Chapter VII: Front Matter (7)

Vasco da Gama cast anchor off Calicut on the 20th of May 1498, and for a century the Portuguese retained in their control the commerce of India. The Dutch began to establish themselves on the ruin of the Portuguese at the beginning of the 17th century, and were quickly followed by the English, who established themselves at Calicut and Cranganore in 1616. Tellicherry became the principal English emporium on the west coast of Madras. The Portuguese eventually retired to Goa, and the Dutch to the Spice Islands. The first English settlement on the east coast was in 1611, at Masulipatam, even then celebrated for its fabrics. Farther south a fort, the nucleus of Madras city, was erected in 1640. Pondicherry was purchased by the French in 1762. For many years the English and French traders lived peacefully side by side, and with no ambition for territorial aggrandisement. The war of the Austrian succession in Europe lit the first flame of hostility on the Coromandel coast. In 1746 Madras was forced to surrender to La Bourdonnais, and Fort St David remained the only English possession in southern India. By the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the English; but from this time the rivalry of the two nations was keen, and found its opportunities in the disputed successions which always fill a large place in Oriental politics. English influence was generally able to secure the favour of the rulers of the Carnatic and Tanjore, while the French succeeded in placing their own nominee on the throne at Hyderabad. At last Dupleix rose to be the temporary arbiter of the fate of southern India, but he was overthrown by Clive, whose defence of Arcot in 1751 forms the turning point in Indian history. In 1760 the crowning victory of Wandewash was won by Colonel (afterwards Sir Eyre) Coote, over Lally, and in the following year, despite help from Mysore, Pondicherry was captured.

Though the English had no longer any European rival, they had yet to deal with Mahommedan fanaticism and the warlike population of the highlands of Mysore. The dynasty founded by Hyder Ali, and terminating in his son Tippoo Sultan, proved itself in four several wars, which terminated only in 1799, the most formidable antagonist which the English had ever encountered (see HYDER ALI and INDIA). Since the beginning of the 19th century Madras has known no regular war, but occasional disturbances have called for measures of repression. The _pálegárs_ or local chieftains long clung to their independence after their country was ceded to the British. On the west coast, the feudal aristocracy of the Nairs, and the religious fanaticism of the Moplahs, have more than once led to rebellion and bloodshed. In the extreme north, the wild tribes occupying the hills of Ganjam and Vizagapatam have only lately learned the habit of subordination. In 1836 the _zamíndarí_ of Gumsur in this remote tract was attached by government for the rebellious conduct of its chief. An inquiry then instituted revealed the wide prevalence among the tribe of Kondhs of human sacrifice, under the name of _meriah_. The practice has since been suppressed by a special agency. In 1879 the country round Rampa on the northern frontier was the scene of riots sufficiently serious to lead to the necessity of calling out troops. The same necessity arose three years later, when the Hindus and Mahommedans of Salem came into collision over a question of religious ceremonial. A more serious disturbance was that known as the "Anti-Shanar riots" of 1899. The Maravans of Tinnevelly and parts of Madura, resenting the pretensions of the Shanans, a toddy-drawing caste, to a higher social and religious status, organized attacks on Shanan villages. The town of Sivakasi was looted and burnt by five thousand Maravans. Quiet was restored by the military, and a punitive police force was stationed in the disturbed area.

The different territories comprising the Madras presidency were acquired by the British at various dates. In 1763 the tract encircling Madras city, then known as the Jagir now Chingleput district, was ceded by the nawab of Arcot. In 1765 the Northern Circars, out of which the French had recently been driven, were granted to the Company by the Mogul emperor, but at the price of an annual tribute of £90,000 to the nizam of Hyderabad. Full rights of dominion were not acquired till 1823, when the tribute was commuted for a lump payment. In 1792 Tippoo was compelled to cede the Baramahal (now part of Salem district), Malabar and Dindigul subdivision of Madura. In 1799, on the reconstruction of Mysore state after Tippoo's death, Coimbatore and Kanara were appropriated as the British share; and in the same year the Mahratta raja of Tanjore resigned the administration of his territory, though his descendant retained titular rank till 1855. In 1800 Bellary and Cuddapah were made over by the nizam of Hyderabad to defray the expense of an increased subsidiary force. In the following year the dominions of the nawab of the Carnatic, extending along the east coast almost continuously from Nellore to Tinnevelly, were resigned into the hands of the British by a puppet who had been put upon the throne for the purpose. The last titular nawab of the Carnatic died in 1855; but his representative still bears the title of prince of Arcot, and is recognized as the first native nobleman in Madras. In 1839 the nawab of Kurnool was deposed for misgovernment and suspicion of treason, and his territories annexed.

See _Madras Manual of Administration_, 3 vols. (Madras, 1885 and
1893); S. Ayyangar, _Forty Years' Progress in Madras_ (Madras, 1893);
J. P. Rees, _Madras_ (Society of Arts, 1901); _Madras Provincial
Gazetteer_ (2 vols., Calcutta, 1908).

MADRAS, the capital of Madras presidency, and the chief seaport on the eastern coast of India, is situated in 13° 4´ N. and 80° 17´ E. The city, with its suburbs, extends nine miles along the sea and nearly four miles inland, intersected by the little river Cooum. Area, 27 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 509,346, showing an increase of 12.6% in the decade. Madras is the third city in India.

Although at first sight the city presents a disappointing appearance, and possesses not a single handsome street, it has several buildings of architectural pretensions, and many spots of historical interest. It is spread over a very wide area, and many parts of it are almost rural in character. Seen from the roadstead, the fort, a row of merchants' offices, a few spires and public buildings are all that strike the eye. Roughly speaking, the city consists of the following divisions. (1) George Town (formerly Black Town, but renamed after the visit of the Prince of Wales in 1906), an ill-built, densely populated block, about a mile square, is the business part of the town, containing the banks, custom house, high court, and all the mercantile offices. The last, for the most part handsome structures, lie along the beach. On the sea-face of George Town are the pier and the new harbour. Immediately south of George Town there is (2) an open space which contains Fort St George, the Marina, or fashionable drive and promenade by the seashore, Government House, and several handsome public buildings on the sea-face. (3) West and south of this lung of the city are crowded quarters known by native names--Chintadrapet, Turuvaleswarampet, Pudupak, Royapet, Kistnampet and Mylapur, which bend to the sea again at the old town of Saint Thomé. (4) To the west of George Town are the quarters of Veperi and Pudupet, chiefly inhabited by Eurasians, and the suburbs of Egmore, Nangambakam, and Perambur, adorned with handsome European mansions and their spacious "compounds" or parks, which make Madras a city of magnificent distances. (5) South-west and south lie the European quarters of Tanampet and aristocratic Adyar. Among the most notable buildings are the cathedral, Scottish church, Government House, Pachayappa's Hall, senate house, Chepauk palace (now the revenue board), and the Central railway station.

Madras possesses no special industries. There are several cotton mills, large cement works, iron foundries and cigar factories. Large sums of money have from time to time been spent upon the harbour works, but without any great success. The port remains practically an open roadstead, protected by two breakwaters, and the P. & O. steamers ceased to call in 1898. Passengers or cargo are landed or embarked in flat-bottomed _masula_ boats. The sea bottom is unusually flat, reaching a depth of ten fathoms only at a mile from the shore. The harbour is not safe during a cyclone, and vessels have to put out to sea. Madras conducts about 56% of the foreign trade of the presidency, but a much smaller share of the coasting trade. As the capital of southern India, Madras is the centre on which all the great military roads converge. It is also the terminal station of two lines of railway, the Madras & Southern Mahratta line and the Madras & Tanjore section of the South Indian railway. The Buckingham canal, which passes through an outlying part of the city, connects South Arcot district with Nellore and the Kistna and Godavari system of canal navigation. The municipal government of the city was framed by an act of the Madras legislature passed in 1884. The governing body consists of 32 commissioners, of whom 24 are elected by the ratepayers, together with a paid president. The Madras University was constituted in 1857, as an examining body, on the model of the university of London. The chief educational institutions in Madras city are the Presidency College; six missionary colleges and one native college; the medical college, the law college, the college of engineering, the teachers' college in the suburb of Saidapet, all maintained by government; and the government school of arts.

The foundation of Madras dates from 1640, when Francis Day, chief of the East India Company's settlement at Armagon, obtained a grant of the present site of the city from a native ruler. A fort--called Fort St George, presumably from having been finished on St George's Day (April 23)--was at once constructed, and a gradually increasing population settled around its walls. In 1653 Madras, which had previously been subordinate to the settlement of Bantam in Java, was raised to the rank of an independent presidency. In 1702 Daud Khan, Aurangzeb's general, blockaded the town for a few weeks, and in 1741 the Mahrattas unsuccessfully attacked the place. In 1746 La Bourdonnais bombarded and captured Madras. The settlement was restored to the English two years later by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the government of the presidency did not return to Madras till 1762. In 1758 the French under Lally occupied the Black Town and invested the fort. The siege was conducted on both sides with great skill and vigour. After two months the arrival of an English fleet relieved the garrison, and the besiegers retired with some precipitancy. With the exception of the threatening approach of Hyder Ali's horsemen in 1769, and again in 1780, Madras has since the French siege been free from external attack. The town of Saint Thomé, now part of Madras city, was founded and fortified by the Portuguese in 1504, and was held by the French from 1672 to 1674.

See Mrs F. Penny, _Fort St George_ (1900); W. Foster, _Founding of
Fort St George_ (1902).

MADRAZO Y KUNT, DON FEDERICO DE (1815-1894), Spanish painter, was born in Rome on the 12th of February 1815. He was the son of the painter Madrazo y Agudo (1781-1859), and received his first instruction from his father. While still attending the classes at the Academy of San Fernando he painted his first picture, "The Resurrection of Christ" (1829), which was purchased by Queen Christina. Not long afterwards he painted "Achilles in his Tent," and subsequently presented to the Academy "The Continence of Scipio," which secured him admission as a member "for merit." While decorating the palace of Vista Alegre he took up portraiture. In 1852 he went to Paris, where he studied under Winterhalter, and painted portraits of Baron Taylor and of Ingres. In 1837 he was commissioned to produce a picture for the gallery at Versailles, and painted "Godfrey de Bouillon proclaimed King of Jerusalem." The artist then went to Rome, where he worked at various subjects, sacred and profane. Then he painted "Maria Christina in the Dress of a Nun by the bedside of Ferdinand III." (1843), "Queen Isabella," "The Duchess of Medina-Coeli," and "The Countess de Vilchès" (1845-1847), besides a number of portraits of the Spanish aristocracy, some of which were sent to the exhibition of 1855. He received the Legion of Honour in 1846. He was made a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Fine Arts on the 10th of December 1853, and in 1873, on the death of Schnorr, the painter, he was chosen foreign member. After his father's death he succeeded him as director of the Prado Gallery and president of the Academy of San Fernando. He originated in Spain the production of art reviews and journals, such as _El Artista_, _El Renacimiento_ and _El Semanario pintoresco_. He died at Madrid on the 11th of June 1894. His brother, DON LOUIS DE MADRAZO, was also known as a painter, chiefly by his "Burial of Saint Cecilia" (1855). Don Federico's best-known pupil was his son, DON RAIMUNDO DE MADRAZO (b. 1841).

MADRID, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts previously included in New Castile, and bounded on the W. and N. by Ávila and Segovia, E. by Guadalajara, S.E. by Cuenca and S. by Toledo. Pop. (1900), 775,034, of whom 539,835 inhabit the city of Madrid; area, 3084 sq. m. Madrid belongs to the basin of the Tagus, being separated from that of the Douro by the Sierra de Guadarrama on the N.W. and N., and by the Sierra de Gredos on the S.W. The Tagus is the southern boundary for some distance, its chief tributary being the Jarama, which rises in the Somosierra in the north and terminates at Aranjuez. The Jarama, in turn, is joined by the Henares and Tajuña on the left, and by the Lozoya and Manzanares on the right. The Guadarrama, another tributary of the Tagus, has its upper course within the province. Like the rest of Castile, Madrid is chiefly of Tertiary formation; the soil is mostly clayey, but there are tracts of sandy soil. Agriculture is somewhat backward; the rainfall is deficient, and the rivers are not utilized as they might be for irrigation. The south-eastern districts are the best watered, and produce in abundance fruit, vegetables, wheat, olives, esparto grass and excellent wine. Gardening and viticulture are carried on to some extent near the capital, though the markets of Madrid receive their most liberal supply of fruits and vegetables from Valencia. Sheep, goats and horned cattle are reared, and fish are found in the Jarama and other rivers. Much timber is extracted from the forests of the northern and north-eastern parts of the province for building purposes and for firewood and charcoal. The royal domains of the Escorial, Aranjuez and El Pardo, and the preserves of the nobility, are all well wooded and contain much game. Efforts have also been made by the local authorities to cover the large stretches of waste ground and commons with pines and other trees.

The Sierra de Guadarrama has quarries of granite, lime and gypsum, and is known to contain iron, copper and argentiferous lead; but these resources are undeveloped. Other industries are chiefly confined to the capital; but cloth, leather, paper, earthenware, porcelain, glass, bricks and tiles, ironware, soap, candles, chocolate and lace are also manufactured on a small scale beyond its boundaries. There is very little commerce except for the supply of the capital with necessaries.

Besides the local lines, all the great railways in the kingdom converge in this province, and it contains in all 221 m. of line. Besides Madrid, the towns of Aranjuez (12,670) and Alcalá de Henares (11,206) and the Escorial are described in separate articles. The other towns with more than 5000 inhabitants are Vallecas (10,128), Colmenar de Oreja (6182), Colmenar Viejo (5255) and Carabanchel Bajo (5862).

MADRID, the capital of Spain and of the province of Madrid, on the left bank of the river Manzanares, a right-hand tributary of the Jarama, which flows south into the Tagus. Pop. (1877), 397,816; (1887), 472,228; (1897), 512,150; (1900), 539,835. Madrid was the largest city in Spain in 1900; it is the see of an archbishop, the focus of the principal Spanish railways, the headquarters of an army corps, the seat of a university, the meeting-place of parliament, and the chief residence of the king, the court, and the captain-general of New Castile. It is, however, surpassed in ecclesiastical importance by Toledo and in commerce by Barcelona.

_Situation and Climate._--Madrid is built on an elevated and
undulating plateau of sand and clay, which is bounded on the north by
the Sierra Guadarrama and merges on all other sides into the barren
and treeless table-land of New Castile. Numerous water-courses
(_arroyos_), dry except at rare intervals, furrow the surface of the
plateau; these as they pass through the city have in certain cases
been converted into roads--e.g. the Paseo de Recoletos and Prado,
which are still so liable to be flooded after prolonged rain that
special channels have been constructed to carry away the water. The
highest point in Madrid is 2372 ft. above sea-level. The city is close
to the geographical centre of the peninsula, nearly equidistant from
the Bay of Biscay, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic. Owing to its
high altitude and open situation it is liable to sudden and frequent
variations of climate, and the daily range of temperature sometimes
exceeds 50° F. In summer the heat is rendered doubly oppressive by the
fiery, dust-laden winds which sweep across the Castilian table-land;
at this season a temperature of 109° has been registered in the shade.
In winter the northerly gales from the Sierra Guadarrama bring intense
cold; snow falls frequently, and skating is carried on in the Buen
Retiro park. A Spanish proverb describes the wind of Madrid as so
deadly and subtle that "it will kill a man when it will not blow out a
candle"; but, though pulmonary diseases are not uncommon, the climate
appears to be exceptionally healthy. In 1901 the death-rate was 22.07
per 1000, or lower than that of any other town on the Spanish
mainland. The Sierra Guadarrama renders the atmosphere unusually dry
and clear by intercepting the moisture of the north-western winds
which prevail in summer; hence the average dally number of deaths
decreases from 80 in winter to about 25 in summer. The sanitation of
the older quarters is defective, and overcrowding is common, partly
owing to the royal decrees which formerly prohibited the extension of
the city; but much has been done in modern times to remove or mitigate
these evils.

_The Inner City._--The form of Madrid proper (exclusive of the modern suburbs) is almost that of a square with the corners rounded off; from east to west it measures rather less than from north to south. It was formerly surrounded by a poor wall, partly of brick, partly of earth, some 20 ft. in height, and pierced by five principal gates (_puertas_) and eleven doorways (_portillos_). Of these only three, the Puerta de Alcalá on the east, the Puerta de Toledo on the south and the Portillo de San Vicente on the west, actually exist; the first and the third were erected in the time of Charles III. (1759-1788), and the second in honour of the restoration of Ferdinand VII. (1827). The Manzanares--or rather its bed, for the stream is at most seasons of the year quite insignificant--is spanned by six bridges, the Puente de Toledo and Puente de Segovia being the chief.

The Puerta del Sol is the centre of Madrid, the largest of its many plazas, and the place of most traffic. It derived its name from the former east gate of the city, which stood here until 1570, and had on its front a representation of the sun. On its south side stands the Palacio de la Gobernacion, or ministry of the interior, a heavy square building by a French architect, J. Marquet, dating from 1768. From the Puerta del Sol diverge, immediately or mediately, ten of the principal streets of Madrid--eastward by north, the Calle de Alcalá, terminating beyond the Buen Retiro park; eastward, the Carrera de San Jeronimo, terminating by the Plaza de las Cortes in the Prado; southward, the Calle de Carretas; westward, the Calle Mayor, which leads to the council chamber and to the palace, and the Calle del Arenal, terminating in the Plaza de Isabel II. and the royal opera house; north-westward, the Calles de Preciados and Del Carmen; and northward, the Calle de la Montera, which afterwards divides into the Calle de Fuencarral to the left and the Calle de Hortaleza to the right. The contract for another wide street through central Madrid, to be called the Gran Via, was given to an English firm in 1905.

The Calle de Alcalá is bordered on both sides with acacias, and
contains the Real Academia de Bellas Artes, founded in 1752 as an
academy of art and music; its collection of paintings by Spanish
masters includes some of the best-known works of Murillo. The handsome
Bank of Spain (1884-1891) stands where the Calle de Alcalá meets the
Prado; in the oval Plaza de Madrid, at the same point, is a fine
18th-century fountain with a marble group representing the goddess
Cybele drawn in a chariot by two lions. The Calle de Alcalá is
continued eastward past the Buen Retiro gardens and park, and through
the Plaza de Independencia, in the middle of which is the Puerta de
Alcalá. The Plaza de las Cortes is so called from the Congreso de los
Diputados, or House of Commons, on its north side. The square contains
a bronze statue of Cervantes, by Antonio Sola, erected in 1835. The
Calle de Carretas, on the west side of which is the General Post
Office, ranks with the Carrera de San Jeronimo and Calle de la Montera
for the excellence of its shops. From the Calle Mayor is entered the
Plaza Mayor, a rectangle of about 430 ft. by 330 ft., formerly the
scene of tournaments, bull fights, autos de fé, acts of canonization
(including that of Ignatius Loyola in 1622) and similar exhibitions,
which used to be viewed by the royal family from the balcony of one of
the houses called the Panaderia (belonging to the guild of bakers).
The square, which was built under Philip III. in 1619, is surrounded
by an arcade; the houses are uniform in height and decoration. In the
centre stands a bronze equestrian statue of Philip III., designed by
Giovanni da Bologna, after a painting by Pantoja de la Cruz, and
finished by Pietro Tacca. From the south-east angle of the Plaza Mayor
the Calle de Atocha, one of the principal thoroughfares of Madrid,
leads to the outskirts of the inner city; it contains two large
hospitals and part of the university buildings (faculty of medicine).
The house occupied by Cervantes from 1606 until his death in 1616
stands at the point where it meets the Calle de Léon; in this street
is the Real Academia de la Historia, with a valuable library and
collections of MSS. and plate. From the south-west angle of the Plaza
Mayor begins the Calle de Toledo, the chief mart for the various
woollen and silken fabrics from which the picturesque costumes
peculiar to the peninsula are made. In the Plaza de Isabel II., at the
western extremity of the Calle del Arenal, stands the royal
opera-house, the principal front of which faces the Plaza del Oriente
and the royal palace. In the centre of the plaza is a fine bronze
equestrian statue of Philip IV. (1621-1665); it was designed by
Velazquez and cast by Tacca, while Galileo is said to have suggested
the means by which the balance is preserved. The gift of the grand
duke of Tuscany in 1640, it stood in the Buen Retiro gardens until
1844.

_Modern Development of the City._--The north and east of the city--the new suburbs--have developed past the Retiro Park as far as the Bull-ring, and have covered all the vast space included between the Retiro, the Bull-ring, the long Castellana Drive to the race-course and the exhibition building. On the slopes of the other side of the Castellana, and along what were the northern limits of Madrid in 1875, the modern suburbs have extended to the vicinity of the fine cellular prison that was built at the close of the reign of King Alphonso XII. to replace the gloomy building known as El Saladero.

The new parts of the capital, with their broad streets and squares, and their villas sometimes surrounded with gardens, their boulevards lined by rather stunted trees, and their modern public buildings, all resemble the similar features of other European capitals, and contrast with the old Madrid that has preserved so many of its traits in architecture, popular life and habits. Some of the streets have been slightly widened, and in many thoroughfares new houses are being built among the ugly, irregular dwelling-places of the 18th and earlier centuries. This contrast is to be seen especially in and about the Calle Mayor, the Plaza Mayor, the Calle de Toledo, the Rastro, and the heart of the city.

Few capitals have more extensively developed their electric and horse
tramways, gas and electric light installations and telephones. Much
was done to improve the sanitary conditions of the city in the last
twenty years of the 19th century. The streets are deluged three times
a day with fire-hose, but even that has little effect upon the dust.
Unfortunately the water supply, which used to be famed for its
abundance and purity, became wholly insufficient owing to the growth
of the city. The old reservoir of the Lozoya canal, a cutting 32 m.
long, and the additional reservoir opened in 1883, are quite
inadequate for the requirements of modern Madrid, and were formerly
kept in such an unsatisfactory state that for several months in 1898
and 1899 the water not only was on the point of giving out, but at
times was of such inferior quality that the people had recourse to the
many wells and fountains available. The construction of new waterworks
was delayed by a terrible accident, which occurred on the 8th of April
1905; the whole structure collapsed, and nearly 400 persons lost their
lives in the flooded ruins. A decided improvement has been made in the
burial customs of Madrid. No bodies are allowed to be interred in the
churches and convents. Some of the older burial grounds in the
northern suburbs have been closed altogether, and in those which
remain open few coffins are placed in the niche vaults in the depth of
the thick walls, as was once the practice. A large modern necropolis
has been established a few miles to the north-east.

_Principal Buildings._--As compared with other capitals Madrid has very few buildings of much architectural interest. The Basilica de Nuestra Señora de Atocha, on the Paseo de Atocha, a continuation of the Calle de Atocha, was originally founded in 1523. After being almost destroyed by the French, it was restored by Ferdinand VII., and rebuilt after 1896. The modern church is Romanesque in style; it contains a much venerated statue of the Virgin, attributed to St Luke. The collegiate church of San Isidro el Real, in the Calle de Toledo, dates from 1651; it has no architectural merit, but contains one or two valuable pictures and other works of art. It was originally owned by the Jesuits, but after their expulsion in 1769 it was reconsecrated, and dedicated to St Isidore the Labourer (d. 1170), the patron saint of Madrid, whose remains were entombed here. When the diocese of Madrid was separated from that of Toledo San Isidro was chosen as the cathedral. The modern Gothic church of San Jeronimo el Real occupies a conspicuous site eastward of the town. The church of San Francisco el Grande, which contains many interesting monuments, is also known as the National Pantheon. An act was passed in 1837 declaring that the remains of all the most distinguished Spaniards should be buried here; but no attempt to enforce the act systematically was made until 1869, and even then the attempt failed. Towards the close of the 19th century the church was splendidly restored at the expense of the state. Its interior was decorated with paintings and statuary by most of the leading Spanish artists of the time. Of secular buildings unquestionably the most important is the royal palace (Palacio Real), on the west side of the town, on rising ground overhanging the Manzanares. It occupies the site of the ancient Moorish alcázar (citadel), where a hunting seat was built by Henry IV.; this was enlarged and improved by Charles V. when he first made Madrid his residence in 1532; was further developed by Phillip II., but ultimately was destroyed by fire in 1734. The present edifice was begun under Philip V. in 1737 by Sacchetti of Turin, and was finished in 1764. It is in the Tuscan style, and is 470 ft. square and 100 ft. in height, the material being white Colmenar granite, resembling marble. To the north of the palace are the royal stables and coach-houses, remarkable for their extent; to the south is the armoury (Museo de la Real Armería), containing what is possibly the best collection of the kind in existence. After the Palacio Real may be mentioned the royal picture gallery (Real Museo de Pinturas), adjoining the Salon del Prado; it was built about 1785 for Charles III. by Juan de Villanueva as a museum of natural history and academy of sciences. It contains the collections of Charles V., Philip II. and Philip IV., and the pictures number upwards of two thousand. The specimens of Titian, Raphael, Tintoretto, Velazquez, Vandyck, Rubens and Teniers give it a claim to be considered the finest picture gallery in the world. The Biblioteca Nacional, in the Paseo de Recoletos, was founded in 1866, and completed in 1892. Not only the national library, with its important collections of MSS. and documents, but the archaeological museum, the museums of modern painting and sculpture, and the fine arts academy of San Fernando, are within its walls. The two houses of the Cortes meet in separate buildings. The deputies have a handsome building with a very valuable library in the Carrera San Jeronimo; the senators have an old Augustinian convent which contains some fine pictures. A large and handsome building near the Retiro Park contains the offices of the ministers of public works, agriculture and commerce, and of fine arts and education; nearly opposite stands the new station of the Southern Railway Company. The Great Northern and the Spain to Portugal Railway Companies have also replaced their old stations by very spacious, handsome structures, much resembling those of Paris. In 1896 the Royal Exchange was installed in a large monumental building with a fine colonnade facing the Dos de Mayo monument, not far from the museum of paintings.

Of the promenades and open places of public resort the most fashionable and most frequented is the Prado (Paseo del Prado, Salon del Prado) on the east side of the town, with its northward continuation--the Paseo de Recoletos. To the south of the town is the Paseo de las Delicias, and on the west, below the royal palace, and skirting the Manzanares, is the Paseo de la Virgen del Puerto, used chiefly by the poorer classes. Eastward from the Prado are the Buen Retiro Gardens, with ponds and pavilions, and a menagerie. The gardens were formerly the grounds surrounding a royal hunting seat, on the site of which a palace was built for Philip IV. in 1633; it was destroyed during the French occupation.

_Education, Religion and Charity._--Madrid University developed gradually out of the college of Doña Maria de Aragon, established in 1590 by Alphonso Orozco. Schools of mathematics and natural science were added in the 16th and 17th centuries, and in 1786 the medical and surgical college of San Carlos was opened. In 1836-1837 the university of Alcalá de Henares (q.v.) was transferred to the capital and the older foundations incorporated with it. The university of Madrid thenceforth became the headquarters of education in central Spain. It has an observatory, and a library containing more than 2,000,000 printed books and about 5500 MSS. It gives instruction, chiefly in law and medicine, but also in literature, philosophy, mathematics and physics, to about 5000 students. Associated with the university is the preparatory school of San Isidro, founded by Philip IV. (1621-1665), and reorganized by Charles III. in 1770.

There are upwards of 100 official primary schools and a large number
of private ones, among which the schools conducted by the Jesuits and
the Scolapian fathers claim special mention. Madrid also has schools
of agriculture, architecture, civil and mining engineering, the fine
arts, veterinary science and music. The school of military engineering
is at Guadalajara. Besides these special schools there are a
self-supporting institute for preparing girls for the higher degrees
and for certificates as primary teachers, and an institute for
secondary education, conducted chiefly by ecclesiastics. Among the
educational institutions may be reckoned the botanical garden, dating
from 1781, the libraries of the palace, the university, and San
Isidro, and the museum of natural science, exceedingly rich in the
mineralogical department. The principal learned society is the royal
Spanish Academy, founded in 1713 for the cultivation and improvement
of the Spanish tongue. The Academy of History possesses a good
library, rich in MSS. and incunabula, as well as a fine collection of
coins and medals. In addition to the academies of fine arts, the exact
sciences, moral and political science, medicine and surgery, and
jurisprudence and legislation, all of which possess libraries, there
are also anthropological, economic and geographical societies, and a
scientific and literary athenaeum. Madrid has a British cemetery
opened in 1853, when the older Protestant cemetery in the Paseo de
Recoletos was closed. The town also contains a British embassy chapel,
a German chapel, and several Spanish Protestant chapels, attended by
over 1200 native Protestants, while the Protestant schools, chiefly
supported by British, German and American contributions, are attended
by more than 2500 children. The first Protestant bishop of Madrid was
consecrated in 1895 by Archbishop Plunkett of Dublin. The charitable
institutions were greatly improved between 1885 and 1905. The Princess
Hospital was completely restored on modern methods, and can
accommodate several hundred patients. The old contagious diseases
hospital of San Juan de Dios was pulled down and a fine new hospital
built in the suburbs beyond the Retiro Park, to hold 700 patients. The
military hospital was demolished and a very good one built in the
suburbs. There are in all twenty hospitals in Madrid, and a lunatic
asylum on the outskirts of the capital, founded by one of the most
eminent of Spanish surgeons, and admirably conducted. New buildings
have been provided for the orphanages, and for the asylums for the
blind, deaf and dumb, incurables and aged paupers. There are hospitals
supported by the French, Italian and Belgian colonies; these are old
and well-endowed foundations. Public charity generally is very active.
In Madrid, as in the rest of Spain, there has been an unprecedented
increase in convents, monasteries and religious institutions,
societies and Roman Catholic workmen's clubs and classes.

Apart from private institutions for such purposes, the state maintains
in the capital a savings bank for the poorer classes, and acts as
pawnbroker for their benefit. The mercantile and industrial classes
are organized in gilds, which themselves collect the lump sum of
taxation exacted by the exchequer and the municipality from each
_gremio_ or class of taxpayers. The working classes also have
commercial and industrial _circulos_ or clubs that are obeyed by the
gilds with great _esprit de corps_, a chamber of commerce and
industries, and "associations of productions" for the defence of
economic interests.

_Industries._--The industries of the capital have developed extraordinarily since 1890. In the town, and within the municipal boundaries in the suburbs, many manufactories have been established, giving employment to more than 30,000 hands, besides the 4000 women and girls of the Tobacco Monopoly Company's factory. Among the most important factories are those which make every article in leather, especially cigar and card cases, purses and pocket-books. Next come the manufactures of fans, umbrellas, sunshades, chemicals, varnishes, buttons, wax candles, beds, cardboard, porcelain, coarse pottery, matches, baskets, sweets and preserves, gloves, guitars, biscuits, furniture, carpets, corks, cards, carriages, jewelry, drinks of all kinds, plate and plated goods. There are also tanneries, saw and flour mills, glass and porcelain works, soap works, brickfields, paper mills, zinc, bronze, copper and iron foundries. The working classes are strongly imbued with socialistic ideas. Strikes and May Day demonstrations have often been troublesome. Order is kept by a garrison of 12,500 men in the barracks of the town and cantonments around, and by a strong force of civil guards or gendarmes quartered in the town itself. The civil and municipal authorities can employ beside the gendarmes the police, about 1400 strong, and what is called the _guardias urbanos_, another police force whose special duty it is to regulate the street traffic and prevent breaches of the municipal regulations. There is not, on the average, more crime in Madrid than in the provinces.

_History._--Spanish archaeologists have frequently claimed for Madrid a very high antiquity, but the earliest authentic historical mention of the town (Majrít, Majoritum) occurs in the Arab chronicle, and does not take us farther back than to the first half of the 10th century. The place was finally taken from the Moors by Alphonso VI. (1083), and was made a hunting-seat by Henry IV., but first rose into importance when Charles V., benefiting by its keen air, made it his occasional residence. Philip II. created it his capital and "only court" (_única corte_) in 1560. It is, however, only classed as a town (_villa_), having never received the title of city (_ciudad_). Fruitless attempts were made by Philip III. and Charles III. respectively to transfer the seat of government to Valladolid and to Seville. (See also SPAIN: _History_).

See J. Amador de los Rios, _Historia de la villa y corte de Madrid_
(Madrid, 1861-1864); Valverdey Alvarez, _La Capitol de España_
(Madrid, 1883); E. Sepúlveda, _La Vida en Madrid en 1886_ (Madrid,
1887); H. Peñasco, _Las Calles de Madrid_ (Madrid, 1889); C. Perez
Pastor, _Bibliografia madrileña, siglo XVI._ (Madrid, 1891); F. X. de
Palacio y Garcia, count of las Almenas, _La Municipalidad de Madrid_
(Madrid, 1896); E. Sepúlveda, _El Madrid de los recuerdos: colección
de artículos_ (Madrid, 1897); P. Hauser, _Madrid bajo el punto de
vista medico-social_ (Madrid, 1902); L. Williams, _Toledo and Madrid,
their Records and Romances_ (London, 1903).

MADRIGAL (Ital. _madrigale_), the name of a form of verse, the exact nature of which has never been decided in English, and of a form of vocal music.

(1) _In Verse._--The definition given in the _New English Dictionary_, "a short lyrical poem of amatory character," offers no distinctive formula; some madrigals are long, and many have nothing whatever to do with love. The most important English collection of madrigals, not set to music, was published by William Drummond of Hawthornden (1585-1649) in his _Poems_ of 1616. Perhaps the best way of ascertaining what was looked upon in the 17th century as a madrigal is to quote one of Drummond's:--

The beauty and the life
Of life's and beauty's fairest paragon,
O tears! O grief! hung at a feeble thread.
To which pale Atropos had set her knife;
The soul with many a groan
Had left each outward part,
And now did take his last leave of the heart;
Nought else did want, save death, even to be dead;
When the afflicted band about her bed.
Seeing so fair him come in lips, cheeks, eyes,
Cried ah! and can death enter Paradise?

This may be taken as a type of Drummond's madrigals, of which he has left us about eighty. They are serious, brief, irregular lyrics, in which neither the amatory nor the complimentary tone is by any means obligatory. Some of these pieces contain as few as six lines, one as many as fourteen, but they average from nine to eleven. In the majority of examples the little poem opens with a line of six syllables, and no line extends beyond ten syllables. The madrigal appears to be a short canzone of the Tuscan type, but less rigidly constructed. In French the madrigal has not this Italian character. It is simply a short piece of verse, ingenious in its turn and of a gallant tendency. The idea of compliment is essential. J. F. Guichard (1730-1811) writes:--

Orgon, poète marital,
À Venus compare sa femme;
C'est pour la belle un madrigal,
C'est pour Venus une épigramme.

This quatrain emphasizes the fact that in French a madrigal is a trifling piece of erotic compliment, neatly turned but not seriously meant. The credit of inventing the old French verse-form of madrigal belongs to Clément Marot, and one of his may be quoted in contrast to that of Drummond:--

Un doux nenni avec un doux sourire
Est tant honneste, il le vous faut apprendre;
Quant est de oui, si veniez à le dire,
D'avoir trop dit je voudrois vous reprendre;
Non que je sois ennuyé d'entreprendre
D'avoir le fruit dont le désir me point;
Mais je voudrois qu'en ne le laissant prendre,
Vous me disiez: vous ne l'aurez point.

In English, when the word first occurred--it has not been traced farther back than 1588 (in the preface to Nicholas Yonge's _Musica transalpina_)--it was identified with the chief form of secular vocal music in the 16th century. In 1741 John Immyns (d. 1764) founded the Madrigal Society, which met in an ale-house in Bride Lane, Fleet Street; this association still exists, and is the oldest musical society in Europe.

The word "madrigal" is frequently also used to designate a sentimental or trifling expression in a half-contemptuous sense. (E. G.)

(2) _In Music._--As a definite musical art-form, the madrigal was known in the Netherlands by the middle of the 15th century; like the motet, it obviously originated in the treatment of counterpoint on a canto fermo, some early examples even combining an ecclesiastical canto fermo in the tenor with secular counterpoint in the other parts. Thus Josquin's _Déploration de Jehan Okenheim_ (see MUSIC) might equally well be called a madrigal or motet, if the word "madrigal" were used for compositions to French texts at all. But by the middle of the 16th century the Italian supremacy in music had developed the madrigal into the greatest of secular musical forms, and made it independent of the form of the words; and thus when Lasso sets Marot's madrigals to appropriately witty and tuneful music he calls the result a "chanson"; while when Palestrina composes Petrarca's Sonnets to the Virgin in memory of Laura, the result appears as a volume of _Madrigali spirituali_. Elegiac madrigals, whether spiritual or secular, were thus as common as any other kind; so that when the _Musica transalpina_ brought the word "madrigal" to England it brought a precedent for the poet Drummond's melancholy type of madrigal poetry.

Italian madrigals, however, are by no means always elegiac; but the term always means a highly organized and flowing polyphonic piece, often as developed as the motet, though, in the mature classical period, distinct in style. Yet masses were often founded on the themes of madrigals, just as they were on the themes of motets (see MASS; MOTET); and it is interesting, in such beautiful cases as Palestrina's _Missa gia fu chi m'ebbe cara_, to detect the slight strain the mildly scandalous origin of the themes puts upon the ecclesiastical style.

The breaking strain was put on the madrigal style at the end of the 16th century, in one way by the new discords of Monteverde and (with more musical invention) Schütz; and in another way by the brilliant musical character-drawing of Vecchi, whose _Amfiparnasso_ is a veritable comic opera in the form of a set of fourteen madrigals, all riotously witty in the purest and most masterly polyphonic style. It was probably meant, or at least made use of, to laugh down the earliest pioneers of opera (q.v.); but it is the beginning of the end for the madrigal as a living art. Long afterwards we occasionally meet with the word again, when a 17th or 18th century composer sets to some kind of accompanied singing a poem of madrigalesque character. But this does not indicate any continuation of the true musical history of the madrigal. The strict meaning of the word in its musical sense is, then, a musical setting of an Italian or English non-ecclesiastical poem (typically a canzone) for unaccompanied chorus, in a 16th-century style less ecclesiastical than the motet, but as like it in organization as the form and sentiment of the words admit. The greatest classics in the madrigal style are those of Italy; and but little, if at all, below them come the English. The form, though not the name, of course, exists in the 16th-century music of other languages whenever the poetry is not too light for it.

It is important but easy to distinguish the madrigal from the lighter 16th-century forms, such as the Italian _villanella_ and the English ballet, these being very homophonic and distinguished by the strong lilt of their rhythm.

The madrigal has been very successfully revived in modern English music with a more or less strict adherence to the 16th century principles; the compositions of De Pearsall being of high artistic merit, while the _Madrigale spirituale_ in Stanford's oratorio _Eden_ is a movement of rare beauty. (D. F. T.)

MADURA (Dutch _Madoera_), an island of the Dutch East Indies, separated by the shallow Strait of Madura from the N.E. coast of Java. Pop. (1897), 1,652,580, of whom 1,646,071 were natives, 4252 Chinese and 558 Europeans. It extends from about 112° 32´ to 114° 7´ E., and is divided into two nearly equal portions by the parallel of 7° S.; the area is estimated at 1725 sq. m. It is a plateau-like prolongation of the limestone range of northern Java, with hills (1300 to 1600 ft. high) and dales. The formation of the coast and plains is Tertiary and recent alluvium. Hot springs are not infrequent; and in the valley between Gunong Geger and Banjar lies the mud volcano of Banju Ening. The coasts are clothed with tropical vegetation; but the soil is better fitted for pastoral than agricultural purposes. Fishing and cattle-rearing are the chief means of subsistence. Besides rice and maize, Madura yields coco-nut oil and _jati_. The manufacture of salt for the government, abolished in other places, continues in Madura. Hence perhaps the name is derived (Sansk. _mandura_, salt). Petroleum is found in small quantities.

The principal town is Sumenep; and there are populous Malay, Arab and Chinese villages between the town and the European settlement of Maringan. On a hill in the neighbourhood lies Asta, the burial-place of the Sumenep princes. Pamekasan is the seat of government. Bangkalang is a large town with the old palace of the sultan of Madura and the residences of the princes of the blood; the mosque is adorned with the first three suras of the Koran, thus differing from nearly all the mosques in Java and Madura, though resembling those of western Islam. In the vicinity once stood the Erfprins fort. Arisbaya (less correctly Arosbaya) is the place where the first mosque was built in Madura, and where the Dutch sailors first made acquaintance with the natives. The once excellent harbour is now silted up. Sampang is the seat of an important market. The Kangean and Sapudi islands, belonging to Madura, yield timber, trepang, turtle, pisang and other products.

Madura formerly consisted of three native states--Madura or Bangkalang, Pamekasan and Sumenep. The whole island was considered part of the Java residency of Surabaya. The separate residency of Madura was constituted in 1857; it now consists of four "departments"--Pamekasan, Madura, Sumenep and Sampang.

See P. J. Veth, Java, vol. iii.; Kielstra, "Het Eiland Madoera," in
_De Gids_ (1890); H. van Lennep, "De Madoereezen," in _De Indische
Gids_ (1895), with detailed bibliography.

MADURA, a city and district of British India, in the Madras Presidency. The city is situated on the right bank of the river Vaigai, and has a station on the South Indian railway 345 m. S.E. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 105,984. The city was the capital of the old Pandyan dynasty, which ruled over this part of India from the 5th century B.C. to the end of the 11th century A.D. Its great temple forms a parallelogram about 847 ft. by 729 ft., and is surrounded by nine _gopuras_, of which the largest is 152 ft. high. These ornamental pyramids begin with doorposts of single stones 60 ft. in height, and rise course upon course, carved with rows of gods and goddesses, peacocks, bulls, elephants, horses, lions, and a bewildering entanglement of symbolical ornament all coloured and gilded, diminishing with distance until the stone _trisul_ at the top looks like the finest jeweller's work. The temple, which contains some of the finest carving in southern India, is said to have been built in the reign of Viswanath, first ruler of the Nayak dynasty. Its chief feature is the sculptured "Hall of a Thousand Pillars." The palace of Tirumala Nayak is the most perfect relic of secular architecture in Madras. This palace, which covers a large area of ground, has been restored, and is utilized for public offices. The Vasanta, a hall 333 ft. long, probably dedicated to the god Sundareswara, and the Tamakam, a pleasure-palace, now the residence of the collector, are the other principal buildings of this period.

The last of the old Pandyan kings is said to have exterminated the Jains and conquered the neighbouring kingdom of Chola; but he was in his turn overthrown by an invader from the north, conjectured to have been a Mahommedan. In 1324 a Moslem army under Malik Kafur occupied Madura, and the Hindus were held in subjection for a period of fifty years. Subsequently Madura became a province of the Hindu Empire of Vijayanagar. In the middle of the 16th century the governor Viswanath established the Nayak dynasty, which lasted for a century. The greatest of the line was Tirumala Nayak (reigned 1623-1659), whose military exploits are recorded in the contemporary letters of the Jesuit missionaries. He adorned Madura with many public buildings, and extended his empire over the adjoining districts of Tinnevelly, Travancore, Coimbatore, Salem and Trichinopoly. His repudiation of the nominal allegiance paid to the raja of Vijayanagar brought him into collision with the sultan of Bijapur, and after a lapse of three centuries Mahommedans again invaded Madura and compelled him to pay them tribute. After the death of Tirumala the kingdom of Madura gradually fell to pieces, being invaded by both Mahommedans and Mahrattas. About 1736 the district fell into the hands of the nawab of the Carnatic, and the line of the Nayaks was extinguished. About 1764 British officers took charge of Madura in trust for Mahommed Ali (Wallah Jah), the last independent nawab of the Carnatic, whose son finally ceded his rights of sovereignty to the East India Company in 1801.

The DISTRICT OF MADURA has an area of 8701 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 2,831,280, an increase of 8.5% in the decade. It consists of a section of the plain stretching from the mountains east to the sea, coinciding with the basin of the Vaigai river, and gradually sloping to the S.E. The plain is broken by the outlying spurs of the Ghats, and by a few isolated hills and masses of rock scattered over the country. The most important spur of the Ghats is known as the Palni hills, which project E.N.E. across the district for a distance of about 54 m. Their highest peaks are more than 8000 ft. above sea-level, and they enclose a plateau of about 100 sq. m., with an average height of 7000 ft. On this plateau is situated the sanatorium of Kodaikanal, and coffee-planting is successfully carried on. The other principal crops of the district are millets, rice, other food-grains, oil-seeds and cotton. Tobacco is grown chiefly in the neighbourhood of Dindigul, whence it is exported to Trichinopoly, to be made into cigars. There are several cigar factories and a number of saltpetre refineries. The only other large industry is that of coffee-cleaning. Madura is traversed by the main line of the South Indian railway. It has four small seaports, whose trade is chiefly carried on with Ceylon. The most important irrigation work, known as the Periyar project, consists of a tunnel through the Travancore hills, to convey the rainfall across the watershed.

See _Madura District Gazetteer_ (Madras, 1906).