Chapter V: Front Matter (5)

MADAN, MARTIN (1726-1790), English writer, was educated at Westminster School, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1746. In 1748 he was called to the bar, and for some time lived a very gay life, until he was persuaded to change his ways on hearing a sermon by John Wesley. He took holy orders, and was appointed chaplain to the Lock Hospital, London. He was closely connected with the Calvinistic Methodist movement supported by the countess of Huntingdon, and from time to time acted as an itinerant preacher. He was a first cousin of William Cowper, with whom he had some correspondence on religious matters. In 1767 much adverse comment was aroused by his support of his friend Thomas Haweis in a controversy arising out of the latter's possession of the living of Aldwinkle, Northamptonshire (see _Monthly Review_, xxxvii. 382, 390, 465). In 1780 Madan raised more serious storm of opposition by the publication of his _Thelyphthora, or A Treatise on Female Ruin_, in which he advocated polygamy as the remedy for the evils he deplored. The author was no doubt sincere in his arguments, which he based chiefly on scriptural authority; but his book called forth many angry replies. Nineteen attacks on it are catalogued by Falconer Madan in _Dict. Nat. Biog._ Madan resigned his chaplainship and retired to Epsom, where he produced, among other works, _A New and Literal Translation of Juvenal and Persius_ (1789). He died on the 2nd of May 1790.

MADDALONI, a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, about 3½ m. S.E. of Caserta, with stations on the railways from Caserta to Benevento and from Caserta to Avellino, 200 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 19,778 (town); 21,270 (commune). It is prettily situated at the base of one of the Tifata hills, the towers of its medieval castle and the church of San Michele crowning the heights above. The fine old palace of the Caraffa family, once dukes of Maddaloni, the old college now named after Giordano Bruno, and the institute for the sons of soldiers are the chief points of interest. About 2½ m. east of Valle di Maddaloni, the Ponte della Valle, an aqueduct built by the orders of Charles III. of Naples and his son to convey the water of the Tiburno to Caserta (19 m.), is carried across the valley between Monte Longano and Monte Gargano by a threefold series of noble arches rising to a height of 210 ft. The work was designed by Lodovico Vanvitelli, and constructed between 1753 and 1759.

MADDEN, SIR FREDERIC (1801-1873), English palaeographer, the son of an officer of Irish extraction, was born at Portsmouth on the 16th of February 1801. From his earliest years he displayed a strong bent to linguistic and antiquarian studies. In 1826 he was engaged by the British Museum to assist in the preparation of the classified catalogue of printed books then contemplated, and in 1828 he became assistant keeper of manuscripts. In 1833 he was knighted, and in 1837 succeeded Josiah Forshall as keeper of manuscripts. He was not entirely successful in this office, partly owing to want of harmony with his colleagues; he retired in 1866. He edited for the Roxburghe Club _Havelok the Dane_ (1828), discovered by himself among the Laudian MSS. in the Bodleian, _William and the Werwolf_ (1832) and the old English versions of the _Gesta Romanorum_ (1838). In 1839 he edited the ancient metrical romances of _Syr Gawayne_ for the Bannatyne Club, and in 1847 Layamon's _Brut_, with a prose translation, for the Society of Antiquaries. In 1850 the magnificent edition, in parallel columns, of what are known as the "Wycliffite" versions of the Bible, from the original MSS., upon which he and his coadjutor, Forshall, had been engaged for twenty years, was published by the university of Oxford. In 1866-1869 he edited the _Historia Minor_ of Matthew Paris for the Rolls Series. In 1833 he wrote the text of Henry Shaw's _Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages_; and in 1850 edited the English translation of Silvestre's _Paléographie universelle_. He died on the 8th of March 1873, bequeathing his journals and other private papers to the Bodleian Library, where they were to remain unopened until 1920.

Madden was perhaps the first palaeographer of his day. He was an acute
as well as a laborious antiquary, but his ignorance of German
prevented his ranking high as a philologist, although he paid much
attention to the early dialectical forms of French and English. His
minor contributions to antiquarian research were exceedingly numerous:
the best known, perhaps, was his dissertation on the orthography of
Shakespeare's name, which, mainly on the strength of the Florio
autograph, he contended should be "Shakspere."

MADDER, or DYERS' MADDER, the root of _Rubia tinctorum_ and perhaps also of _R. peregrina_, both European, _R. cordifolia_, a native of the hilly districts of India and of north-east Asia and Java, supplying the Indian madder or _manjit_. _Rubia_ is a genus of about thirty-five species of the tribe _Galieae_ of the order Rubiaceae, and much resembles the familiar _Galiums_, e.g. lady's bedstraw (_G. verum_) and the cleavers (_G. aparine_) of English hedges, having similarly whorled leaves, but the parts of the flowers are in fives and not fours, while the fruit is somewhat fleshy. The only British species is _R. peregrina_, which is found in Wales, the south and west of England, and in east and south Ireland. The use of madder appears to have been known from the earliest times, as cloth dyed with it has been found on the Egyptian mummies. It was the [Greek: ereuthedanon] used for dyeing the cloaks of the Libyan women in the days of Herodotus (Herod. iv. 189). It is the [Greek: eruthrodanon] of Dioscorides, who speaks of its cultivation in Caria (iii. 160), and of Hippocrates (_De morb. mul._ i.), and the _Rubia_ of Pliny (xix. 17). _R. tinctorum_, a native of western Europe, &c., has been extensively cultivated in south Europe, France, where it is called _garance_, and Holland, and to a small extent in the United States. Large quantities have been imported into England from Smyrna, Trieste, Leghorn, &c. The cultivation, however, decreased after alizarin, the red colouring principle of madder, was made artificially. Madder was employed medicinally by the ancients and in the middle ages. Gerard, in 1597, speaks of it as having been cultivated in many gardens in his day, and describes its supposed many virtues (_Herball_, p. 960); but any pharmacological or therapeutic action which madder may possess is unrecognizable. Its most remarkable physiological effect is that of colouring red the bones of animals fed upon it, as also the claws and beaks of birds. This appears to be due to the chemical affinity of phosphate of lime for the colouring matter (Pereira, _Mat. med._, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 52). This property has been of much use in enabling physiologists to ascertain the manner in which bones develop, and the functions of the various types of cells found in growing bone. _R. chilensis_ has been used for dyeing red from time immemorial. The chay-root, which furnishes a red dye in Coromandel and other parts of India, is the root-bark of _Oldenlandia umbellata_, a low-growing plant of the same family as madder.

MADEC, RENÉ-MARIE (1736-1784)--called Medoc in Anglo-Indian writings--French adventurer in India, was born at Quimper in Brittany on the 7th of February 1736, of poor parents. He went out to India and served under Dupleix and Lally, but being taken prisoner by the British he enlisted in the Bengal army. Deserting with some of his companions shortly before the battle of Buxar (1764), he became military instructor to various native princes, organizing successively the forces of Shuja-ud-Dowlah, nawab of Oudh, and of the Jats and Rohillas. He took service under the emperor Shah Alam in 1772, and when that prince was defeated at Delhi by the Mahrattas, Madec rejoined his own countrymen in Pondicherry, where he took an active part in the defence of the town (1778). After the capitulation of Pondicherry he returned to France with a considerable fortune, and died there in 1784. At one time he formed a scheme for a French alliance with the Mogul emperor against the British, but the project came to nothing.

See Émile Barbé, _Le Nabab René Madec_ (1894).

MADEIRA, or THE MADEIRAS, a group of islands in the North Atlantic Ocean, which belong to Portugal, and consist of two inhabited islands named Madeira and Porto Santo and two groups of uninhabited rocks named the Desertas and Selvagens. Pop. (1900), 150,574; area, 314 sq. m. Funchal, the capital of the archipelago, is on the south coast of Madeira Island, in 32° 37´ 45´´ N. and 16° 54´ W. It is about 360 m. from the coast of Africa, 535 from Lisbon, 1215 from Plymouth, 240 from Teneriffe, and 480 from Santa Maria, the nearest of the Azores.

_Madeira_ (pop. 1900, 148,263), the largest island of the group, has a length of 30 m., an extreme breadth of 12 m., and a coast-line of 80 or 90 m. Its longer axis lies east and west, in which direction it is traversed by a mountain chain, the backbone of the island, having a mean altitude of 4000 ft., up to which many deep ravines penetrate from both coasts and render travel by land very difficult. Pico Ruivo, the highest summit, stands in the centre of the island, and has a height of 6056 ft., while some of the adjacent summits are very little lower. The depth and narrowness of the ravines, the loftiness of the rugged peaks, often covered with snow, that tower above them, the bold precipices of the coast, and the proximity of the sea, afford many scenes of picturesque beauty or striking grandeur. The greater part of the interior is uninhabited, though cultivated, for the towns, villages and scattered huts are usually built either at the mouths of ravines or upon the lower slopes that extend from the mountains to the coast. The ridges between the ravines usually terminate in lofty headlands, one of which, called Cabo Girão, has the height of 1920 ft., and much of the seaboard is bound by precipices of dark basalt. The north coast, having been more exposed to the erosion of the sea, is more precipitous than the south, and presents everywhere a wilder aspect. On the south there is left very little of the indigenous forest which once clothed the whole island and gave it the name it bears (from the Portuguese _madeira_, Lat. _materia_, wood), but on the north some of the valleys still contain native trees of fine growth. A long, narrow and comparatively low rocky promontory forms the eastern extremity of the island; and here is a tract of calcareous sand, known as the Fossil Bed, containing land shells and numerous bodies resembling the roots of trees, probably produced by infiltration.

_Porto Santo_ is about 25 m. N.E. of Madeira. Pop. (1900), 2311. It has a length of 6(1/3) m. and a width of 3 m. The capital is Porto Santo, called locally the _villa_ or town. The island is very unproductive, water being scarce and wood wholly absent. Around the little town there is a considerable tract of pretty level ground covered by calcareous sand containing fossil land-shells. At each end of the island are hills, of which Pico do Facho, the highest, reaches the altitude of 1663 ft. Barley, but little else, is grown here, the limited requirements of the inhabitants being supplied from Funchal.

_The Desertas_ lie about 11 m. S.E. of Madeira, and consist of three islands, Ilheo Chão, Bugio and Deserta Grande, together with Sail Rock off the north end of Ilheo Chão. They present lofty precipices to the sea on all sides. Rabbits and goats abound on them. The archil weed grows on the rocks, and is gathered for exportation. The largest islet (Deserta Grande) is 6½ m. long, and attains the height of 1610 ft. These rocks are conspicuous objects in the sea-views from Funchal.

The _Selvagens_ or _Salvages_ are a group of three islands, 156 m. from Madeira, and between Madeira and the Canary Islands. The largest island is the Great Piton, 3 m. long, and 1 m. broad. The inclusion of the Selvagens in the Madeira Archipelago is due to political rather than to geographical reasons.

_Geology._--All the islands of the group are of volcanic origin. They
are the summits of very lofty mountains which have their bases in an
abyssal ocean. The greater part of what is now visible in Madeira is
of subaerial formation, consisting of basaltic and trachytic lavas,
beds of tuff and other ejectamenta, the result of a long and
complicated series of eruptions from innumerable vents. Besides this
building up by the emission of matter from craters and clefts, a
certain amount of upheaval in mass has taken place, for at a spot
about 1200 ft. above the sea in the northern valley of São Vicente,
and again at about the same height in Porto Santo, there have been
found fragments of limestone accompanied by tuffs containing marine
shells and echinoderms of the Miocene Tertiary epoch. We have here
proof that during or since that epoch portions at least of these
islands have been bodily uplifted more than 1000 ft. The fossils are
sufficiently well preserved to admit of their genera, and in many
instances even their species, being made out.

There were pauses of considerable duration whilst the island of
Madeira was being increased in height. The leaf bed and the
accompanying carbonaceous matter, frequently termed lignite, although
it displays no trace of structure, which lie under 1200 ft. of lavas
in the valley of São Jorge, afford proof that there had been
sufficient time for the growth of a vegetation of high order, many of
the leaf impressions belonging to species of trees and shrubs which
still exist on the island. Moreover, great alterations and
dislocations had taken place in the rocks of various localities before
other lavas and tuffs had been thrown upon them.

There are no data for determining when volcanic action began in this
locality, but looking at the enormous depth of the surrounding sea it
is clear that a vast period of time must have elapsed to allow of a
great mountain reaching the surface and then rising several thousand
feet. Again, considering the comparatively feeble agents for effecting
the work of denudation (neither glaciers nor thick accumulations of
alpine snow being found here), and then the enormous erosion that has
actually taken place, the inference is inevitable that a very great
lapse of time was required to excavate the deep and wide ravines that
everywhere intersect the island. Nor is anything known as to the
period of the cessation of volcanic action. At the present day there
are no live craters or smoking crevices, as at the Canaries and Cape
Verdes, nor any hot springs, as at the Azores.

In one of the northern ravines of Madeira by Porto da Cruz some masses
of a coarsely crystalline Essexite are exposed to view; this rock is
evidently the deep-seated representative of the Trachydoleritic and
Nepheline basalt lavas. Fragments of a sodalite-syenite have also been
found at Soca in the same neighbourhood.

In the eastern part of the island several small crater rings are to be
seen; their rims are formed of spheroidal basalt, while within the
craters themselves masses of bauxite are found accompanied by
evidences of fumerolic action.

In the sections afforded by the ravines, which strike north and south
from the central ridge of Madeira to the sea, the nucleus of the
island is seen to consist of a confused mass of more or less
stratified rock, upon which rest beds of tuff, scoriae and lava, in
the shape of basalt, trap and trachyte, the whole traversed by dykes.
These beds are thinnest near the central axis; as they approach the
coast they become thicker and less intersected by dykes.

In various parts are elevated tracts of comparatively level ground.
These are supposed to have been formed by the meeting of numerous
streams of lava flowing from cones and points of eruption in close
proximity, various ejectamenta assisting at the same time to fill up
inequalities. Deep down in some of the lateral ravines may be seen
ancient cones of eruption which have been overwhelmed by streams of
melted matter issuing from the central region, and afterwards exposed
to view by the same causes that excavated the ravines. These ravines
may be regarded as having been formed at first by subterranean
movements, both gradual and violent, which dislocated the rocks and
cut clefts through which streams flowed to the sea. In course of time
the waters, periodically swollen by melted snows and the copious rains
of winter, would cut deeper and deeper into the heart of the
mountains, and would undermine the lateral cliffs, until the valleys
became as large as we now find them. Even the Curral, which from its
rounded shape and its position in the centre of the island has been
usually deemed the ruins of a crater, is thought to be nothing more
than a valley scooped out in the way described. The rarity of
crateriform cavities in Madeira is very remarkable. There exists,
however, to the east of Funchal, on a tract 2000 ft. high, the Lagoa,
a small but perfect crater, 500 ft. in diameter, and with a depth of
150 ft.; and there is another, which is a double one, in the district
known as Fanal, in the north-west of Madeira, nearly 5000 ft. above
the sea. The basalt, of which much of the outer part of the island is
composed, is of a dark colour and a tough texture, with small
disseminated crystals of olivine and augite. It is sometimes full of
vesicular cavities, formed by the expansion of imprisoned gases. A
rudely columnar structure is very often seen in the basalt, but there
is nothing so perfect as the columns of Staffa or the Giant's
Causeway. The trachytic rocks are small in quantity compared with
those of the basaltic class. The tufa is soft and friable, and
generally of a yellow colour; but where it has been overflowed by a
hot stream of lava it has assumed a red colour. Black ashes and
fragments of pumice are sometimes found in the tufaceous strata.

There are no metallic ores, nor has any sulphur been found; but a
little iron pyrites and specular iron are occasionally met with. The
basalt yields an excellent building-stone, various qualities of which
are quarried near Camara de Lobos, five or six miles west of Funchal.

In Porto Santo the trachytic rocks bear a much greater proportion to
the basaltic than in Madeira. An adjacent islet is formed of tuffs and
calcareous rock, indicating a submarine origin, upon which supramarine
lavas have been poured. The older series contains corals and shells
(also of the Miocene Tertiary epoch), with water-worn pebbles,
cemented together by carbonate of lime, the whole appearing to have
been a coral reef near an ancient beach. The calcareous rock is taken
in large quantities to Funchal, to be burnt into lime for building
purposes.

_Climate._--Observations taken at Funchal Observatory (80 ft. above
sea-level) in the last twenty years of the 19th century showed that
the mean annual temperature is about 65° F. The mean minimum for the
coldest part of the year (October to May inclusive) does not fall
below 55°, and the average daily variation of temperature in the same
period does not exceed 10°. Madeira thus has a remarkably mild
climate, though it lies only 10° north of the Tropic of Cancer. This
mildness is due to the surrounding ocean, from which the atmosphere
obtains a large supply of watery vapour. The mean humidity of the air
is about 75 (saturation = 100). The prevalent winds are from the north
or from a few points east or west of north, but these winds are much
mitigated on the south coast by the central range of mountains. The
west wind usually brings rain. That from the east is a dry wind. A hot
and dry wind, the leste of the natives, occasionally blows from the
east-south-east, the direction of the Sahara, and causes the hill
region to be hotter than below; but even on the coast the thermometer
under its influence sometimes indicates 93°. The _leste_ is often
accompanied by sandstorms. As the thermometer has never been known to
fall as low as 46° at Funchal, frost and snow are there wholly
unknown; but snow falls on the mountains once or twice during the
winter, very seldom, however, below the altitude of 2000 ft.
Thunderstorms are rare, and scarcely ever violent.

Madeira has long had a high reputation as a sanatory resort for
persons suffering from diseases of the chest. Notwithstanding the
ever-increasing competition of other winter resorts, a considerable
number of invalids, especially English and German, winter at Funchal.

_Fauna._--No species of land mammal is indigenous to the Madeiras.
Some of the early voyagers indeed speak of wild goats and swine, but
these animals must have escaped from confinement. The rabbit, black
rat, brown rat and mouse have been introduced. The first comers
encountered seals, and this amphibious mammal (_Monachus albiventer_)
still lingers at the Desertas. Amongst the thirty species of birds
which breed in these islands are the kestrel, buzzard and barn owl,
the blackbird, robin, wagtail, goldfinch, ring sparrow, linnet, two
swifts, three pigeons, the quail, red-legged partridge, woodcock,
tern, herring gull, two petrels and three puffins. Only one species is
endemic, and that is a wren (_Regulus madeirensis_), but five other
species are known elsewhere only at the Canaries. These are the green
canary (_Fringilla butyracea_, the parent of the domesticated yellow
variety), a chaffinch (_Fringilla tintillon_), a swift (_Cypselus
unicolor_), a wood pigeon (_Columba trocaz_) and a petrel
(_Thalassidroma Bulwerii_). There is also a local variety of the
blackcap, distinguishable from the common kind by the extension in the
male of the cap to the shoulder. About seventy other species have been
seen from time to time in Madeira, chiefly stragglers from the African
coast, many of them coming with the _leste_ wind.

The only land reptile is a small lizard (_Lacerta dugesii_), which is
abundant and is very destructive to the grape crop. The loggerhead
turtle (_Caouana caretta_, Gray) is frequently captured, and is cooked
for the table, but the soup is much inferior to that made from the
green turtle of the West Indies. A single variety of frog (_Rana
esculenta_) has been introduced; there are no other batrachians.

About 250 species of marine fishes taken at Madeira have been
scientifically determined, the largest families being _Scombridae_
with 35 species, the sharks with 24, the _Sparidae_ with 15, the rays
with 14, the _Labridae_ with 13, the _Gadidae_ with 12, the eels with
12, the _Percidae_ with 11, and the _Carangidae_ with 10. Many kinds,
such as the mackerel, horse mackerel, groper, mullet, braise, &c..,
are caught in abundance, and afford a cheap article of diet to the
people. Several species of tunny are taken plentifully in spring and
summer, one of them sometimes attaining the weight of 300 lb. The only
freshwater fish is the common eel, which is found in one or two of the
streams.

According to T. V. Wollaston (_Testacea atlantica_, 1878), there have
been found 158 species of mollusca on the land, 6 inhabiting fresh
water, and 7 littoral species, making a total of 171. A large majority
of the land shells are considered to be peculiar. Many of the species
are variable in form or colour, and some have an extraordinary number
of varieties. Of the land mollusca 91 species are assigned to the
genus _Helix_, 31 to the genus _Pupa_, and 15 to the genus _Achatina_
(or _Lovea_). About 43 species are found both living and fossil in
superficial deposits of calcareous sand in Madeira or Porto Santo.
These deposits were assigned by Lyell to the Newer Pliocene period.
Some 12 or 13 species have not been hitherto discovered alive. More
than 100 species of _Polyzoa_ (_Bryozoa_) have been collected, among
them are some highly interesting forms.

The only order of insects which has been thoroughly examined is that
of the _Coleoptera_. By the persevering researches of T. V. Wollaston
the astonishing number of 695 species of beetles has been brought to
light at the Madeiras. The proportion of endemic kinds is very large,
and it is remarkable that 200 of them are either wingless or their
wings are so poorly developed that they cannot fly, while 23 of the
endemic genera have all their species in this condition. With regard
to the _Lepidoptera_, 11 or 12 species of butterflies have been seen,
all of which belong to European genera. Some of the species are
geographical varieties of well-known types. Upward of 100 moths have
been collected, the majority of them being of a European stamp, but
probably a fourth of the total number are peculiar to the Madeiran
group. Thirty-seven species of _Neuroptera_ have been observed in
Madeira, 12 of them being so far as is known peculiar.

The bristle-footed worms of the coast have been studied by Professor
P. Langerhans, who has met with about 200 species, of which a large
number were new to science. There are no modern coral reefs, but
several species of stony and flexible corals have been collected,
though none are of commercial value. There is, however, a white stony
coral allied to the red coral of the Mediterranean which would be
valuable as an article of trade if it could be obtained in sufficient
quantity. Specimens of a rare and handsome red Paragorgia are in the
British Museum and Liverpool Museum.

_Flora._--The vegetation is strongly impressed with a south-European
character. Many of the plants in the lower region undoubtedly were
introduced and naturalized after the Portuguese colonization. A large
number of the remainder are found at the Canaries and the Azores, or
in one of these groups, but nowhere else. Lastly, there are about a
hundred plants which are peculiarly Madeiran, either as distinct
species or as strongly marked varieties. The flowering plants found
truly wild belong to about 363 genera and 717 species,--the
monocotyledons numbering 70 genera and 128 species, the dicotyledons
293 genera and 589 species. The three largest orders are the
_Compositae_, _Leguminosae_ and _Graminaceae_. Forty-one species of
ferns grow in Madeira, three of which are endemic species and six
others belong to the peculiar flora of the North Atlantic islands.
About 100 species of moss have been collected, and 47 species of
_Hepaticae_. A connexion between the flora of Madeira and that of the
West Indies and tropical America has been inferred from the presence
in the former of six ferns found nowhere in Europe or North Africa,
but existing on the islands of the east coast of America or on the
Isthmus of Panama. A further relationship to that continent is to be
traced by the presence in Madeira of the beautiful ericaceous tree
_Clethra arborea_, belonging to a genus which is otherwise wholly
American, and of a _Persea_, a tree laurel, also an American genus.
The dragon tree (_Dracaena Draco_) is almost extinct. Amongst the
trees most worthy of note are four of the laurel order belonging to
separate genera, an _Ardisia_, _Pittosporum_, _Sideroxylon_,
_Notelaea_, _Rhamnus_ and _Myrica_,--a strange mixture of genera to be
found on a small Atlantic island. Two heaths of arborescent growth and
a whortleberry cover large tracts on the mountains. In some parts
there is a belt of the Spanish chestnut about the height of 1500 ft.
There is no indigenous pine tree as at the Canaries; but large tracts
on the hills have been planted with _Pinus pinaster_, from which the
fuel of the inhabitants is mainly derived. A European juniper (_J.
Oxycedrus_), growing to the height of 40 or 50 ft., was formerly
abundant, but has been almost exterminated, as its scented wood is
prized by the cabinet-maker. Several of the native trees and shrubs
now grow only in situations which are nearly inaccessible, and some of
the indigenous plants are of the greatest rarity. But some plants of
foreign origin have spread in a remarkable manner. Among these is the
common cactus or prickly pear (_Opuntia Tuna_), which in many spots on
the coast is sufficiently abundant to give a character to the
landscape. As to _Algae_, the coast is too rocky and the sea too
unquiet for a luxuriant marine vegetation, consequently the species
are few and poor.

_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants are of Portuguese descent, with probably some intermixture of Moorish and negro blood amongst the lower classes. The dress of the peasantry, without being picturesque, is peculiar. Both men and women in the outlying country districts wear the _carapuça_, a small cap made of blue cloth in shape something like a funnel, with the pipe standing upwards. The men have trousers of linen, drawn tight, and terminating at the knees; a coarse shirt enveloping the upper part of their person, covered by a short jacket, completes their attire, with the exception of a pair of rough yellow boots. The women's outer garments consist of a gaudily coloured gown, made from island material, with a small cape of coarse scarlet or blue woollen cloth. The population tends to increase rapidly. In 1900 it amounted to 150,574, including 890 foreigners, of whom the majority were British. The number of females exceeds that of males by about 6000, partly because many of the able-bodied males emigrate to Brazil or the United States. The density of population (479.5 per sq. m.) is very great for a district containing no large town and chiefly dependent on agriculture and viticulture.

_Agriculture._--A large portion of the land was formerly entailed in the families of the landlords (_morgados_), but entails have been abolished by the legislature, and the land is now absolutely free. The deficiency of water is a great obstacle to the proper cultivation of the land, and the rocky nature or steep inclination of the upper parts of the islands is an effectual bar to all tillage. An incredible amount of labour has been expended upon the soil, partly in the erection of walls intended to prevent its being washed away by the rains, and to build up the plots of ground in the form of terraces. Watercourses have been constructed for purposes of irrigation, without which at regular intervals the island would not produce a hundredth part of its present yield. These watercourses originate high up in the ravines, are built of masonry or driven through the rock, and wind about for miles until they reach the cultivated land. Some of them are brought by tunnels from the north side of the island through the central crest of hill. Each occupier takes his turn at the running stream for so many hours in the day or night at a time notified to him beforehand. In this climate flowing water has a saleable value as well as land, which is useless without irrigation.

The agricultural implements employed are of the rudest kind, and the
system of cultivation is extremely primitive. Very few of the
occupiers own the land they cultivate; but they almost invariably own
the walls, cottages and trees standing thereon, the land alone
belonging to the landlord. The tenant can sell his share of the
property without the consent of the landlord, and if he does not so
dispose of it that share passes to his heirs. In this way the tenant
practically enjoys fixity of tenure, for the landlord is seldom in a
position to pay the price at which the tenant's share is valued. Money
rents are rare, the métayer system regulating almost universally the
relations between landlord and tenant; that is, the tenant pays to the
owner a certain portion of the produce, usually one half or one third.
The holdings are as a rule rarely larger than one man can cultivate
with a little occasional assistance. There are few meadows and
pastures, the cattle being stall-fed when not feeding on the
mountains. Horses are never employed for draught, all labour of that
kind being done by oxen.

Wine.

The two staple productions of the soil are wine and sugar. The vine
was introduced from Cyprus or Crete soon after the discovery of the
island by the Portuguese (1420), but it was not actively cultivated
until the early part of the 16th century. The vines, after having been
totally destroyed by the oidium disease, which made its first
appearance in the island in 1852, were replanted, and in a few years
wine was again made. The phylloxera also made its way to the island,
and every vineyard in Madeira was more or less affected by it. The
wine usually termed Madeira is made from a mixture of black and white
grapes, which are also made separately into wines called Tinta and
Verdelho, after the names of the grapes. Other high-class wines, known
as Bual, Sercial and Malmsey, are made from varieties of grapes
bearing the same names. (See also WINE.)

Sugar.

The sugar cane is said to have been brought from Sicily about 1452,
and in course of time its produce became the sole staple of the
island. The cultivation languished, however, as the more abundant
produce of tropical countries came into the European market, and sugar
had long ceased to be made when the destruction of the vines compelled
the peasants to turn their attention to other things. Its cultivation
was resumed and sugar machinery imported. A considerable quantity of
spirit is made by the distillation of the juice or of the molasses
left after extracting the sugar, and this is consumed on the island.
The cane does not flourish here as luxuriantly as within the tropics;
but in localities below 1000 ft., where there is a good supply of
water, it pays the cultivator well.

The grain produced on the island (principally wheat, barley and Indian
corn) is not sufficient for the consumption of the people. The common
potato, sweet potato and gourds of various kinds are extensively
grown, as well as the _Colocasia esculenta_, the _kalo_ of the Pacific
islanders, the root of which yields an insipid food. Most of the
common table vegetables of Europe are plentiful. Besides apples, pears
and peaches, all of poor quality, oranges, lemons, guavas, mangoes,
loquats, custard-apples, figs, bananas and pineapples are produced,
the last two forming articles of export. The date palm is occasionally
grown, but its fruit is scarcely edible. On the hills large quantities
of the Spanish chestnut afford an item in the food of the common
people. A little tobacco is grown, and is made into cigars of inferior
quality.

The total foreign trade of Madeira was valued at £628,000 in 1900. The
principal exports are wine, sugar, embroidery, vegetables, fruits and
wicker goods. Coal is imported for the ships calling at Funchal, which
is the headquarters of Madeiran commerce and industry. Spirits, beer,
olive oil, soap, butter, linen and woollen goods, straw hats and
leather, are manufactured for home consumption, and there are
important fisheries.

_Chief Towns and Communications._--Funchal (pop. 20,850) is described in a separate article. The other chief towns are Camara de Lobos (7150), Machico (6128), Santa Cruz (5876), Ponta do Sol (5665), São Vicente (4896), Calheta (3475), Sant' Anna (3011) and Porto Santo (2311). Each of these is the capital of a commune (_concelho_), to which it gives its name. Madeira is connected by regular lines of steamships with Great Britain, Germany, Portugal, Cape Colony, Brazil and the United States. There is no railway in the archipelago, and partly owing to the irregularities of the surface of the roads, of which there are some 580 m., are bad, except in the neighbourhood of Funchal. Wheel carriages are rare, and all heavy goods are transported either on the backs of mules or upon rude wooden sledges drawn by bullocks. When horses are not employed, locomotion is effected either by means of hammocks or by bullock cars. The hammock (_rêde_) is a piece of stout canvas gathered up and secured at each end to a long pole carried by a couple of bearers. In place of cabs, curtained cars on sledges, made to hold four persons, and drawn by a pair of bullocks, are employed. They are convenient, but the rate of progress is very slow.

_Administration._--The archipelago is officially styled the district of Funchal; it returns members to the Portuguese Cortes, and is regarded as an integral part of the kingdom. The district is subdivided into the eight communes already enumerated, and is administered in accordance with the same laws that regulate local government on the mainland (see PORTUGAL). Funchal is a Roman Catholic bishopric in the archiepiscopal province of Lisbon. Education is compulsory in name only, for less than 2% of the population could read when the census of 1900 was taken. An infantry regiment and a battery of garrison artillery are permanently stationed in Madeira.

_History._--It has been conjectured, but on insufficient evidence, that the Phoenicians discovered Madeira at a very early period. Pliny mentions certain Purple or Mauretanian Islands, the position of which with reference to the Fortunate Islands or Canaries might seem to indicate the Madeiras. There is a romantic story, to the effect that two lovers, Robert Machim, à Machin, or Macham, and Anna d'Arfet, fleeing from England to France (c. 1370) were driven out of their course by a violent storm and cast on the coast of Madeira at the place subsequently named Machico, in memory of one of them. Both perished here, but some of their crew escaped to the Barbary coast, and were made slaves. Among them was the pilot Pedro Morales of Seville, who is said to have been ransomed and to have communicated his knowledge of Madeira to João Gonçalvez Zarco (or Zargo). How far this story is true cannot now be ascertained. It is, however, certain that Zarco first sighted Porto Santo in 1418, having been driven thither by a storm while he was exploring the coast of West Africa. Madeira itself was discovered in 1420. It is probable that the whole archipelago had been explored at an earlier date by Genoese adventurers, and had been forgotten; for an Italian map dated 1351 (the Laurentian portolano) shows the Madeiras quite clearly, and there is some reason to believe that they were known to the Genoese before 1339. When Zarco visited Madeira in 1420 the islands were uninhabited, but Prince Henry the Navigator at once began their colonization, aided by the knights of the Order of Christ. Sanctioned by the pope and by two charters which the king of Portugal granted in 1430 and 1433, the work proceeded apace; much land was deforested and brought into cultivation, and the Madeiran sugar trade soon became important. For the sixty years 1580-1640 Madeira, with Portugal itself, was united with Spain. Slavery was abolished in Madeira in 1775, by order of Pombal. In 1801 British troops, commanded by General Beresford, occupied the island for a few months, and it was again under the British flag from 1807 to 1814. It shared in the civil disturbances brought about by the accession of Dom Miguel (see PORTUGAL: _History_), but after 1833 its history is a record of peaceful commercial development.

See A. S. Brown, _Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores_ (1903),
a comprehensive study of the three archipelagoes. _The Land of the
Wine_, by A. J. D. Biddle (Philadelphia, 1901) is generally valuable,
but its history cannot be trusted. See also P. Langerhaus, _Handbuch
für Madeira_ (1884) and Vahl, _Madeira's Vegetation_ (Copenhagen,
1904).

MADELENIAN, a term derived from La Madeleine, a cave in the Vézère, about midway between Moustier and Les Eyzies, France, and given by the French anthropologist Gabriel de Mortillet to the third stage of his system of cave-chronology, synchronous with the fourth or most recent division of the Quaternary Age. The Madelenian epoch was a long one, represented by numerous stations, whose contents show progress in the arts and general culture. It was characterized by a cold and dry climate, the existence of man in association with the reindeer, and the extinction of the mammoth. The use of bone and ivory for various implements, already begun in the preceding Solutrian epoch, was much increased, and the period is essentially a Bone age. The bone instruments are very varied: spear-points, harpoon-heads, borers, hooks and needles. Most remarkable is the evidence La Madeleine affords of prehistoric art. Numbers of bones, reindeer antlers and animals' teeth were found, with rude pictures, carved or etched on them, of seals, fishes, reindeer, mammoths and other creatures. The best of these are a mammoth engraved on a fragment of its own ivory; a dagger of reindeer antler, with handle in form of a reindeer; a cave-bear cut on a flat piece of schist; a seal on a bear's tooth; a fish well drawn on a reindeer antler; and a complete picture, also on reindeer antler, showing horses, an aurochs, trees, and a snake biting a man's leg. The man is naked, and this and the snake suggest a warm climate, in spite of the presence of the reindeer. The fauna of the Madelenian epoch seems, indeed, to have included tigers and other tropical species side by side with reindeer, blue foxes, Arctic hares and other polar creatures. Madelenian man appears to have been of low stature, dolichocephalic, with low retreating forehead and prominent brow ridges. Besides La Madeleine the chief stations of the epoch are Les Eyzies, Laugerie Basse, and Gorge d'Enfer in Dordogne; Grotte du Placard in Charente and others in south-west France.

See G. de Mortillet, _Le Préhistorique_ (1900); Edouard Lartet and
Henry Christy, _Reliquiae Aquitanicae_ (1865-1875); Edouard Dupont,
_Le Temps préhistorique en Belgique_ (1872); Lord Avebury,
_Prehistoric Times_ (1900).

MADELEY, a market town in the municipal borough of Wenlock, and the Wellington (Mid) parliamentary division of Shropshire, England, 159 m. N.W. from London, with stations on the London & North Western (Madeley Market) and Great Western railways (Madeley Court). Pop. of civil parish (1901), 8442. There are large ironworks, ironstone and coal are mined, and potter's clay is raised. The church of St Michael (1796) replaced a Norman building. The living was held from 1760 to 1783 by John William Fletcher or de la Flechêre, a close friend of the Wesleys. The parish includes a portion of Coalbrookdale (q.v.), and the towns of Ironbridge and Coalport. IRONBRIDGE, a town picturesquely situated on the steep left bank of the Severn, adjoins Madeley on the south-west. It takes its name from the iron bridge of one span crossing the river, erected in 1779. This bridge is a remarkable work considering its date; it was probably the first erected, at any rate on so large a scale, and attracted great attention. It is the work of Abraham Darby, the third of the name, one of the famous family of iron-workers in Coalbrookdale. Here are brick and tile works and lime-kilns. There is a station (Ironbridge and Broseley) on the Great Western railway, across the river. COALPORT lies also on the Severn, S. of Madeley and 2 m. S.E. of Ironbridge, with a station on the Great Western railway. It has large china works, founded at the close of the 18th century, which subsequently incorporated those of Caughley, across the Severn, and of Nantgarw in Glamorganshire.

MADHAVA ACHARYA (_fl._ c. 1380), Hindu statesman and philosopher, lived at the court of Vijayanagar (the modern Humpi in the district of Bellary), the vigorous Southern Hindu kingdom that so long withstood Mahommedan influence and aggression. His younger brother Sayana (d. 1387) was associated with him in the administration and was a famous commentator on the _Rigveda_. Sayana's commentaries were influenced by and dedicated to Madhava, who is best known as the author of the _Sarvadarsana Samgraha_ (_Compendium of Speculations_). With remarkable mental detachment he places himself in the position of an adherent of sixteen distinct systems. Madhava also wrote a commentary on the Mimamsa Sutras. He died as abbot of the monastery of Sringeri.

MADI (A-MADI), a negro race of the Nile valley, occupying both banks of the Bahr-el-Jebel immediately north of Albert Nyanza. Tradition makes them immigrants from the north-west. They are remarkable for the consideration shown to their women, who choose their own husbands, are never ill-treated or hard-worked, and take part in tribal deliberations. The Madi build sepulchral monuments of an elaborate type, two huge narrow stones sloping towards each other with two smaller slabs covering the opening between them. They have been much harried by the Azandeh and Abarambo. They were visited by W. Junker in 1882-1883, and described by him in _Petermann's Mittheilungen_ for May 1883.

MADISON, JAMES (1751-1836), fourth president of the United States, was born at Port Conway, in King George county, Virginia, on the 16th of March 1751. His first ancestor in America may possibly have been Captain Isaac Maddyson, a colonist of 1623 mentioned by John Smith as an excellent Indian fighter. His father, also named James Madison, was the owner of large estates in Orange county, Virginia. In 1769 the son entered the college of New Jersey (now Princeton University), where, in the same year, he founded the well-known literary club, "The American Whig Society." He graduated in 1771, but remained for another year at Princeton studying, apparently for the ministry, under the direction of John Witherspoon (1722-1794). In 1772 he returned to Virginia, where he pursued his reading and studies, especially theology and Hebrew, and acted as a tutor to the younger children of the family. In 1775 he became chairman of the committee of public safety for Orange county, and wrote its response to Patrick Henry's call for the arming of a colonial militia, and in the spring of 1776 he was chosen a delegate to the new Virginia convention, where he was on the committee which drafted the constitution for the state, and proposed an amendment (not adopted) which declared that "all men are equally entitled to the full and free exercise" of religion, and was more radical than the similar one offered by George Mason. In 1777, largely, it seems, because he refused to treat the electors with rum and punch, after the custom of the time, he was not re-elected, but in November of the same year he was chosen a member of the privy council or council of state, in which he acted as interpreter for a few months, as secretary prepared papers for the governor, and in general took a prominent part from the 14th of January 1778 until the end of 1779, when he was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress.

He was in Congress during the final stages of the War of Independence, and in 1780 drafted instructions to Jay, then representing the United States at Madrid, that in negotiations with Spain he should insist upon the free navigation of the Mississippi and upon the principle that the United States succeeded to British rights affirmed by the treaty of Paris of 1763. When the confederation was almost in a state of collapse because of the failure of the states to respond to requisitions of Congress for supplies for the federal treasury, Madison was among the first to advocate the granting of additional powers to Congress, and urged that congress should forbid the states to issue more paper money. In 1781 he favoured an amendment of the Articles of Confederation giving Congress power to enforce its requisitions, and in 1783, in spite of the open opposition of the Virginia legislature, which considered the Virginian delegates wholly subject to its instructions, he advocated that the states should grant to Congress for twenty-five years authority to levy an import duty, and suggested a scheme to provide for the interest on the debt not raised by the import duty--apportioning it among the states on the basis of population, counting three-fifths of the slaves, a ratio suggested by Madison himself. Accompanying this plan was an address to the states drawn up by Madison, and one of the ablest of his state papers. In the same year, with Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, Nathaniel Gorham of Massachusetts. Gunning Bedford of Delaware, and John Rutledge of South Carolina, he was a member of the committee which reported on the Virginia proposal as to the terms of cession to the Confederation of the "back lands," or unoccupied Western territory, held by several of the states; the report was a skilful compromise made by Madison, which secured the approval of the rather exigent Virginia legislature.