Chapter XX: Part 20

It was at this time that his famous translations of the Psalms appeared. The merit of these has been sometimes denied, it is, however, considerable, and the powerful influence which the book exercised on contemporaries is not denied by anyone. The great persons of the court chose different pieces, each as his or her favourite. They were sung in court and city, and they are said, with exaggeration doubtless, but still with a basis of truth, to have done more than anything else to advance the cause of the Reformation in France. Indeed, the vernacular prose translations of the Scriptures were in that country of little merit or power, and the form of poetry was still preferred to prose, even for the most incongruous subjects. At the same time Marot engaged in a curious literary quarrel characteristic of the time, with a bad poet named Sagon, who represented the reactionary Sorbonne. Half the verse-writers of France ranged themselves among the Marotiques or the Sagontiques, and a great deal of versified abuse was exchanged. The victory, as far as wit was concerned, naturally rested with Marot, but his biographers are probably not fanciful in supposing that a certain amount of odium was created against him by the squabble, and that, as in Dolet's case, his subsequent misfortunes were not altogether unconnected with a too little governed tongue and pen.

The publication of the Psalms gave the Sorbonne a handle, and the book was condemned by that body. In 1543 it was evident that he could not rely on the protection of Francis. Marot accordingly fled to Geneva; but the stars were now decidedly against him. He had, like most of his friends, been at least as much of a freethinker as of a Protestant, and this was fatal to his reputation in the austere city of Calvin. He had again to fly, and made his way into Piedmont, and he died at Turin in the autumn of 1544.

In character Marot seems to have been a typical Frenchman of the old
stamp, cheerful, good-humoured and amiable enough, but probably not
very much disposed to elaborately moral life and conversation or to
serious reflection. He has sometimes been charged with a want of
independence of character; but it is fair to remember that in the
middle ages men of letters naturally attached themselves as dependants
to the great. Such scanty knowledge as we have of his relations with
his equals is favourable to him. He certainly at one time quarrelled
with Dolet, or at least wrote a violent epigram against him, for which
there is no known cause. But, as Dolet quarrelled with almost every
friend he ever had, and in two or three cases played them the
shabbiest of tricks, the presumption is not against Marot in this
matter. With other poets like Mellin de Saint Gelais and Brodeau, with
prose writers like Rabelais and Bonaventure Desperiers, he was always
on excellent terms. And whatever may have been his personal
weaknesses, his importance in the history of French literature is very
great, and was long rather under than over-valued. Coming immediately
before a great literary reform--that of the Pléiade--Marot suffered
the drawbacks of his position; he was both eclipsed and decried by the
partakers in that reform. In the reaction against the Pléiade he
recovered honour; but its restoration to virtual favour, a perfectly
just restoration, again unjustly depressed him. Yet Marot is in no
sense one of those writers of transition who are rightly obscured by
those who come after them. He himself was a reformer, and a reformer
on perfectly independent lines, and he carried his own reform as far
as it would go. His early work was couched in the _rhétoriqueur_
style, the distinguishing characteristics of which are elaborate metre
and rhyme, allegoric matter and pedantic language. In his second stage
he entirely emancipated himself from this, and became one of the
easiest, least affected and most vernacular poets of France. In these
points indeed he has, with the exception of La Fontaine, no rival, and
the lighter verse-writers ever since have taken one or the other or
both as model. In his third period he lost a little of this flowing
grace and ease, but acquired something in stateliness, while he
certainly lost nothing in wit. Marot is the first poet who strikes
readers of French as being distinctively modern. He is not so great a
poet as Villon nor as some of his successors of the Pléiade, but he is
much less antiquated than the first (whose works, as well as the
_Roman de la rose_, it may be well to mention that he edited) and not
so elaborately artificial as the second. Indeed if there be a fault to
find with Marot, it is undoubtedly that in his gallant and successful
effort to break up, supple, and liquefy the stiff forms and stiffer
language of the 15th century, he made his poetry almost too vernacular
and pedestrian. He _has_ passion, and picturesqueness, but rarely; in
his hands, and while the _style Marotique_ was supreme, French poetry
ran some risk of finding itself unequal to anything but graceful _vers
de société_. But it is only fair to remember that for a century and
more its best achievements, with rare exceptions, had been _vers de
société_ which were not graceful.

The most important early editions of Marot's _Oeuvres_ are those
published at Lyons in 1538 and 1544. In the second of these the
arrangement of his poems which has been accepted in later issues was
first adopted. In 1596 an enlarged edition was edited by François
Mizière. Others of later date are those of N. Lenglet du Fresnoy (the
Hague, 1731) and P. Jannet (1868-1872; new ed., 1873-1876), on the
whole the best, but there is a very good selection with a still better
introduction by Charles d'Héricault, the joint editor of the Jannet
edition in the larger _Collection Garnier_ (no date). An elaborate
edition by G. Guiffrey remained incomplete, only vols. ii. and iii.
(1875-1881) having been issued. For information about Marot himself
see _Notices biographiques des trois Marot_, edited from the MS. of
Guillaume Colletet by G. Guiffrey (1871); H. Morley, _Clément Marot_,
a study of Marot as a reformer; O. Douen, _Clément Marot et le
psautier huguenot_; the section concerning him in G. Saintsburys _The
Early Renaissance_ (1901); and A. Tilley, _Literature of the French
Renaissance_, vol. i., ch. iv. (1904). (G. Sa.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] These "placards" were the work of the extreme Protestants. Pasted
up in the principal streets of Paris on the night of the 17th of
October 1534, they vilified the Mass and its celebrants, and thus led
to a renewal of the religious persecution.

[2] The _blason_ was defined by Thomas Sibilet as a perpetual praise
or continuous vituperation of its subject. The _blasons_ of Marot's
followers were printed in 1543 with the title of _Blasons anatomiques
du corps féminin_.

MAROT, DANIEL (seventeenth century), French architect, furniture designer and engraver, and pupil of Jean le Pautre (q.v.), was the son of Jean Marot (1620-1679), who was also an architect and engraver. He was a Huguenot, and was compelled by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 to settle in Holland. His earlier work is characteristic of the second period of Louis XIV., but eventually it became tinged with Dutch influence, and in the end the English style which is loosely called "Queen Anne" owed much to his manner. In Holland he was taken almost immediately into the service of the Stadtholder, who, when he shortly afterwards became William III. of England, appointed him one of his architects and master of the works. Comparatively little is known of his architectural achievements, and his name cannot be attached to any English building, although we know from his own engraving that he designed the great hall of audience for the States-General at the Hague. He also decorated many Dutch country-houses. In England his activities appear to have been concentrated upon the adornment of Hampton Court Palace. Among his plans for gardens is one inscribed: "Parterre d'Amton-court inventé par D. Marot." Much of the furniture--especially the mirrors, guéridons and beds--at Hampton Court bears unmistakable traces of his authorship; the tall and monumental beds, with their plumes of ostrich feathers, their elaborate valances and _chantournes_ in crimson velvet or other rich stuffs agree very closely with his published designs. As befits an artist of the time of Louis XIV. splendour and elaboration are the outstanding characteristics of Marot's style, and he appears even to have been responsible for some of the curious and rather barbaric silver furniture which was introduced into England from France in the latter part of the 17th century. At Windsor Castle there is a silver table, attributed to him, supported by caryatid legs and gadrooned feet, with a foot-rail supporting the pine-apple which is so familiar a motive in work of this type. The slab is engraved with the arms of William III. and with the British national emblems with crowns and cherubs. Unquestionably it is an exceedingly fine example of its type. During his life in France Marot made many designs for André Charles Boulle (q.v.), more especially for long case and bracket clocks. The bracket clocks were intended to be mounted in chased and gilded bronze, and with their garlands and masquerons and elegant dials are far superior artistically to those of the "grandfather" variety. It is impossible to examine the designs for Marot's long clocks without suspecting that Chippendale derived from them some at least of the inspiration which made him a master of that kind of furniture. Marot's range was extraordinarily wide. He designed practically every detail in the internal ornamentation of the house--carved chimney-pieces, ceilings, panels for walls, girandoles and wall brackets, and even tea urns and cream jugs--he was indeed a prolific designer of gold and silver plate. Many of his interiors are very rich and harmonious although commonly over-elaborated. The craze for collecting china which was at its height in his time is illustrated in his lavish designs for receptacles for porcelain--in one of his plates there are more than 300 pieces of china on the chimney-piece alone. Marot was still living in 1718, and the date of his death is unknown.

We owe much of our knowledge of his work to the volume of his designs
published at Amsterdam in 1712: _Oeuvres du Sieur D. Marot, architecte
de Guillaume III. Roi de la Grande Bretagne_, and to _Receuil des
planches des sieurs Marot, père et fils_. In addition to decorative
work these books contain prints of scenes in Dutch history, and
engravings of the statues and vases, produced by Marot, at the Palace
of Loo.

MARPLE, an urban district in the Hyde parliamentary division of Cheshire, England, 12 m. S.E. of Manchester, served by the Great Central, Midland & Sheffield and Midland railways, and the Cheshire lines. Pop. (1901), 5595. It lies on and above the valley of the Goyt, and its situation has brought the town into favour as a residential centre for those whose business lies in Manchester, Stockport, and the great manufacturing district to the west. Marple Hall, a beautiful Elizabethan mansion, is connected with the youth, and sometimes stated to be the birthplace, of John Bradshaw the regicide (1602-1659).

MARPRELATE CONTROVERSY, a war of pamphlets waged in 1588 and 1589 between a puritan writer who employed the pseudonym "Martin Marprelate" and defenders of the Established Church. Martin's tracts are characterized by violent and personal invective against the Anglican dignitaries, by the assumption that the writer had numerous and powerful adherents and was able to enforce his demands for reform, and by a plain and homely style combined with pungent wit. While he maintained the puritan doctrines as a whole, the special point of his attack was the Episcopacy. The pamphlets were printed at a secret press established by John Penry, a Welsh puritan, with the help of the printer Robert Waldegrave, about midsummer 1588, for the issue of puritan literature forbidden by the authorities. The first tract by "Martin Marprelate," known as the _Epistle_, appeared at Molesey in November 1588. It is in answer to _A Defence of the Government established in the Church of Englande_, by Dr. John Bridges, dean of Salisbury, itself a reply to earlier puritan works, and besides attacking the episcopal office in general assails certain prelates with much personal abuse. The _Epistle_ attracted considerable notice, and a reply was written by Thomas Cooper, bishop of Winchester, under the title _An Admonition to the People of England_, but this was too long and too dull to appeal to the same class of readers as the Marprelate pamphlets, and produced little effect. Penry's press, now removed to Fawsley, near Northampton, produced a second tract by Martin, the _Epitome_, which contains more serious argument than the _Epistle_ but is otherwise similar, and shortly afterwards, at Coventry, Martin's reply to the _Admonition_, entitled _Hay any Worke for Cooper_ (March 1589). It now appeared to some of the ecclesiastical authorities that the only way to silence Martin was to have him attacked in his own railing style, and accordingly certain writers of ready wit, among them John Lyly, Thomas Nashe and Robert Greene, were secretly commissioned to answer the pamphlets. Among the productions of this group were _Pappe with an Hatchet_ (Sept. 1589), probably by Lyly, and _An Almond for a Parrat_ (1590), which, with certain tracts under the pseudonym of Pasquil, has been attributed to Nashe (q.v.). Some anti-Martinist plays or shows (now lost) performed in 1589 were perhaps also their work. Meanwhile, in July 1589, Penry's press, now at Wolston, near Coventry, produced two tracts purporting to be by "sons" of Martin, but probably by Martin himself, namely, _Theses Martinianae_ by Martin Junior, and _The Just Censure of Martin Junior_ by Martin Senior. Shortly after this, _More Work for Cooper_, a sequel to _Hay any Worke_, was begun at Manchester, but while it was in progress the press was seized. Penry however was not found, and in September issued from Wolston or Haseley _The Protestation of Martin Marprelate_, the last work of the series, though several of the anti-Martinist pamphlets appeared after this date. He then fled to Scotland, but was later apprehended in London, charged with inciting rebellion, and hanged (May 1593). The authorship of the tracts has been attributed to several persons: to Penry himself, who however emphatically denied it and whose acknowledged works have little resemblance in style to those of Martin, to Job Throckmorton, and to Henry Barrow.

See, for list and full titles of the tracts, related documents, and
discussion of the authorship, E. Arber's _Introductory Sketch to the
Martin Marprelate Controversy_ (1880), which, however, gives no
connected account of the matter. A good summary, with quotations from
the pamphlets, will be found in H. M. Dexter's _Congregationalism_
(New York, 1880), pp. 129-202. See also articles on John Penry and Job
Throckmorton in _Dict. of Nat. Biography_; and for the history of the
press, _Bibliographica_, ii. 172-180. Maskell's _Martin Marprelate
Controversy_ (1845) is of little service. The more important tracts
have been reprinted by Petheram in his series of _Puritan Discipline
Tracts_ (1842-1860), in Arber's _English Scholar's Library_
(1879-1880), in R. W. Bond's edition of Lyly and in the editions of
Nashe. (R. B. McK.)

MARQUAND, HENRY GURDON (1819-1902), American philanthropist and collector, was born in New York City on the 11th of April 1819. In 1839, upon the retirement from the jewelry business of his brother Frederick (1799-1882), who was a liberal benefactor of Yale College and of the Union Theological Seminary, he became his brother's agent. He was one of the purchasers in 1868 of the Iron Mountain railroad, afterwards its president, and a director of the Missouri-Pacific system. He was the first honorary member of the American Institute of Architects, and president (1889-1902) of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, to which he made valuable presents and loans from his collection of paintings. He died in New York City, on the 26th of February 1902. His varied and valuable art collection and rare books were sold in 1903. He was a benefactor of Princeton University and other institutions. His son, ALLAN MARQUAND (b. 1853), graduated at Princeton in 1874, and in 1883 became professor of archaeology and art.

MARQUARDT, JOACHIM (1812-1882), German historian and writer on Roman antiquities, was born at Danzig on the 19th of April 1812. He studied at Berlin and Leipzig, held various educational appointments from 1833 onwards at Berlin, Danzig and Posen, and became in 1859 head of the gymnasium in Gotha, where he died on the 30th of November 1882. The dedication of his treatise _Historiae equitum romanorum libri quatuor_ (1841) to Lachmann led to his being recommended to the publisher of W. A. Becker's _Handbuch der römischen Alterthümer_ to continue the work on the death of the author in 1846. It took twenty years to complete, and met with such success that a new edition was soon called for. Finding himself unequal to the task single-handed, Marquardt left the preparation of the first three volumes (_Römisches Staatsrecht_) to Theodor Mommsen, while he himself contributed vols. iv.-vi. (_Römische Staatsverwaltung_, 1873-1878; 2nd ed., 1881-1885, vol. v. by H. Dessau and A. von Domaszewski, vol. vi. by G. Wissowa) and vol. vii. (_Das Privatleben der Römer_, 1879-1882; 2nd ed., by A. Mau, 1886). Its clearness of style, systematic arrangement and abundant references to authorities ancient and modern, will always render it valuable to the student.

See E. Förstemann in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Bd. XX; R.
Ehwald, _Gedächtnisrede_ (progr. Gotha, 1883).

MARQUESAS or MENDAÑA ISLANDS (Fr. _Les Marquises_), an archipelago of the Pacific Ocean lying between 7° 50´ and 10° 35´ S. and 138° 50´ and 140° 50´ W., and belonging to France. It extends over 250 m. from S.E. to N.W., and has a total area of 490 sq. m. The southern or Mendaña group consists of the islands Fatuhiva or Magdalena, Motane or San Pedro, Tahuata or Santa Christina and Hivaoa or Dominica, the last with a coast-line of more than 60 m. With these is often included the rocky islet of Fatuhuku or Hood, lying in mid-channel to the north of Hivaoa. The north-western or Washington group is formed of seven islands, the four largest being Huapu or Adams, Huahuna or Washington, Nukuhiva (70 m. in circumference) and Eiao.[1] Along the centre of each island is a ridge of mountains, attaining an altitude of 4042 ft in Huapu, whence rugged spurs forming deep valleys stretch towards the sea. The volcanic origin of the whole archipelago is proved by the principal rocks being of basalt, trachyte and lava. Vegetation is luxuriant in the valleys, which are well watered with streams and, from their seaward termination in small bays, are themselves known as "bays." The flora includes about four hundred known species, many of them identical with those belonging to the Society Islands. The vegetable products comprise bananas, breadfruit, yams, plantains, wild cotton, bamboos, sugarcane, coconut and dwarf palms, and several kinds of timber trees. The land fauna however is very poor; there are few mammals with the exception of dogs, rats and pigs; and amphibia and insects are also generally scarce. Of twenty species of birds more than half belong to the sea, where animal life is as abundant as about other sub-tropical Polynesian groups. The climate, although hot and damp, is not unhealthy. During the greater part of the year moderate easterly trade-winds prevail, and at the larger islands there are often both land and sea breezes. The rainy season accompanied by variable winds sets in at the end of November, and lasts for about six months. During this period the thermometer varies from 84° to 91° F.; in the dry season its average range is from 77° to 86°. The archipelago, which has some small trade in copra, cotton and cotton seeds, is administered by a French resident, and has a total population of about 4300, nearly all natives.

The natives, a pure Polynesian race, are usually described as physically the finest of all South Sea Islanders. Their traditions point to Samoa as the colonizing centre from which they sprang. Their complexion is a healthy bronze. Until the introduction of civilization they were remarkable for their elaborate tattooing. Their cannibalism seems to have been dictated by taste, for it was never associated with their religion, the sacrifices to their gods being always swine. Of these and fowls they rear a great quantity. Their native drink is _kava_. Their houses are unlike those usual in Polynesia in being built on platforms raised from the ground. In disposition the islanders are friendly and hospitable, brave and somewhat bloodthirsty; and, although naturally indolent and morose, they have proved industrious and keen traders. As among their kinsfolk the Tahitians, debauchery was systematized and infanticide an organized institution. A population which at the time of the annexation by France (1842) was 20,000 has been reduced to little over 4000. Latterly the natives have for the most part outwardly adopted Christianity.

The Marquesas Islands were discovered on the 21st of July 1595 by
Alvaro Mendaña, who, however, only knew of the south-eastern group, to
which he gave the name by which they are generally known (although
they also bear his own), in honour of Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza,
marquis of Cañete, viceroy of Peru, and patron of the voyage. Captain
Cook pursuing the same track rediscovered this group, with the
addition of Fatuhuku, in 1774. The north-western islands were first
sighted by the American Captain Ingraham in 1791, and given the name
of Washington by him; the French Captain Marchand followed in the same
year, and Lieut. Hergest in 1792. The Russian explorer, Adam Ivan
Krusenstern, made an extensive investigation of the archipelago in
1804. In 1813 the American Commodore David Porter failed to establish
a colony here; and in May 1842, after French Roman Catholic
missionaries had prepared the way, Rear-admiral Dupetit-Thouars took
formal possession of the archipelago for France. A complete settlement
was not effected without bloodshed and about 1860-1870 the colony was
practically abandoned.

See Vincendon-Dumoulin _Îles Marquises_ (Paris, 1843); E. Jardin,
_Essai sur l'histoire naturelle de l'archipel de Mendaña_ (Paris,
1860); Clavel, _Les Marquisiens_ (Paris, 1885); Dordillon, _Grammaire
et dictionnaire de la langue des Îles Marquises_ (Paris, 1904).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Most of the islands have each three or four alternative names.

MARQUESS, or MARQUIS (Fr. _marquis_, Ital. _marchese_; from med. Lat. _marchio_, _marchisus_, i.e. _comes marchiae_, "count of the March"), a title and rank of nobility. In the British peerage it is the second in order and therefore next to duke. In this sense the word was a reintroduction from abroad; but lords of the Welsh and Scottish "marches" are occasionally termed _marchiones_ from an early date. The first marquess in England was Robert de Vere, the 9th earl of Oxford, who was created marquess of Dublin by Richard II. on the 1st of December 1385 and assigned precedence between dukes and earls. On the 13th of October following the patent of this marquessate was recalled, Robert de Vere then having been raised to a dukedom. John de Beaufort, earl of Somerset, the second legitimate son of John of Gaunt, was raised to the second marquessate as marquess of Dorset on the 29th of September 1397, but degraded again to earl in 1399. The Commons petitioned for the restoration of his marquessate in 1402, but he himself objected because "le noun de Marquys feust estraunge noun en cest Roialme." From that period this title appears to have been dormant till the reign of Henry VI., when it was revived (1442), and thenceforward it maintained its place in the British peerage. Anne Boleyn was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532. A marquess is "most honourable," and is styled "my lord marquess." His wife, who is also "most honourable," is a marchioness, and is styled "my lady marchioness." The coronet is a circlet of gold on which rest four leaves and as many large pearls, all of them of equal height and connected. The cap and lining, if worn, are the same as in the other coronets (see CROWN and CORONET). The mantle of parliament is scarlet, and has three and a half doublings of ermine.

In France, so early as the 9th century, counts who held several counties and had succeeded in making themselves quasi-independent began to describe themselves as _marchiones_, this use of the word being due to the fact that originally none but the margraves, or counts of the marches, had been allowed to hold more than one county. The _marchio_ or marquess thus came to be no more than a count of exceptional power and dignity, the original significance of the title being lost. In course of time the title was recognized as ranking between those of duke and count; but with the decay of feudalism it lost much of its dignity, and by the 17th century the savour of pretentiousness attached to it had made it a favourite subject of satire for Molière and other dramatists of the classical comedy. Abolished at the Revolution, the title of marquess was not restored by Napoleon, but it was again revived by Louis XVIII., who created many of Napoleon's counts marquesses. This again tended to cheapen the title, a process hastened under the republic by its frequent assumption on very slender grounds in the absence of any authority to prevent its abuse. In Italy too the title of _marchese_, once borne only by the powerful margraves of Verona, has shared the fate of most other titles of nobility in becoming common and of no great social significance. (See also MARGRAVE.) (J. H. R.)

MARQUETRY (Fr. _marqueterie_, from _marqueter_, to inlay, literally to mark, _marquer_), an inlay of ornamental woods, ivory, bone, brass and other metals, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, &c., in which shaped pieces of different materials or tints are combined to form a design. It is a later development of the ornamental inlays of wood known by the name of Intarsia, and though in the main the latter was a true inlay of one or more colours upon a darker or lighter ground, while marquetry is composed of pieces of quite thin wood or other material of equal thickness laid down upon a matrix with glue, there are examples of Intarsia in which this mode of manufacture was evidently followed. For instance, the backs of the stalls in the cathedral of Ferrara show the perspective lines of some of the subjects traced upon the ground where the marquetry has fallen off, but none of the sinkings in the surface which would be there if the panels had been executed as true inlays. In the endeavour to gain greater relief, shading and tinting the wood were resorted to, the shading being generally produced by scorching, either with a hot iron or hot sand, and the tinting by chemical washes and even by the use of actual colour, but the result is usually hardly commensurate with the labour expended. A combination of tortoise-shell and metal, the one forming the ground and the other the pattern upon it, which may be classed as marquetry also appears in the 17th century. The subjects of the _intarsiatori_ are generally arabesques or panels with elaborate perspectives, either of buildings or cupboards with different articles upon the shelves seen through half-open doors, which themselves are frequently of lattice-work delineated with extraordinary perfection, though figure subjects occur also. The later _marqueteurs_ used a freer form of design for the most part, and scrolls and bunches of flowers appear in profusion, while if architectural forms occur they are generally in the shape of ruins amid landscape. The greater portion of the examples in England are importations, either from Holland (in which country very fine work was produced during the latter half of the 16th and 17th centuries) or from France. The reputation of the Dutch _marqueteurs_ was so great that Colbert engaged two, named Pierre Gole and Vordt, for the Gobelins at the beginning of the 17th century. Jean Macé of Blois, the first Frenchman known to have practised the art, who was at work in Paris from 1644 (when he was lodged in the Louvre), or earlier, till 1672, as a sculptor and painter, learnt it in the Netherlands. His title was "menuisier et faiseur de cabinets et tableaux en marqueterie de bois"; but as early as 1576 a certain Hans Kraus had been called "marqueteur du roi." Jean Macé's daughter married Pierre Boulle, and the greatest of the family, André Charles Boulle (q.v.), succeeded to his lodging in the Louvre on his death in 1672. The members of this family are perhaps the best known of the French _marqueteurs_. Their greatest triumphs were gained in the marquetry of metal and tortoise-shell combined with beautifully chiselled ormulu mountings; but many foreign workmen found employment in France from the time of Colbert, and some of them rose to the highest eminence. The names of Roentgen, under whom the later German marquetry perhaps reached its highest point, Riesener and Oeben, testify to their nationality. A good deal of marquetry was executed in England in the later Stuart period, mainly upon long-case clocks, cabinets and chests of drawers, and it is often of real excellence. Marquetry in a shallower form was also extensively used in the latter part of the 18th century. The most beautiful examples of the art in Italy are mainly panels of choir stalls or sacristy cupboards, though marriage coffers were also often sumptuously decorated in this manner. With the increase in luxury and display in the 17th and 18th centuries in France and Germany cabinets and escritoires became objects upon which extraordinary talent and expenditure were lavished. In South Germany musical instruments, weapons and bride chests were often lavishly decorated with marquetry. The cabinets are of elaborate architectural design with inlays of ebony and ivory or with veneers of black and white, the design counterchanging so that one cutting produced several repeats of the same pattern in one colour or the other. In modern practice as many as four or even six thicknesses are put together and so cut. When all the parts have been cut and fitted together face downwards paper is glued over them to keep them in place and the ground and the veneer are carefully levelled and toothed so as to obtain a freshly worked surface. The ground is then well wetted with glue at a high temperature and the surfaces squeezed tightly together between frames called "cauls" till the glue is hard. There are several modes of ensuring the accurate fitting of the various parts, which is a matter of the first importance.

MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1637-1675), French Jesuit missionary and explorer, re-discoverer (with Louis Joliet) of the Mississippi. He was born at Laon, went to Canada in 1666, and was sent in 1668 to the upper lakes of the St Lawrence. Here he worked at Sault Ste Marie, St Esprit (near the western extremity of Lake Superior) and St Ignace (near Michilimackinac or Mackinaw, on the strait between Huron and Michigan). In 1673 he was chosen with Joliet for the exploration of the Mississippi, of which the French had begun to gain knowledge from Indians of the central prairies. The route taken lay up the north-west side of Lake Michigan, up Green Bay and Fox river, across Lake Winnebago, over the portage to the Wisconsin river, and down the latter into the Mississippi, which was descended to within 700 m. of the sea, at the confluence of the Arkansas river. Entering the Mississippi on the 17th of May, Joliet and his companion turned back on the 17th of July, and returned to Green Bay and Michigan (by way of the Illinois river) at the end of September 1673. On the journey Marquette fell ill of dysentery; and a fresh excursion which he undertook to plant a mission among the Indians of the Illinois river in the winter of 1674-1675 proved fatal. He died on his way home to St Ignace on the banks of a small stream (the lesser and older Marquette River) which enters the east side of Lake Michigan in Marquette Bay (May 18, 1675). His name is now borne by a larger watercourse which flows some distance from the scene of his death.

See Marquette's _Journal_, first published in Melchissédech Thévenot's
_Recueil de Voyages_ (Paris, 1681), and fully given in Martin's
_Relations inédites_, and in Shea's _Discovery and Exploration of the
Mississippi Valley_ (New York, 1852); cf. also Pierre Margry's
_Découvertes ... des Français dans l'ouest et dans le sud de
l'Amérique septentrionale_ (1614-1754); _Mémoires et documents
originaux_ (Paris, 1875), containing Joliet's _Détails_ and
_Relations_; Francis Parkman, _La Salle and the Discovery of the Great
West_ (Boston 1869-1878), esp. pp. x., 20, 32-33, 49-72.

MARQUETTE, a city, a port of entry and the county seat of Marquette county, Michigan U.S.A., on the south shore of Lake Superior. Pop. (1900), 10,058 (3460 foreign-born); (1910), 11,503. It is served by the Duluth, South Shore & Atlantic, the Marquette & South-Eastern, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Lake Superior & Ishpeming railways. The city, which is situated on a bluff 100 ft. above the lake, in a region characterized by rounded hills and picturesque irregularities, has a delightful climate, and is a popular summer resort. Presque Isle park (400 acres), a headland north of the city, is one of its principal attractions. Marquette is the seat of the Northern State Normal School (established 1899) and of the state house of correction and branch prison (established 1885). A county-court-house, the Peter White library, and the Federal building are the most prominent public buildings. Marquette is the seat of Roman Catholic and Protestant Episcopal bishoprics. The city is best known as a shipping centre of one of the richest iron-ore districts in the world, and its large and well-equipped ore docks are among its most prominent features. Marquette is the port of entry of the customs district of Superior. In 1896 its imports were valued at $358,505 and its exports at $4,708,302; in 1908, imports $1,845,724 and exports $7,040,473. Foundries, railway machine-shops, lumber and planing-mills, brewery and bottling works, and quarries of brownish-red sandstone contribute largely to the city's economic importance. The charcoal iron blast-furnaces of the city manufacture pig-iron, and, as by-products, wood alcohol and acetic acid, recovered from the smoke of the charcoal pits. The value of the city's factory products increased from $1,585,083 in 1900 to $2,364,081 in 1905, or 49.1%. The first settlement was made about 1845, and in 1849 it was named Worcester; but "Marquette" was soon substituted in honour of Jacques Marquette. It was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1871.

MARR, CARL (1858- ), American artist, was born at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on the 14th of February 1858, the son of an engraver. He was a pupil of Henry Vianden in Milwaukee, of Schauss in Weimar, of Gussow in Berlin, and subsequently of Otto Seitz, Gabriel and Max Lindenschmitt in Munich. His first work, "Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew," received a medal in Munich. One of his pictures, "Episode of 1813," is in the Royal Hanover Gallery, and his "Germany in 1806" received a gold medal in Munich and is in the Royal Academy of Koenigsberg. A large canvas "The Flagellants," now in the Milwaukee public library, received a gold medal at the Munich Exposition in 1889. Another canvas, "Summer Afternoon," in the Phoebe Hearst collection, received a gold medal in Berlin, in 1892. Marr became a professor in the Munich Academy in 1893, and in 1895 a member of the Berlin Academy of Arts.

MARRADI, GIOVANNI (1852- ), Italian poet, was born at Leghorn, and educated at Pisa and Florence. At the latter place he started with others a short-lived review, the _Nuovi Goliardi_, which made some literary sensation. He became a teacher at various colleges, and eventually an educational inspector in Massa Carrara. He was much influenced by Carducci, and became known not only as a critic but as a charming descriptive poet, his principal volumes of verse being _Canzone moderne_ (1870), _Fantasie marnie_ (1881), _Canzoni e fantasie_ (1853), _Ricordi lirici_ (1884), _Poesie_ (1887), _Nuovi canti_ (1891) and _Ballate moderne_ (1895).

MARRAKESH (erroneously MOROCCO or MAROCCO CITY), one of the quasi-capitals of the sultanate of Morocco, Fez and Mequinez being the other two. It lies in a spacious plain--Blad el Hamra, "The Red"--about 15 m. from the northern underfalls of the Atlas, and 96 m. E.S.E. of Saffi, at a height variously estimated at 1639 ft. (Hooker and Ball) and 1410 ft. (Beaumier). Ranking during the early centuries of its existence as one of the greatest cities of Islam, Marrakesh has long been in a state of grievous decay, but it is rendered attractive by the exceptional beauty of its situation, the luxuriant groves and gardens by which it is encompassed and interspersed, and the magnificent outlook which it enjoys towards the mountains. The wall, 25 or 30 ft. high, and relieved at intervals of 360 ft. by square towers, is so dilapidated that foot-passengers, and in places even horsemen, can find their way through the breaches. Open spaces of great extent are numerous within the walls, but for the most part they are defaced by mounds of rubbish and putrid refuse. With the exception of the tower of the Kutubia Mosque and a certain archway which was brought in pieces from Spain, there is not, it is asserted, a single stone building in the city; and even bricks (although the local manufacture is of excellent quality) are sparingly employed. _Tabiya_ or rammed concrete of red earth and stone is the almost universal building material, and the houses are consequently seldom more than two storeys in height. The palace of the sultan covers an extensive area, and beyond it lie the imperial parks of Agudal, the inner one reserved for the sultan's exclusive use. The tower of the Kutubia is a memorial of the constructive genius of the early Moors; both it and the similar Hasan tower at Rabat are after the type of the contemporary Giralda at Seville, and if tradition may be trusted, all three were designed by the same architect, Jabir. The mosque to which the tower belongs is a large brick building erected by 'Abd el Mumin; the interior is adorned with marble pillars, and the whole of the crypt is occupied by a vast cistern excavated by Yakub el Mansur. Other mosques of some note are those of Ibn Yusef, El Mansur and El Mo'izz; the chapel of Sidi Bel Abbas, in the extreme north of the city, possesses property of great value, and serves as an almshouse and asylum. There is a special Jews' quarter walled off from the rest. The general population is of a very mixed and turbulent kind; crimes of violence are common, and there are many professional thieves. The murder of a Frenchman, Dr Mauchamp, in March 1907, by the rabble of Marrakesh was the immediate cause of the occupation of Udja by France (see MOROCCO: _History_). Almost the only manufacture extensively prosecuted is that of Morocco leather, mainly red and yellow, about 1,500 men being employed as tanners and shoemakers. Scottish missionaries and a few European traders have become established here. The city was founded in 1062 by Yusef bin Tashfin. Before it was a hundred years old it is said to have had 700,000 inhabitants, but the population in 1906 probably did not exceed 50,000 to 60,000.

See Leo Africanus, and Paul Lambert's detailed description in _Notice
sur la ville de Maroc_ (Paris, 1868). Lambert's plan of Marrakesh is
reproduced with some additions by Dr A. Leared, and another may be
found in Gatell.

MARRI, a Baluch tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of Baluchistan. In the census of 1901 they numbered 19,161 and their fighting strength is about 3000. Their relations with the British commenced in 1840 with attacks made on the communications of Sir John Keane's army, after it had passed through the Bolan. An attempt was made to punish the tribe, which ended in disastrous failure. Major Clibborn was repulsed in an attempt to storm the Naffusak Pass, losing 179 killed and 92 wounded out of 650. Many of his force died of heat and thirst. The fort of Kahan, which he was trying to relieve at the time, was forced to capitulate with the honours of war. The Marris, however, joined the British against the Bugtis in 1845. After the annexation of Sind in 1843 the Marris gave much trouble, but were pacified by the policy of General John Jacob and Sir Robert Sandeman. In 1880 during the second Afghan War they made frequent raids on the British line of communications, ending with the plunder of a treasure convoy. A force of 3070 British troops under Brigadier-General Macgregor marched through the country, and the tribe submitted and paid 1¼ lakh (£12,500) out of a fine of 2 lakhs (£20,000); they also gave hostages for their future good behaviour. Since then they have given little trouble.

The Marri-Bugti country is classed as a tribal area in Baluchistan, politically controlled from Sibi, but enjoying a large measure of autonomy under its own chieftains. Total area, 7129 sq. m.; total pop. (1901), 38,919, almost equally divided between the two tribes of Marris and Bugtis.

MARRIAGE. Marriage (Fr. _mariage_, from _marier_, to marry; Lat. _maritare_, from _mas_, _maris_, a male), or "matrimony" (Lat. _matrimonium_, from _mater_, a mother), may be defined either (a) as the act, ceremony, or process by which the legal relationship of husband and wife is constituted; or (b) as a physical, legal and moral union between man and woman in complete community of life for the establishment of a family.[1] It is possible to discriminate between three stages, taking marriage in the latter sense as an institution--the animal or physical stage, the proprietary or legal stage, and the personal or moral stage. In the first or physical stage the relation of the sexes was unregulated, and in many cases of brief duration. In the second or legal stage greater permanence was secured in marriage by assigning the husband a property right in his wife or wives. In the last stage the proprietary relation falls more and more into the background, and the relation of husband and wife approximates that of two individuals entirely equal before the law. Although in the history of marriage these three stages have been roughly successive, the order of their entering the conscious experience of the individual is usually the reverse of their order in the development of the race; and in the solemnization of a marriage based upon affection and choice the growth of the relation begins with the moral, advances to the legal and culminates in the physical union, each one of these deriving its meaning and its worth from the preceding. In most legal systems marriage, in the sense of a ceremony, takes the form of a contract--the mutual assent of the parties being the prominent and indispensable feature. Whether it is really a contract or not, and if so to what class of contracts it belongs, are questions which have been much discussed, but into which it is not necessary to enter. While the consent of parties is universally deemed one of the conditions of a legal marriage, all the incidents of the relationship constituted by the act are absolutely fixed by law. The jurist has to deal with marriage in so far as it creates the legal status of husband and wife. It should be added that, while marriage is generally spoken of by lawyers as a contract, its complete isolation from all other contracts is invariably recognized. Its peculiar position may be seen at once by comparing it with other contracts giving rise to continuous relationships with more or less indefinite obligations, like those of landlord and tenant, master and servant, &c. In these the parties may in general make their rights and duties what they please, the law only intervening when they are silent. In marriage every resulting right and duty is fixed by the law.

Besides true marriage, inferior forms of union have from time to time
been recognized, and may be briefly noticed here. These have all but
disappeared from modern society, depending as they do on matrimonial
restrictions now obsolete.

The institution of slavery is a fruitful source of this kind of
debased matrimony. In Roman law no slave could contract marriage
whether with another slave or a free person. The union of male and
female slaves (_contubernium_) was recognized for various purposes; a
free woman entering into a union with a slave incurred under the S.C.
Claudianum the forfeiture of her own liberty; but the bondwoman might
be the concubine of a freeman. In the United States, where slavery was
said to be regulated by the principle of the civil law, the marriage
of slaves was so far recognized that on emancipation complete
matrimony took effect and the children became legitimate without any
new ceremony.

In Roman law no legal marriage could be contracted unless there was
_connubium_ between the parties. Originally there was no connubium
between plebs and patricians, and the privilege was conceded after a
long struggle by the Lex Canuleia. In later times Latini and Peregrini
were excluded from connubium except where the right had been expressly
conferred. The great matrimonial law of the early empire (Lex Julia et
Papia Poppaea) introduced restrictions depending on the condition of
the parties which later legislation extended and perpetuated. Senators
under that law were forbidden to marry freedwomen or women of inferior
rank, and the husband of a freedwoman becoming a senator was set free
from his marriage. In the canon law[2] new restrictions were
developed. Persons who bound themselves not to marry were deemed
incapable of marrying. The order of the clergy were forbidden to
marry. And disparity of faith was recognized by the early church as a
bar to matrimony, e.g. between Christians and pagans and between
orthodox and heretics (see _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_, art.
"Marriage").

CONCUBINAGE, which such restrictions tended to develop, is noticed
under a separate heading (q.v.). It might be described as marriage
which has no consequences, or only slight and peculiar consequences,
in legal _status_. In the left-handed or "morganatic" marriages of the
German royal families we have the nearest approach ever made by
concubinage to true marriage, the children being legitimate, but
neither they nor the wife acquiring any right to the rank or fortune
of the husband. The marriage of persons of different religions
frequently requires the intervention of the law as to the faith of the
children, more particularly in Europe as between Roman Catholics and
Protestants. English law gives the father, except under special
circumstances, the right to dictate the faith of his children (see
INFANT). The practice on this point varies in Europe--the question
being ignored in French law, Germany following in some parts the same
rule as England, in others giving effect to ante-nuptial stipulations.
In Ireland mixed marriages (i.e. between Roman Catholic and
Protestant) were by 19 Geo. II. c. 13 null and void if celebrated by a
Roman Catholic priest. This act was repealed by 33 & 34 Vict. c. 110,
which permits mixed marriages to be validly celebrated by an
Episcopalian or Roman Catholic clergyman, subject to conditions set
forth in § 38.

_Roman law._--The three primitive modes of marriage were _confarreatio_, _coemptio in manum_, and _usus_, all of which had the effect of placing the woman in the "power" (_manus_) of her husband, and on the same footing as the children. The first was a religious ceremony before ten witnesses, in which an ox was sacrificed and a wheaten cake broken and divided between the spouses by the priest. _Coemptio_ was a conveyance of the woman by _mancipatio_, and might be described as a fictitious sale _per aes et libram_, like that employed in emancipation and testamentary disposition and other processes. _Usus_ was the acquisition of the wife by prescription, through her cohabiting with the husband for one year, without having been absent from his house three continuous nights. But a true marriage might be concluded without adopting any of these modes, and they all fell into desuetude and with them the subjection of the wife to the _manus_. Marriage without _manus_ was contracted by the interchange of consent, without writing or formality of any kind. By some jurists it is regarded as incomplete until consummated by delivery of the woman, and is accordingly referred to the class of _real_ contracts. The restrictions as to age, relationship by consanguinity and affinity, previous marriage, &c., were in the main those which have continued to prevail in modern Europe with one important exception. The consent of the _paterfamilias_ to the marriage of the children under his power was essential.