Chapter VI: Front Matter (6)

In November 1783 Madison's term in Congress expired, and he returned to Virginia and took up the study of the law. In the following year he was elected to the House of Delegates. As a member of its committee on religion, he opposed the giving of special privileges to the Episcopal (or any other) church, and contended against a general assessment for the support of the churches of the state. His petition of remonstrance against the proposed assessment, drawn up at the suggestion of George Nicholas (c. 1755-1799), was widely circulated and procured its defeat. On the 26th of December 1785 Jefferson's Bill for establishing religious freedom in Virginia, which had been introduced by Madison, was passed. In the Virginia House of Delegates, as in the Continental Congress, he opposed the further issue of paper money; and he tried to induce the legislature to repeal the law confiscating British debts, but he did not lose sight of the interests of the Confederacy. The boundary between Virginia and Maryland, according to the Baltimore grant, was the south shore of the Potomac, a line to which Virginia had agreed on condition of free navigation of the river and the Chesapeake Bay. Virginia now feared that too much had been given up, and desired joint regulation of the navigation and commerce of the river by Maryland and Virginia. On Madison's proposal commissioners from the two states met at Alexandria (q.v.) and at Mount Vernon in March 1785. The Maryland legislature approved the Mount Vernon agreement and proposed to invite Pennsylvania and Delaware to join in the arrangement. Madison, seeing an opportunity for more general concert in regard to commerce and trade (and possibly for the increase of the power of Congress), proposed that all the states should be invited to send commissioners to consider commercial questions, and a resolution to that effect was adopted (on Jan. 21, 1786) by the Virginia legislature. This led to the Annapolis convention of 1786, and that in turn led to the Philadelphia convention of 1787. In April 1787 Madison had written a paper, _The Vices of the Political System of the United States_, and from his study of confederacies, ancient and modern, later summed up in numbers 17, 18, and 19 of _The Federalist_, he had concluded that no confederacy could long endure if it acted upon states only and not directly upon individuals. As the time for the convention of 1787 approached he drew up an outline of a new system of government, the basis of the "Virginia plan" presented in the convention by Edmund Jennings Randolph. Madison's scheme, as expressed in a letter to Washington dated the 16th of April 1787, was that individual sovereignty of states was irreconcilable with aggregate sovereignty, but that the "consolidation of the whole into one simple republic would be as inexpedient as it is unattainable." He considered as a practical middle ground changing the basis of representation in Congress from states to population; giving the national government "positive and complete authority in all cases which require uniformity"; giving it a negative on all state laws, a power which might best be vested in the Senate, a comparatively permanent body; electing the lower house, and the more numerous, for a short term; providing for a national executive, for extending the national supremacy over the judiciary and the militia, for a council to revise all laws, and for an express statement of the right of coercion; and finally, obtaining the ratification of a new constitutional instrument from the people, and not merely from the legislatures. The "Virginia plan" was the basis of the convention's deliberations which resulted in the constitution favourably voted on by the convention on the 17th of September 1787. Among the features of the plan which were not embodied in the constitution were the following: proportionate representation in the Senate and the election of its members by the lower house "out of a proper number of persons nominated by the individual legislatures"; the vesting in the national Congress of power to negative state acts; and the establishment of a council of revision (the executive and a convenient number of national judges) with veto power over all laws passed by the national Congress. Madison, always an opponent of slavery, disapproved of the compromise (in Art. I. § 9 and Art. V.) postponing to 1808 (or later) the prohibition of the importation of slaves. He took a leading part in the debates of the convention, of which he kept full and careful notes, afterwards published by order of Congress (3 vols., Washington, 1843). Many minute and wise provisions are due to him, and he spoke before the convention more frequently than any delegate except James Wilson and Gouverneur Morris. In spite of the opposition to the constitution of the Virginia leaders George Mason and E. J. Randolph, Madison induced the state's delegation to stand by the constitution in the convention. His influence largely shaped the form of the final draft of the constitution, but the labour was not finished with this draft; that the constitution was accepted by the people was due in an eminent degree to the efforts of Madison, who, to place the new constitution before the public in its true light, and to meet the objections brought against it, joined Alexander Hamilton (q.v.) and John Jay in writing _The Federalist_, a series of eighty-five papers, out of which twenty certainly, and nine others probably, were written by him. In the Virginia convention for ratifying the constitution (June 1788), when eight states had ratified and it seemed that Virginia's vote would be needed to make the necessary nine (New Hampshire's favourable vote was cast only shortly before that of Virginia), and it appeared that New York would vote against the constitution if Virginia did not ratify it, Madison was called upon to defend that instrument again, and he appeared at his best against its opponents, Patrick Henry, George Mason, James Monroe, Benjamin Harrison, William Grayson and John Tyler. He answered their objections in detail, calmly and with an intellectual power and earnestness that carried the convention. The result was a victory against an originally adverse public opinion and against the eloquence of the opponents of the constitution, for Madison and for his lieutenants, Edmund Pendleton, John Marshall, George Nicholas, Harry Innes and Henry Lee. At the same time Madison's labours in behalf of the constitution alienated from him valuable political support in Virginia. He was defeated by Richard Henry Lee and William Grayson in his candidacy for the United States Senate, but in his own district he was chosen a representative to Congress, defeating James Monroe, who seems to have had the powerful support of Patrick Henry.

Madison took his seat in the House of Representatives in April 1789, and assumed a leading part in the legislation necessary to the organization of the new government. He drafted a Tariff Bill giving certain notable advantages to nations with which the United States had commercial treaties, hoping to force Great Britain into a similar treaty; but his policy of discrimination against England was rejected by Congress. It was his belief that such a system of retaliation would remove the possibility of war arising from commercial quarrels. He introduced resolutions calling for the establishment of three executive departments, foreign affairs, treasury and war, the head of each removable by the president. Most important of all, he proposed nine amendments to the constitution, embodying suggestions made by a number of the ratifying states, especially those made by Virginia at the instance of George Mason; and the essential principles of Madison's proposed amendments were included in a Bill of Rights, adopted by the states in the form of ten amendments. The absence of a Bill of Rights from the constitution as first adopted had been the point on which the opposition had made common cause, and the adoption of this now greatly weakened the same opposition. Although a staunch friend of the constitution, Madison believed, however, that the instrument should be interpreted conservatively and not be made the means of introducing radical innovations. The tide of strict construction was setting in strongly in his state, and he was borne along with the flood. It is very probable that Jefferson's influence over Madison, which was greater than Hamilton's, contributed to this result. Madison now opposed Hamilton's measures for the funding of the debt, the assumption of state debts, and the establishment of a National Bank, and on other questions he sided more and more with the opposition, gradually assuming its leadership in the House of Representatives and labouring to confine the powers of the national government within the narrowest possible limits; his most important argument against Hamilton's Bank was that the constitution did not provide for it explicitly, and could not properly be construed into permitting its creation. Madison, Jefferson and Randolph were consulted by Washington, and they advised him not to sign the bill providing for the Bank, but Hamilton's counter-argument was successful. On the same constitutional grounds Madison objected to the carrying out of the recommendations in Hamilton's famous report on manufactures (Dec. 5, 1791), which favoured a protective tariff. In the presidential campaign of 1792 Madison seems to have lent his influence to the determined efforts of the Jeffersonians to defeat John Adams by electing George Clinton vice-president. In 1793-1796 he strongly criticized the administration for maintaining a neutral position between Great Britain and France, writing for the public press five papers (signed "Helvidius"), attacking the "monarchical prerogative of the executive" as exercised in the proclamation of neutrality in 1793 and denying the president's right to recognize foreign states. He found in Washington's attitude--as in Hamilton's failure to pay an instalment of the moneys due France--an "Anglified complexion," in direct opposition to the popular sympathy with France and French Republicanism. In 1794 he tried again his commercial weapons, introducing in the House of Representatives resolutions based on Jefferson's report on commerce, advising retaliation against Great Britain and discrimination in commercial and navigation laws in favour of France; and he declared that the friends of Jay's treaty were "a British party systematically aiming at an exclusive connexion with the British government," and in 1796 strenuously but unsuccessfully opposed the appropriation of money to carry this treaty into effect. Still thinking that foreign nations could be coerced through their commercial interests, he scouted as visionary the idea that Great Britain would go to war on a refusal to carry Jay's treaty into effect, thinking it inconceivable that Great Britain "would wantonly make war" upon a country which was the best market she had in the world for her manufactures, and one with which her export trade was so much larger than her import.

In 1797 Madison retired from Congress, but not to a life of inactivity. In 1798 he joined Jefferson in opposing the Alien and Sedition Laws, and Madison himself wrote the resolutions of the Virginia legislature declaring that it viewed "the powers of the Federal government as resulting from the compact to which the states are parties, as limited by the plain sense and intention of the instrument constituting that compact; as no further valid than they are authorized by the grants enumerated in that compact; and that, in case of a deliberate, palpable and dangerous exercise of other powers, not granted by the said compact, the states, who are parties thereto, have the right and are in duty bound to interpose for arresting the progress of the evil, and for maintaining within their respective limits, the authorities, rights and liberties appertaining to them." The Virginia resolutions and the Kentucky resolutions (the latter having been drafted by Jefferson) were met by dissenting resolutions from the New England states, from New York, and from Delaware. In answer to these, Madison, who had become a member of the Virginia legislature in the autumn of 1799, wrote for the committee to which they were referred a report elaborating and sustaining in every point the phraseology of the Virginia resolutions.[1]

Upon the accession of the Republican party to power in 1801, Madison became secretary of state in Jefferson's cabinet, a position for which he was well fitted both because he possessed to a remarkable degree the gifts of careful thinking and discreet and able speaking, and of large constructive ability; and because he was well versed in constitutional and international law and practised a fairness in discussion essential to a diplomat. During the eight years that he held the portfolio of state, he had continually to defend the neutral rights of the United States against the encroachments of European belligerents; in 1806 he published _An Examination of the British Doctrine which subjects to Capture a Neutral Trade not open in Time of Peace_, a careful argument--with a minute examination of authorities on international law--against the rule of war of 1756 extended by Great Britain in 1793 and 1803.

During Jefferson's presidency and whilst Madison was secretary of state, by the purchase of Louisiana, Madison's campaign begun in 1780 for the free navigation of the Mississippi was brought to a successful close. The candidate in 1808 of the Republican party, although bitterly opposed in the party by John Randolph and George Clinton, Madison was elected president, defeating C. C. Pinckney, the Federalist candidate, by 122 votes to 47. Madison had no false hopes of placating the Federalist opposition, but as the preceding administration was one with which he was in harmony, his position was different from that of Jefferson in 1801, and he had less occasion for removing Federalists from office. Jefferson's peace policy--or, more correctly, Madison's peace policy--of commercial restrictions to coerce Great Britain and France he continued to follow until 1812, when he was forced to change these futile commercial weapons for a policy of war, which was very popular with the extreme French wing of his party. There is a charge, which has never been proved or disproved, that Madison's real desire was for peace, but that in order to secure the renomination he yielded to that wing of his party which was resolved on war with Great Britain. The only certain fact is that Madison, whatever were his personal feelings in this matter, acted according to the wishes of a majority of the Republicans; but whether in doing so he was influenced by the desire of another nomination is largely a matter of conjecture. Madison was renominated on the 18th of May 1812, issued his war message on the 1st of June, and in the November elections he was re-elected, defeating De Witt Clinton by 128 votes to 89. His administration during the war was pitiably weak. His cabinet in great part had been dictated to him in 1809 by a senatorial clique, and it was hopelessly discordant; for two years he was to all intents and purposes his own secretary of state, Robert Smith being a mere figure-head of whom he gladly got rid in 1811, giving Monroe the vacant place. Madison himself had attempted alternately to prevent war by his "commercial weapons" and to prepare the country for war, but he had met with no success, because of the tricky diplomacy of Great Britain and of France, and because of the general distrust of him coupled with the particular opposition to the war of the prosperous New England Federalists, who suggested with the utmost seriousness that his resignation should be demanded. In brief, Madison was too much the mere scholar to prove a strong leader in such a crisis. The supreme disgrace of the administration was the capture and partial destruction in August 1814 of the city of Washington--this was due, however, to incompetence of the military and not to any lack of prudence on the cabinet's part. In general, Congress was more blamable than either the president or his official family, or the army officers. With the declaration of peace the president again gained a momentary popularity much like that he had won in 1809 by his apparent willingness at that time to fight France.

Retiring from the presidency in 1817, Madison returned to his home, Montpelier (in Orange county, Virginia), which he left in no official capacity save in 1829, when he was a delegate to the state constitutional convention and served on several of its committees. Montpelier, like Jefferson's Monticello and Monroe's Oak-Hill, was an expensive bit of "gentleman farming," which with his generous Virginia hospitality nearly ruined its owner financially. Madison's home was peculiarly a centre for literary travellers in his last years; when he was eighty-three he was visited by Harriet Martineau, who reported her conversations with him in her _Retrospect of Western Travel_ (1838). He took a great interest in education--his library was left to the university of Virginia, where it was burned in 1895--in emancipation, and in agricultural questions, to the very last. He died at Montpelier on the 28th of June 1836. Madison married, in 1794, Dorothy Payne Todd (1772-1849), widow of John Todd, a Philadelphia lawyer. She had great social charm, and upon Madison's entering Jefferson's cabinet became "first lady" in Washington society. Her plump beauty was often remarked--notably by Washington Irving--in contrast to her husband's delicate and feeble figure and wizened face--for even in his prime Madison was, as Henry Adams says, "a small man, quiet, somewhat precise in manner, pleasant, fond of conversation, with a certain mixture of ease and dignity in his address." Her son, spoiled by his mother and his step-father, became a wild young fellow, and added his debts to the heavy burden of Montpelier upon Madison.

Madison's portrait was painted by Gilbert Stuart and by Charles
Willson Peale; Giuseppe Ceracchi made a marble bust of him in 1792 and
John H. J. Browere another in 1827, now in possession of the Virginia
Historical Society at Richmond. Though commonly dignified and a little
stiff he seems to have had a strong sense of humour and he was fond of
telling a good story. Henry Clay, contrasting him with Jefferson, said
that Jefferson had more genius, Madison more judgment and common
sense; that Jefferson was a visionary and a theorist; Madison cool,
dispassionate, practical, and safe.[2] The broadest and most accurate
scholar among the "founders and fathers," he was particularly an
expert in constitutional history and theory. In the great causes for
which Madison fought in his earlier years--religious freedom and
separation of church and state, the free navigation of the
Mississippi, and the adoption of the constitution--he met with
success. His greatest and truest fame is as the "father of the
constitution." The "commercial weapons" with which he wished to
prevent armed conflict proved less useful in his day than they have
since been in international disputes.

AUTHORITIES.--Madison's personality is perplexingly vague; the
biographies of him are little more than histories of the period, and
the best history of the later period in which he was before the
public, Henry Adams's _History of the United States from 1801 to 1817_
(1889-1890), gives the clearest sketch and best criticism of him. The
lives of Madison are: J. Q. Adams's (Boston, 1850); W. C. Rives's
(Boston, 1859-1869, 3 vols.), covering the period previous to 1797; S.
H. Gay's (Boston, 1884) in the "American Statesmen Series"; and
Gaillard Hunt's (New York, 1902). Madison's _Writings_ (7 vols., New
York, 1900-1906) were edited by Hunt, who also edited _The Journal of
the Debates in the Convention which framed the Constitution of the
United States, as Recorded by James Madison_ (2 vols., New York,
1908). See also Mrs Madison's _Memoirs and Letters_ (Boston, 1887) and
Maud Wilder Goodwin, _Dolly Madison_ (New York, 1897).

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Thirty years later Madison's arguments for the Virginia
resolutions and the resolutions themselves were freely used by
Calhoun and his followers in support of his doctrine of
nullification. But Madison insisted that the Resolutions of 1798 did
not involve the principles of nullification. Nearly all his
arguments, especially where he attempts to interpret Jefferson's
writings on the point, notably the Kentucky resolutions, are rather
strained and specious, but it does seem that the Virginia resolutions
were based on a different idea from Calhoun's doctrine of
nullification. Madison's theory was that the legislature of Virginia,
being one of the bodies which had chosen delegates to the
constitutional convention, was legally capable of considering the
question of the constitutionality of laws passed by the Federal
government, and that the state of Virginia might invite other states
to join her, but could not singly, as Calhoun argued, declare any law
of the Federal legislature null and void. (It is to be noted the
words "null and void" were in Madison's first draft of the Virginia
resolutions, but that they were omitted by the Virginia legislature.)
It is notable, besides, that Madison had always feared that the
national congress would assume too great power, that he had approved
of Supreme Court checks on the national legislature, and of veto
power by a council of revision.

[2] Clay's opinion is given in a report written by Mrs Samuel H.
Smith of a conversation in 1829 between Clay and her husband, a
prominent politician.

MADISON, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county, Indiana, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Ohio river, about 90 m. below Cincinnati, and 44 m. above Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1870), 10,709; (1890), 8936; (1900), 7835 (554 foreign-born and 570 negroes); (1910), 6934. Madison is served by the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railroad and by river steamboats. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs above the river and has two public parks. In Madison are a King's Daughters' Hospital, a children's home, and the Drusilla home for old ladies, and immediately north of the city are the buildings of the Indiana South-eastern Insane Hospital. Madison is a trading centre of the surrounding farming region, whose principal products are burley tobacco, grain and fruits (peaches, apples, pears, plums and small fruits). The municipality owns and operates the waterworks. Madison was settled about the beginning of the 19th century; was incorporated as a town in 1824, and was first chartered as a city in 1836.

MADISON, a borough of Morris county, New Jersey, U.S.A., 27 m. (by rail) W. of New York City and 4 m. S.E. of Morristown. Pop. (1890), 2469; (1900), 3754, of whom 975 were foreign-born and 300 were negroes; (1905), 4115; (1910), 4658. It is served by the Morris & Essex division of the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western railroad. The borough is attractively situated among the hills of Northern New Jersey, is primarily a residential suburb of New York and Newark, and contains many fine residences. There are a public library and a beautiful public park, both given to the borough by Daniel Willis James (1832-1907), a prominent metal manufacturer; the library is closely allied with the public schools. Madison is the seat of the well-known Drew theological seminary (Methodist Episcopal; founded in 1866 and opened in 1867), named in honour of Daniel Drew (1788-1879), who, having acquired great wealth from steamboat and railway enterprises, especially from trading in railway stocks, presented the large and beautiful grounds and most of the buildings. The seminary's course covers three years; no fee is charged. In connexion with the seminary the Drew settlement in New York City--officially the department of applied Christianity--has for its object the "practical study of present-day problems in city evangelism, church organization, and work among the poor." In 1907-1908 the seminary had 9 instructors, 175 students, and a library of more than 100,000 volumes, especially rich in works dealing with the history of Methodism and in Greek New Testament manuscripts. About 2 m. N.W. of Madison is Convent Station, the seat of a convent of the Sisters of Charity, who here conduct the college of St Elizabeth, for girls, founded in 1859; also conducted by the Sisters of Charity is St Joseph's preparatory school for boys, founded in 1862. The cultivation of roses and chrysanthemums is practically the only industry of Madison. Madison owns and operates its waterworks and electric-lighting plant. Before 1844 when it took its present name (in honour of President Madison), Madison was called Bottle Hill; it is one of the older places of the state, and its first church (Presbyterian) was built about 1748. The borough was incorporated in 1889.

MADISON, the capital of Wisconsin, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Dane County, situated between Lakes Mendota and Monona in the south central part of the state, about 82 m. W. of Milwaukee and about 131 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890), 13,426; (1900) 19,164, of whom 3362 were foreign-born and 69 were negroes; (1910 census) 25,531. Madison is served by the Chicago & North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the Illinois Central railways (being the northern terminus of the last), and by interurban electric lines, connecting with Janesville, Beloit and Chicago. It has a picturesque situation in what is known as "the Four-Lakes region"; this region takes its name from a chain of lakes, Kegonsa, Waubesa, Monona and Mendota, which, lying in the order named and connected with one another by the Yahara or Catfish River, form the head-waters of Rock river flowing southward through Illinois into the Mississippi. The city occupies a hilly isthmus about a mile wide between Lakes Mendota and Monona, bodies of water of great clearness and beauty, with bottoms of white sand and granite.

The state capitol is in a wooded park at the summit of a hill 85 ft. high in the centre of the city. From this park the streets and avenues radiate in all directions. The capitol, built in 1860-1867 (with an addition in 1883) on the site of the original capitol building (1837-1838), was partially destroyed by fire in 1904, and in 1909-1910 was replaced by a larger edifice. The principal business portion of the city is built about the capitol park and the university. Among the public buildings on or near the park are the federal building, housing the post office and the United States courts, the city hall, the Dane county court-house, the public library, the Fuller opera-house, the county gaol, and the high school. Running directly west from the capitol is State Street, at the western end of which lie the grounds of the university of Wisconsin (q.v.), occupying a hilly wooded tract of 300 acres, and extending for a mile along the south shore of Lake Mendota. University Hill, on which the main building of the university stands, is 125 ft. above the lake; at its foot stands the magnificent library building of the State Historical Society. In it, in addition to the interesting and valuable historical museum and art gallery, are the Society's library of more than 350,000 books and pamphlets, the university library of 150,000 volumes, and the library of the Wisconsin academy of arts and sciences, 5000 volumes. Other libraries in the city include the state law library (45,000 volumes) in the capitol, the Madison public library (22,500 volumes), and the Woodman astronomical library (7500 volumes). The Madison public library houses also the state library school maintained by the Wisconsin library commission. Connected with the university is the Washburn observatory. On the margin of the city lies the extensive experimental farm of the state college of agriculture. In addition to the state university, Madison is the seat of several Roman Catholic and Lutheran parochial schools, two business schools, and the Wisconsin academy, a non-sectarian preparatory school of high grade. On the banks of Lake Monona are the beautiful grounds of the Monona Lake assembly, a summer assembly on the Chautauqua model. Near the city is one of the five fish-hatcheries maintained by the state; it is largely devoted to the propagation of trout and other small fish. North of the city, occupying a tract of 500 acres, on Lake Mendota, are the buildings and grounds of the state hospital for the insane, opened in 1860.

The city's streets are broad and heavily shaded with a profusion of elm, oak and maple trees. There are many fine stone residences dating from the middle of the 19th century. There are several parks of great beauty, and along the shores of Lake Mendota there is a broad boulevarded drive of 12 m. The municipality owns its waterworks, the water being obtained from eleven artesian wells, and being chemically similar to that of Waukesha Springs. The city and surrounding region are a summer resort, the lakes affording opportunities for fishing and for yachting and boating.

Madison is an important jobbing centre for central and south-western Wisconsin; it has an extensive trade in farm, garden and dairy products, poultry and tobacco; and there are various manufactures. In 1905 the value of the total factory product was $3,291,143, an increase of 22.4% over that in 1900.

At the time of the settlement by the whites the aboriginal inhabitants of the Four-Lakes region were the Winnebago. Prehistoric earthworks are to be seen in the neighbourhood, several animal-shaped mounds upon the shores of Lakes Mendota, Monona and Waubesa being among the best examples. A regular trading post is known to have been established on Lake Mendota as early as 1820. The title to the Indian lands was acquired by the United States by treaty in 1825. Colonel Ebenezer Brigham established himself at Blue Mounds, in the western part of Dane county, in 1827. In 1832 the "Four-Lakes" country was in the theatre of hostilities during the Black Hawk War; Colonel Henry Dodge held a conference with Winnebago chiefs on Lake Mendota, and there were several skirmishes in the neighbourhood between his troops and the followers of Black Hawk, one of which took place on the site of Madison. After Black Hawk's defeat on the Bad Axe he fled to the Wisconsin river Dalles, near the present Kilbourn, where he was betrayed by the Winnebago. In 1836 Stevens T. Mason, governor of Michigan, and James Duane Doty, then U.S. district judge, who had visited the region as early as 1829, recorded a tract of land, including most of the present site of Madison. Here they surveyed a "paper" city which they named in honour of James Madison. On the 3rd of December 1836 the territorial legislature in session at Belmont, after a protracted and acrimonious debate, determined, largely through Doty's influence, to make Madison the permanent capital. The construction of houses began in the early spring of 1837. The first constitutional convention met here in 1846, the second in 1847. Madison was chartered as a city in 1856. In 1862 a large number of Confederate prisoners were confined in Camp Randall, at Madison, and many of them died in hospital.

See D. S. Durrie, _History of Madison, Wisconsin_ (Madison, 1874);
Lyman C. Draper, _Madison the Capital of Wisconsin_ (Madison, 1857);
J. D. Butler, "The Four Lakes Country" in _Wisconsin Historical
Society Collections_, vol. 10 (1888), and R. G. Thwaites, "Madison" in
_Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York, 1900), and his
"Story of Madison" in _The University of Wisconsin_ (Madison, 1900).

MADOU, JEAN BAPTISTE (1796-1877), Belgian painter and lithographer, was born at Brussels on the 3rd of February 1796. He studied at the Brussels Academy of Fine Arts and was a pupil of François. While draughtsman to the topographical military division at Courtrai, he received a commission for lithographic work from a Brussels publisher. It was about 1820 that he began his artistic career. Between 1825 and 1827 he contributed to _Les Vues pittoresques de la Belgique, to a Life of Napoleon_, and to works on the costumes of the Netherlands, and later made a great reputation by his work in _La Physionomie de la société en Europe depuis 1400 jusqu' à nos jours_ (1836) and _Les Scènes de la vie des peintres_. It was not until about 1840 that he began to paint in oils, and the success of his early efforts in this medium resulted in a long series of pictures representing scenes of village and city life, including "The Fiddler," "The Jewel Merchant," "The Police Court," "The Drunkard," "The Ill-regulated Household," and "The Village Politicians." Among his numerous works mention may also be made of "The Feast at the Château" (1851), "The Unwelcome Guests" (1852, Brussels Gallery), generally regarded as his masterpiece, "The Rat Hunt" (acquired by Leopold II., king of the Belgians), "The Arquebusier" (1860), and "The Stirrup Cup." At the age of sixty-eight he decorated a hall in his house with a series of large paintings representing scenes from La Fontaine's fables, and ten years later made for King Leopold a series of decorative paintings for the château of Ciergnon. Madou died at Brussels on the 31st of March 1877.

For a list of his paintings see the annual report of the Academy of
Belgium for 1879. (F. K.*)

MADOZ, PASCUAL (1806-1870), Spanish statistician, was born at Pampeluna on the 7th of May 1806. In early life he was settled in Barcelona, as a writer and journalist. He joined the Progresista party formed during the first Carlist war, 1833-40. He saw some service against the Carlists; was elected deputy to the Cortes of 1836; took part for Espartero, and then against him; was imprisoned in 1843; went into exile and returned; was governor of Barcelona in 1854, and minister of finance in 1855; had a large share in secularizing the Church lands; and after the revolution of 1868 was governor of Madrid. He had, however, no great influence as a leader and soon went abroad, dying at Genoa in 1870. Madoz was distinguished from most of the politicians of his generation by the fact that in middle life he compiled what is still a book of value--a geographical, statistical and historical dictionary of Spain and its possessions oversea, _Diccionario geográfico, estadístico y historico de España, y sus posesiones de Ultramar_ (Madrid, 1848-1850).

MADRAS, a presidency of British India--officially styled Fort St George--occupying, with its dependencies, the entire south of the Indian peninsula. The north boundary is extremely irregular. On the extreme N.E. is the Bengal province of Orissa; then the wild highlands of the Central Provinces; next the dominions of the nizam of Hyderabad; and lastly, on the N.W., the Bombay districts of Dharwar and North Kanara. Geographically Mysore and Coorg lie within the bounds of Madras, and politically it includes the Laccadive Islands, off the Malabar coast, in the Indian Ocean. Its total area, including native states, is 151,695 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 42,397,522, showing an increase of 7.7% in the decade. The seat of government is at Madras city (q.v.).

_Physical Aspect._--The Madras presidency may be roughly divided into
three tracts: (1) the long and broad east coast, (2) the shorter and
narrower west coast, and (3) the high interior table-land. These
divisions are determined by the great mountain ranges of the Eastern
and Western Ghats (q.v.). Between these two ranges lies the central
table-land, with an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., which includes the
whole of Mysore, and extends over about half a dozen districts of
Madras. The Anaimudi mountain (8837 ft.) in Travancore is the highest
in southern India. The Nilgiri hills, which join the Ghats, culminate
in Dodabetta (8760 ft.). There are besides many outlying spurs and
tangled masses of hills, of which the Shevaroys, Anamalais and Palnis
are the most important. The Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery rivers, each
having a large tributary system, all rise in the Western Ghats, and
run across the peninsula in a south-east direction into the Bay of
Bengal. In the upper parts of their course they drain rather than
water the country through which they flow, and are comparatively
valueless either for navigation or irrigation; but before reaching the
sea they spread over alluvial deltas. Smaller rivers of the same
character are the Pennar and South Pennar or Ponniar, Palar, Vaigai,
Vellar and Tambraparni. The principal lake is that of Pulicat on the
east coast, which is 37 m. long from north to south, and forms an
important means of communication between Madras city and the northern
districts. On the west coast are a remarkable series of backwaters or
lagoons, fringing the seaboard of Kanara, Malabar and Travancore. The
largest is the backwater of Cochin, which extends 120 m. from north to
south.

_Geology._--By far the greater part of Madras is occupied by granitic
and gneissic rocks of very ancient date. Among them are the
"charnockites," a series of associated eruptive rocks characterized by
the presence of rhombic pyroxenes. In Bellary and Anantapur districts,
as well as in Mysore and Hyderabad, several long narrow strips of a
later formation, known as the Dharwar system, are folded or faulted
into the gneissic floor. They run from N.N.W. to S.S.E., and consist
of conglomerates, lavas and schists. All the quartz reefs which
contain gold in paying quantities are found within these Dharwar
bands, those of the Kolar goldfield in Mysore being the most
important. The gneissic and Dharwar rocks are overlaid unconformably
by the sandstones, limestones, shales, &c., of the Cuddapah and
Kurnool series. It is in the sandstones and shales of the Kurnool
group that most of the diamonds of southern India are found; but as
these rocks are of sedimentary origin, it is probable that the
diamonds were originally derived from some still unknown source. A
strip of Gondwana beds follows approximately the course of the
Godavari. In Hyderabad it includes the important Singareni coalfield,
but in the Presidency no good coal seams have yet been found. Upper
Gondwana beds also occur in small patches at several other places near
the east coast. Marine cretaceous deposits are found in three detached
areas, near Trichinopoly, Viruddhachalam and Pondicherry. Some of the
coastal sandstones may be of late Tertiary age, but Tertiary fossils
have not been found except in a few small patches on the west coast,
the most southerly being near Quilon in Travancore.

_Climate._--The climate varies in accordance with the height of the
mountain chain on the western coast. Where this chain is lofty, as
between Malabar and Coimbatore, the rainclouds are intercepted and
give a rainfall of 150 in. on the side of the sea, and only 20 in. on
the landward side. Where the range is lower, the rainclouds pass over
the hills and carry their moisture to the interior districts. The
Nilgiri hills enjoy the climate of the temperate zone, with a moderate
rainfall. The Malabar coast has a rainfall of 150 in., and the clouds
on the Western Ghats sometimes obscure the sun for months at a time.
Along the eastern coasts and central table-lands the rainfall is low
and the heat excessive. At Madras city the average rainfall is 50 in.,
but this is considerably above the mean of the east coast.

_Minerals._--The mineral wealth of the province is undeveloped. Iron
of excellent quality has been smelted by native smiths in many
localities from time immemorial; but attempts to work the beds after
European methods have proved unsuccessful. Carboniferous sandstone
extends across the Godavari valley as far as Ellore, but the coal has
been found to be of inferior quality. Among other minerals may be
mentioned manganese in Vizagapatam, and mica in Nellore. Garnets are
abundant in the sandstone of the Northern Circars, and diamonds of
moderate value are found in the same region. Stone and gravel quarries
are very numerous.

_Forests._--The forest department of Madras was first organized in
1856, and it is estimated that forests cover a total area of more than
19,600 sq. m., the whole of which is under conservancy rules. An area
of about 1500 sq. m. is strictly conserved. In the remaining forests,
after supplying local wants, timber is either sold direct by the
department or licences are granted to wood-cutters. The more valuable
timber trees comprise teak, ebony, rosewood, sandal-wood and redwood.
The trees artificially reared are teak, sandal-wood, _Casuarina_ and
eucalyptus. The finest teak plantation is near Beypur in Malabar. At
Mudumalli there are plantations of both teak and sandal-wood; and the
eucalyptus or Australian gum-tree grows on the Nilgiris in magnificent
clumps.

_Fauna._--The wild animals include the elephant, bison, sambur and
ibex of the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris. Bison are found also in
the hill tracts of the Northern Circars. In Travancore state the black
leopard is not uncommon. The elephant is protected by law from
indiscriminate destruction. The cattle are small, but in Nellore and
along the Mysore frontier a superior breed is carefully kept up by the
wealthier farmers. The best buffaloes are imported from the Bombay
district of Dharwar.

_Population._--The population in 1901 was divided into Hindus (37,026,471), Mahommedans (2,732,931), and Christians (1,934,480). The Hindus may be subdivided into Sivaites, Vishnuvites and Lingayats. The Sivaites are most numerous in the extreme south and on the west coast, while the Vishnuvites are chiefly found in the northern districts. The Lingayats, a sect of Sivaite puritans, derive their name from their practice of carrying about on their persons the _linga_ or emblem of Siva. The Brahmans follow various pursuits, and some of them are recent immigrants, who came south in the train of the Mahratta armies. A peculiar caste of Brahmans, called Nambudri, is found in Malabar. The most numerous of the hill tribes are the Kondhs and Savaras, two cognate races who inhabit the mountainous tracts of the Eastern Ghats, attached to several of the large estates of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. On the Nilgiris the best known aboriginal tribe is the Todas (q.v.). The Mahommedans are subdivided into Labbai, Moplah, Arab, Sheikh, Sayad, Pathan and Mogul. The Labbais are the descendants of Hindu converts, and are traders by hereditary occupation, although many now employ themselves as sailors and fishermen. The Moplahs are the descendants of Malayalam converts to Islam--the head of the tribe, the raja of Cannanore, being descended from a fisher family in Malabar. They are a hard-working, frugal people, but quite uneducated and fanatical, and under the influence of religious excitement have often disturbed the public peace. Christians are more numerous in Madras than in any other part of India. In Travancore and Cochin states the native Christians constitute as much as one-fourth of the population. The Roman Catholics, whose number throughout southern India is estimated at upwards of 650,000, owe their establishment to St Francis Xavier and the famous Jesuit mission of Madura; they are partly under the authority of the archbishop of Goa, and partly under twelve Jesuit vicariates. Protestant missions date from the beginning of the 18th century. The Danes were the pioneers; but their work was taken up by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, under whom laboured the great Lutherans of the 18th century--Schultz, Sartorius, Fabricius and Schwartz. The Church Missionary Society entered the field in 1814; and subsequently an American mission joined in the work.

_Languages._--Broadly speaking, the entire population of Madras belongs to the five linguistic offshoots of the great Dravidian stock, dominant throughout southern India. At an early period, before the dawn of history, these races appear to have accepted some form of the Brahmanical or Buddhist faiths. Many storms of conquest have since swept over the land, and colonies of Mogul and Mahratta origin are to be found here and there. But the evidence of language proves that the ethnical character of the population has remained stable under all these influences, and that the Madras Hindu, Mahommedan, Jain and Christian are of the same stock. Of the five Dravidian languages in British territory Telugu is spoken by over 14,000,000 persons; Tamil by over 15,000,000 persons; Kanarese by over 1,500,000 persons; Malayalam by nearly 3,000,000 persons; and Tulu by about 500,000 persons. Oriya is the native tongue in the extreme north of Ganjam, bordering on Orissa; and various sub-dialects of Dravidian origin are used by the hill tribes of the Eastern Ghats, of whom the Kondhs may be taken as the type.

_Agriculture._--Over the greater part of the area of Madras artificial
irrigation is impossible, and cultivation is dependent upon the local
rainfall, which rarely exceeds 40 in. a year, and is liable to fall
irregularly. The Malabar coast is the only part where the rainfall
brought by the south-west monsoon may be trusted both for its amount
and regularity. Other districts, such as Bellary, are also dependent
upon this monsoon; but in their case the rainclouds have spent
themselves in passing over the Western Ghats, and cultivation becomes
a matter of hazard. Over the greater part of the presidency the rainy
season is caused by the south-east monsoon, which breaks about the end
of September. The deltas of the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery rivers
are the only spots on the east coast which artificial irrigation is
able to save from the risk of occasional scarcity. The principal food
staples are rice, cholam, cambu, ragi and varagu (four kinds of
millet). The most common oil-seed is gingelly (sesamum). Garden crops
comprise tobacco, sugar-cane, chillies, betel-leaf and plantains.
Sugar is chiefly derived from the sap of palms. The fruit trees are
coco-nut, areca-nut, palmyra palm, jack, tamarind and mango. Special
crops include cotton, indigo, coffee, tea, cinchona. The best cotton
is grown in Tinnevelly. The principal coffee tract stretches along the
slopes of the Western Ghats from the north of Mysore almost down to
Cape Comorin. The larger portion of this area lies within Mysore,
Coorg and Travancore states, but the Wynaad and the Nilgiri hills are
within Madras. The first coffee plantation was opened in the Wynaad in
1840. Many of the early clearings proved unprofitable, and the
enterprise made little progress till about 1855. Coffee, which is much
cultivated on the Nilgiris, covers about 100 sq. m., though the area
fluctuates. The tea plant was also introduced into the Nilgiri hills
about 1840, but was not taken up as a commercial speculation till
1865, and is still unimportant. The cinchona plant was successfully
introduced into the Nilgiri hills by the government in 1860, and there
are now a few plantations belonging to private owners.

The greater part of the soil in Madras is held by the cultivators
direct from the government under the tenure known as _ryotwari_.
Besides these lands in the hands of the government, there are also
proprietary or _zamindari_ estates in all parts of the country. These
estates are either the remains of ancient principalities, which the
holder cannot sell or encumber beyond his own life interest, or they
are creations of British rule and subject to the usual Hindu custom of
partition. The total area of the _zamindari_ estates is about 26
million acres, more than one-fourth of the whole presidency. The
_peshkash_ or tribute payable to government in perpetuity amounts to
about £330,000 a year. _Ináms_, revenue-free or quit-rent grants of
lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to the
state, occupy an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres.

_Manufactures._--Madras possesses few staple manufactures. The chief
industries of the presidency are cotton-ginning, coffee-curing,
fish-curing, indigo-pressing, oil-pressing, printing, rice-curing,
rope-making, sugar-refining, tanning, tile and brick-making, and
tobacco-curing. Up to the close of the 18th century cotton goods
constituted the main article of export. Masulipatam, where the first
English factory on the Coromandel coast was established in 1620,
enjoyed a special reputation for its chintzes, which were valued for
the freshness and permanency of their dyes. There is still a small
demand for these articles in Burma, the Straits and the Persian Gulf;
but Manchester goods have nearly beaten the Indian exporter out of the
field. Native looms, however, still hold their own in the local
market, in face of strenuous opposition. After weaving, working in
metals appears to be the most widespread native industry. Among local
specialities which have attracted European curiosity may be mentioned
the jewelry of Trichinopoly, ornaments of ivory and horn worked at
Vizagapatam, and sandal-wood carving in Kanara.

_Commerce and Trade._--The continuous seaboard of the Madras
presidency, without any natural harbours of the first rank, has tended
to create a widely diffused trade. Madras city conducts nearly
one-half of the total sea-borne commerce; next comes Malabar,
containing the western railway terminus near Calicut; then Godavari,
with its cluster of ports along the fringe of the delta; Tinnevelly,
with the harbour at Tuticorin, which has opened large dealings with
Ceylon and Burma; Tanjore, South Kanara, Ganjam and Vizagapatam. As
compared with the other provinces, the trade of Madras is broadly
marked by the larger proportion assigned to coasting trade with other
Indian ports and with Ceylon. The chief staples of the export trade
are hides and skins, coffee and raw cotton.

_Railways and Irrigation._--The presidency is well supplied with
railways, which naturally have their centre in Madras city, the chief
seaport. The broad-gauge line of the Madras & Southern Mahratta
railway connects with Bombay and Bangalore, and also crosses the
peninsula to Calicut on the western coast. The South Indian
(narrow-gauge) serves the extreme south, with its terminus at
Tuticorin, and branches to Tinnevelly, Negapatam, Erade, Pondicherry
and Nellore. The narrow-gauge line of the Madras & Southern Mahratta
railway traverses the Deccan districts; and the East Coast line
(broad-gauge), through the Northern Circars, has brought Madras into
direct communication with Calcutta. The Madras system of irrigation
has been most successful in the case of the three great eastern
rivers, the Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery. Each of these is intercepted
by an _anicut_ or dam at the head of its delta, from which canals
diverge on each side for navigation as well as irrigation. The scheme
for diverting the waters of the Tungabhadra (a tributary of the
Kistna) over the thirsty uplands of Kurnool proved a failure. The bold
project of leading the Periyar river through a tunnel across the
watershed of the Travancore hills on to the plain of Madura has been
more successful.

_Administration._--The Madras presidency is administered by a governor and a council, consisting of two members of the civil service, which number may be increased to four. There is also a board of revenue of three members. The number of districts is 24, each under the charge of a collector, with sub-collectors and assistants. The districts are not grouped into divisions or commissionerships, as in other provinces. For legislative purposes the council of the governor is augmented by additional members, numbering 45 in all, of whom not more than 17 may be nominated officials, while 19 are elected by various representative constituencies. Members of the legislative council enjoy the right of interpellation, of proposing resolutions on matters of public interest, and of discussing the annual financial statement. The principle of local devolution is carried somewhat further in Madras than in other provinces. At the bottom are union _panchayats_ or village committees, whose chief duty is to attend to sanitation. Above them come _taluk_ or subdivisional boards. At the head of all are district boards, a portion of whose members are elected by the _taluk_ boards.

_Education._--The chief educational institutions are the Madras University, the Presidency College, Madras Christian College, and Pachayyappa's College at Madras; the government arts colleges at Combaconum and Rajahmundry; the law college, medical college and engineering college at Madras; the college of agriculture at Coimbatore; the teachers' college at Saidapet; the school of arts at Madras; and the military orphanage at Ootacamund, in memory of Sir Henry Lawrence. In 1907, the total number of pupils at all institutions was 1,007,118, of whom 164,706 were females, and 132,857 were learning English.

_History._--Until the British conquest the whole of southern India had never acknowledged a single ruler. The difficult nature of the hill passes and the warlike character of the highland tribes forbade the growth of great empires, such as succeeded one another on the plains of Hindustan. The Tamil country in the extreme south is traditionally divided between the three kingdoms of Pandya, Chola and Chera. The west coast supplied the nucleus of a monarchy which afterwards extended over the highlands of Mysore, and took its name from the Carnatic. On the north-east the kings of Kalinga at one time ruled over the entire line of seaboard from the Kistna to the Ganges. Hindu legend has preserved marvellous stories of these early dynasties, but our only authentic evidence consists in their inscriptions on stone and brass, and their noble architecture (see India). The Mahommedan invader first established himself in the south in the beginning of the 14th century. Ala-ud-din, the second monarch of the Khilji dynasty at Delhi, and his general Malik Kafur conquered the Deccan, and overthrew the kingdoms of Karnataka and Telingana, which were then the most powerful in southern India. But after the withdrawal of the Mussulman armies the native monarchy of Vijayanagar arose out of the ruins. This dynasty gradually extended its dominions from sea to sea, and reached a pitch of prosperity before unknown. At last, in 1565, it was overwhelmed by a combination of the four Mahommedan principalities of the Deccan. At the close of the reign of Aurangzeb, although that emperor nominally extended his sovereignty as far as Cape Comorin, in reality South India had again fallen under a number of rulers who owned no regular allegiance. The nizam of the Deccan, himself an independent sovereign, represented the distant court of Delhi. The most powerful of his feudatories was the nawab of the Carnatic, with his capital at Arcot. In Tanjore, a descendant of Sivaji ruled; and on the central table-land a Hindu chieftain was gradually establishing his authority and founding the state of Mysore, destined soon to pass to a Mahommedan usurper.