being a highly important industry, of which Épernay, Reims and Châlons are the chief centres. Several communes supply the more valuable vegetables, such as asparagus, onions, &c. The principal orchard fruits are the apple, plum and cherry. Pine woods are largely planted in Champagne-Pouilleuse. The department produces peat, millstones and chalk.

The woollen industry has brought together in the neighbourhood of Reims establishments for spinning, carding, dyeing and weaving. The materials wrought are flannels, merinoes, tartans, shawls, rugs and fancy articles; the manufacture of woollen and cotton hosiery must also be mentioned. The manufacture of wine-cases, corks, casks and other goods for the wine trade is actively carried on. Marne contains blast-furnaces, iron and copper foundries, and manufactories of agricultural implements. Besides these there are tan-yards, currying and leather-dressing establishments and glassworks, which, with sugar, chemical, whiting and oil works, potteries, flour-mills and breweries, complete the list of the most important industries. Biscuits and gingerbread are a speciality of Reims. The chief imports are wool and coal; the exports are wine, grain, live-stock, stone, whiting, pit-props and woollen stuffs. Communication is afforded chiefly by the river Marne with its canal connexions, and by the Eastern railway. There are five arrondissements--those of Châlons (the capital), Épernay, Reims, Ste Ménehould and Vitry-le-François--with 33 cantons and 662 communes. The department belongs partly to the archbishopric of Reims and partly to the see of Châlons. Châlons is the headquarters of the VI. army corps. Its educational centre and court of appeal are at Paris. The principal towns--Châlons-sur-Marne, Reims, Épernay and Vitry-le-François--are separately treated. The towns next in population are Ay (4994) and Sézanne (4504). Other places of interest are Ste Ménehould (3348), formerly an important fortress and capital of the Argonne; Montmort with a Renaissance château once the property of Sully; Trois-Fontaines with a ruined church of the 12th century and the remains of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1115; and Orbais with an abbey church dating from about 1200.

MARNIAN EPOCH, the name given by G. de Mortillet to the period usually called in France the Gallic, which extends from about five centuries before the Christian era to the conquest of Gaul by Caesar. M. de Mortillet objects to the term "Gallic," as the civilization characteristic of the epoch was not peculiar to the ancient Gauls, but was common to nearly all Europe at the same date. The name is derived from the fact that the French department of Marne has afforded the richest "finds."

MAROCHETTI, CARLO, BARON (1805-1867), Italian sculptor, was born at Turin. Most of his early life was spent in France, his first systematic instruction being given him by Bosio and Gros in Paris. Here his statue of "A Young Girl playing with a Dog" won a medal in 1829. But between 1822 and 1830 he studied chiefly in Rome. From 1832 to 1848 he lived in France. His "Fallen Angel" was exhibited in 1831. In 1848 Marochetti removed to London, and there he lived for the greater part of his time till his death in 1867. Among his chief works were statues of Queen Victoria, Lord Clyde (the obelisk in Waterloo Place), Richard Coeur-de-Lion (Westminster), Emmanuel Philibert (1833, Turin), the tomb of Bellini (Père-la-Chaise), and the altar in the Madeleine. His style was vigorous and effective, but rather popular than artistic. Marochetti, who was created a baron by the king of Sardinia, was also a chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

MARONITES (Arab. _Mawarina_), a Christian people of the Ottoman Empire in communion with the Papal Church, but forming a distinct denomination. The original seat and present home of the nucleus of the Maronites is Mt Lebanon; but they are also to be found in considerable force in Anti-Lebanon and Hermon, and more sporadically in and near Antioch, in Galilee, and on the Syrian coast. Colonies exist in Cyprus (with a large convent near Cape Kormakiti), in Alexandria, and in the United States of America. These began to be formed during the troubles of 1860. The Lebanon community numbers about 300,000, and the total of the whole denomination cannot be much under half a million.

The origin of Maronism has been much obscured by the efforts of learned Maronites like Yusuf as-Simani (Assemanus), Vatican librarian under Clement XII., Faustus Nairon, Gabriel Sionita and Abraham Ecchellensis to clear its history from all taint of heresy. We are told of an early Antiochene, Mar Marun or Maro, who died about A.D. 400 in the odour of sanctity in a convent at Ribla on the Orontes, whence orthodoxy spread over mid-Syria. But nothing sure is known of him, and not much more about a more historical personage, Yuhanna Marun (John Sirimensis of Suedia), said to have been patriarch of Antioch, to have converted Lebanon from Monothelism, and to have died in A.D. 707. It is, however, certain that the Lebanon Christians as a whole were not orthodox in the time of Justinian II., against whose supporters, the Melkites, they ranged themselves after having co-operated awhile with the emperor against the Moslems. They were then called Mardaites or rebels, and were mainly Monothelite in the 12th century, and remained largely so even a century later. The last two facts are attested by William of Tyre and Barhebraeus. It seems most probable that the Lebanon offered refuge to Antiochene Monothelites flying from the ban of the Constantinopolitan Council of A.D. 680; that these converted part of the old mountain folk, who already held some kind of Incarnationist creed; and that their first patriarch and his successors, for about 500 years at any rate, were Monothelite, and perhaps also Monophysite. It is worth noting that even as late as the close of the 16th century the Maronite patriarch found it necessary to protest by anathema against imputations of heresy. In 1182 it is said that Amaury, patriarch of Antioch, induced some Maronite bishops, who had fallen under crusading influences, to rally to Rome; and a definite acceptance of the Maronite Church into the Roman communion took place at the Council of Florence in 1445. But it is evident that the local particularism of the Lebanon was adverse to this union, and that even Gregory XIII., who sent the _pallium_ to the patriarch Michael, and Clement VII. who in 1596 dispatched a mission to a synod convoked at Kannobin, the old patriarchal residence, did not prevail on the lower clergy or the mass of the Maronites. A century and a half later Clement XII. was more successful. He sent to Syria, Assemanus, a Maronite educated at the Roman college of Gregory XIII.; and at last, at a council held at the monastery of Lowaizi on the 30th of September 1736, the Maronite Church accepted from Rome a constitution which is still in force, and agreed to abandon some of its more incongruous usages such as mixed convents of monks and nuns. It retained, however, its Syriac liturgy and a non-celibate priesthood. The former still persists unchanged, while the Bible is read and exhortations are given in Arabic; and priests may still be ordained after marriage. But marriage is not permitted subsequent to ordination, nor does it any longer usually precede it. The tendency to a celibate clergy increases, together with other romanizing usages, promoted by the papal legate in Beirut, the Catholic missioners, and the higher native clergy who are usually educated in Rome or at St Sulpice. The legate exercises growing influence on patriarchal and other elections, and on Church government and discipline. The patriarch receives confirmation from Rome, and the political representation of the Maronites at Constantinople is in the hands of the vicar apostolic. Rome has incorporated most of the Maronite saints in her calendar, while refusing (despite their apologists) to canonize either of the reputed eponymous founders of Maronism.

While retaining many local usages, the Maronite Church does not differ now in anything essential from the Papal, either in dogma or practice. It has, like the Greek Church, two kinds of clergy--parochial and monastic. The former are supported by their parishes; the latter by the revenues of the monasteries, which own about one-sixth of the Lebanon lands. There are some 1400 monks in about 120 monastic establishments (many of these being mere farms in charge of one or two monks). All are of the order of St Anthony, but divided into three congregations, the Ishaya, the Halebiyeh (Aleppine) and the Beladiyeh or Libnaniyeh (local). The distinction of the last named dates only from the early 18th century. The lower clergy are educated at the theological college of Ain Warka. There are five archbishoprics and five bishoprics under the patriarch, who alone can consecrate. The sees are Aleppo, Baalbek, Tripoli, Ehden, Damascus, Beirut, Tyre, Cyprus and Jebeil (held by the patriarch himself _ex officio_). There are also four prelates _in partibus_.

The Maronites are most numerous and unmixed in the north of Lebanon
(districts of Bsherreh and Kesrawan). Formerly they were wholly
organized on a clan system under feudal chiefs, of whom those of the
house of Khazin were the most powerful; and these fought among
themselves rather than with the Druses or other denominations down to
the 18th century, when the Arab family of Shehab for its own purposes
began to stir up strife between Maronites and Druses (see DRUSES).
Feudalism died hard, but since 1860 has been practically extinct; and
so far as the Maronites own a chief of their own people it is the
"Patriarch of Antioch and the whole East," who resides at Bkerkeh near
Beirut in winter, and at a hill station (Bdiman or Raifun) in summer.
The latter, however, has no recognized jurisdiction except over his
clergy. The Maronites have four members on the provincial council, two
of whom are the sole representatives of the two _mudirats_ of
Kesrawan; and they have derived benefit from the fact that so far the
governor of the privileged province has always been a Catholic (see
LEBANON). The French protection of them, which dates from Louis XIV.,
is no longer operative but to French official representatives is still
accorded a courteous precedence. The Maronite population has greatly
increased at the expense of the Druses, and is now obliged to emigrate
in considerable numbers. Increase of wealth and the influence of
returned emigrants tend to soften Maronite character, and the last
remnants of the barbarous state of the community--even the obstinate
blood-feud--are disappearing.

See C. F. Schnurrer, _De ecclesia Maronitica_ (1810); F. J. Bliss in
_Pal. Expl. Fund Quarterly Statement_ (1892); and authorities for
DRUSES and LEBANON. (D. G. H.)

MAROONS. A _nègre marron_ is defined by Littré as a fugitive slave who betakes himself to the woods; a similar definition of _cimarron_ (apparently from _cima_, a mountain top) is given in the _Dictionary_ of the Spanish Academy. The old English form of the word is _symaron_ (see Hawkins's _Voyage_, § 68). The term "Maroons" is applied almost as a proper name to the descendants of those negroes in Jamaica who at the first English occupation in the 17th century fled to the mountains. (See JAMAICA.)

MAROS-VÁSÁRHELY, a town of Hungary in Transylvania, capital of the county of Maros-Torda, 79 m. E. of Kolozsvár by rail. Pop. (1900), 19,522. It is situated on the left bank of the Maros, and is a well-built town; once the capital of the territory of the Szeklers. On a hill dominating the town stands the old fortress, which contains a beautiful church in Gothic style built about 1446, where in 1571 the diet was held which proclaimed the equality of the Unitarian Church with the Roman Catholic, the Lutheran, and Calvinistic Churches. The Teleki palace contains the Teleki collections, which include a library of 70,000 volumes and several valuable manuscripts (e.g. the Teleki Codex), a collection of old Hungarian poems, and a manuscript of Tacitus, besides a collection of antiquities and another of minerals. Maros-Vásárhely has also an interesting Szekler industrial museum. The trade is chiefly in timber, grain, wine, tobacco, fruit and other products of the neighbourhood. There are manufactures of sugar, spirits and beer.

MAROT, CLÉMENT (1496-1544), French poet, was born at Cahors, the capital of the province of Quercy, some time during the winter of the year 1496-1497. His father, Jean Marot (c. 1463-1523), whose more correct name appears to have been des Mares, Marais or Marets, was a Norman of the neighbourhood of Caen. Jean was himself a poet of considerable merit, and held the post of _escripvain_ (apparently uniting the duties of poet laureate and historiographer) to Anne of Brittany. He had however resided in Cahors for a considerable time, and was twice married there, his second wife being the mother of Clément. The boy was "brought into France"--it is his own expression, and is not unnoteworthy as showing the strict sense in which that term was still used at the beginning of the 16th century--in 1506, and he appears to have been educated at the university of Paris, and to have then begun the study of law. But, whereas most other poets have had to cultivate poetry against their father's will, Jean Marot took great pains to instruct his son in the fashionable forms of verse-making, which indeed required not a little instruction. It was the palmy time of the _rhétoriqueurs_, poets who combined stilted and pedantic language with an obstinate adherence to the allegorical manner of the 15th century and to the most complicated and artificial forms of the _ballade_ and the _rondeau_. Clément himself practised with diligence this poetry (which he was to do more than any other man to overthrow), and he has left panegyrics of its coryphaeus Guillaume Crétin, the supposed original of the Raminagrobis of Rabelais, while he translated Virgil's first eclogue in 1512. Nor did he long continue even a nominal devotion to law. He became page to Nicolas de Neuville, seigneur de Villeroy, and this opened to him the way to court life. Besides this, his father's interest must have been not inconsiderable, and the house of Valois, which was about to hold the throne of France for the greater part of a century, was devoted to letters.

As early as 1514, before the accession of Francis I., Clément presented to him his _Judgment of Minos_, and shortly afterwards he was either styled or styled himself _facteur_ (poet) _de la reine_ to Queen Claude. In 1519 he was attached to the suite of Marguerite d'Angoulême, the king's sister, who was for many years to be the mainstay not only of him but of almost all French men of letters. He was also a great favourite of Francis himself, attended the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and duly celebrated it in verse. Next year he was at the camp in Flanders, and writes of the horrors of war. It is certain that Marot, like most of Marguerite's literary court, and perhaps more than most of them, was greatly attracted by her gracious ways, her unfailing kindness, and her admirable intellectual accomplishments, but there is not the slightest ground for thinking that his attachment was other than platonic. It is, however, evident that at this time either sentiment or matured critical judgment effected a great change in his style, a change which was wholly for the better. At the same time he celebrates a certain Diane, whom it has been sought to identify with Diane de Poitiers. There is nothing to support this idea and much against it, for it was an almost invariable habit of the poets of the 16th century, when the mistresses whom they celebrated were flesh and blood at all (which was not always the case), to celebrate them under pseudonyms. In the same year, 1524, Marot accompanied Francis on his disastrous Italian campaign. He was wounded and taken at Pavia, but soon released, and he was back again at Paris by the beginning of 1525. His luck had, however, turned. Marguerite for intellectual reasons, and her brother for political, had hitherto favoured the double movement of _Aufklärung_, partly humanist, partly Reforming, which distinguished the beginning of the century. Formidable opposition to both forms of innovation, however, now began to be manifested, and Marot, who was at no time particularly prudent, was arrested on a charge of heresy and lodged in the Châtelet, February 1526. But this was only a foretaste of the coming trouble, and a friendly prelate, acting for Marguerite, extricated him from his durance before Easter. The imprisonment gave him occasion to write a vigorous poem on it entitled _Enfer_, which was afterwards imitated by his luckless friend Étienne Dolet. His father died about this time, and Marot seems to have been appointed to the place which Jean had latterly enjoyed, that of valet de chambre to the king. He was certainly a member of the royal household in 1528 with a stipend of 250 livres, besides which he had inherited property in Quercy. In 1530, probably, he married. Next year he was again in trouble, not it is said for heresy, but for attempting to rescue a prisoner, and was again delivered; this time the king and queen of Navarre seem to have bailed him themselves.

In 1532 he published (it had perhaps appeared three years earlier), under the title of _Adolescence Clémentine_, a title the characteristic grace of which excuses its slight savour of affectation, the first printed collection of his works, which was very popular and was frequently reprinted with additions. Dolet's edition of 1538 is believed to be the most authoritative. Unfortunately, however, the poet's enemies were by no means discouraged by their previous ill-success, and the political situation was very unfavourable to the Reforming party. In 1535 Marot was implicated in the affair of "The Placards,"[1] and this time he was advised or thought it best to fly. He passed through Béarn, and then made his way to Renée, duchess of Ferrara, a supporter of the French reformers as steadfast as her aunt Marguerite, and even more efficacious, because her dominions were out of France. At Ferrara he wrote a good deal, his work there including his celebrated _Blasons_ (a descriptive poem, improved upon medieval models[2]), which set all the verse-writers of France imitating them. But the duchess Renée was not able to persuade her husband, Ercole d'Este, to share her views, and Marot had to quit the city. He then went to Venice, but before very long the pope Paul III. remonstrated with Francis I. on the severity with which the Protestants were treated, and they were allowed to return to Paris on condition of recanting their errors. Marot returned with the rest, and abjured his heresy at Lyons. In 1539 Francis gave him a house and grounds in the suburbs.