Esperanto Self-Taught with Phonetic Pronunciation

Chapter III: Part 3

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ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.

The Article.

The DEFINITE ARTICLE _the_ is in Esperanto represented by _la_. Like the article in English, _la_ does not vary with the number or gender of the noun before which it is placed; e.g., _la briko_, the brick; _la brikoj_, the bricks; _la patro_, the father; _la patrinoj_, the mothers.

The INDEFINITE ARTICLE _a_ is not expressed in Esperanto. Thus, "_filo_" is _son_ or _a son_.

The Noun.

In Esperanto every noun in the singular ends in *o*. Thus: viro, _a man_; la libro, _the book_. The plural is formed from the singular by adding the termination *-j*. Thus: viroj, _men_; la libroj, _the books_.

In order to allow each nation to construct its sentences in the order to which it is accustomed, every noun in Esperanto has two forms or "cases," (1) the NOMINATIVE, or unchanged form, and (2) the ACCUSATIVE, which is formed from the nominative by adding the termination *-n*. This is merely to distinguish between subject and object. The accusative form is also used to indicate motion towards, etc.

The Adjective.

All adjectives end in the nominative singular in *a*. They may be placed either before or after the noun. As in the case of the noun, the plural is formed by adding the termination *-j*, and the accusative is formed by adding *-n* to the nominative. The adjective agrees in number and case with the noun which it qualifies. Ex.:--

Blua libro (_or_ libro blua), _a blue book_; bluaj libroj, _blue books_.
La viro legas bluan libron. _The man reads a blue book._
La viroj legas bluajn librojn. _The men are reading blue books._

Thanks to the accusative case, one might say without loss of clearness: Bluan libron legas la viro, _or_ la viro bluan libron legas, _or_ bluan libron la viro legas, etc.

Degrees of Comparison.

There are three degrees of comparison, as in English:

The POSITIVE, as _bona_, good; _bela_, beautiful; _granda_, big, great.

The COMPARATIVE is formed by placing _pli_ (more) or _malpli_ (less) before the positive, thus: _bona_, good--_pli bona_, better; _bela_, beautiful--_malpli bela_, less beautiful. The comparison may be heightened by using _multe_ (much), thus: _multe pli_ (or _malpli_) _bela_.

_Than_ is translated by _ol_, thus: _pli_ (or _malpli_) _bela ol_..., more (_or_ less) beautiful than...

The SUPERLATIVE degree is formed by using _plej_ (most) with the positive; as _bela_, beautiful--_plej bela_, most beautiful.

_Of_ with a superlative is translated by the preposition _el_ (out of). _La plej granda el ĉiuj_, the greatest of all.

_The more...the more_, _the less...the less_, are translated by means of the particles _ju_ and _des_. Thus: _Ju pli oni studas, des pli oni lernas_, the more one studies, the more one learns. _Ju pli mi kun li parolas, des malpli mi lin estimas_, the more I speak to him, the less I esteem him.

Cardinal Numbers.

The CARDINAL NUMBERS may be used as _nouns_, by the addition of the ending *-o*. Thus, _unuo_, a unit; _trio_, a trio; _dekduo_, a dozen; _dudeko_, a score; _cento_, a hundred; _milo_, a thousand. Note that _miliono_ is ALWAYS used as a noun.

When a number or any other word is used as a noun of quantity, the noun which follows it must be preceded by the quantitative preposition *da*:--_Dekduo da ovoj_, a dozen eggs; _milo da soldatoj_, a thousand soldiers (one might of course also say _dek du ovoj_, _mil soldatoj_); _du metroj da drapo_, two metres of cloth; _tri funtoj da sukero_, three pounds of sugar.

Ordinal Numbers.

The ORDINAL NUMBERS are formed by adding the adjectival ending *-a* to the Cardinals. In Compound Ordinal Numbers, the groups of hundreds, tens, units, etc., are _joined by hyphens_, and the ending *-a* is added to the unit numeral. Thus: _unu_, one--_unua_, first; _tria_, third; _dek-unua_, eleventh; _tridek-sepa_, thirty-seventh; _kvarcent-sesdek-dua_, 462nd, and so on. Written in figures these would be _1a_, _3a_, _11a_, _37a_, _462a_. The Ordinals are of course inflected like adjectives. (See section "The Adjective".)

Fractions

FRACTIONALS are formed by adding the suffix *-on* (plus the endings *o*, *a*, or *e* as required) to the Cardinal Numbers. Thus: _unu duono_, one-half; _tri kvaronoj_, three-quarters; _dek sep dek-naŭonoj_, 17/19; _dudek tri kvarmil-kvincent-tridek-naŭonoj_, 23/4539. _Duone vera_ (or _duonvera_), half-true. _Tri-kvaronoj da funto_ (or _trikvaronfuntoj_), 3/4 lb. _Duono da funto_ (or _duonfunto_), 1/2 lb.

Multiples, Collectives, and Distributives.

MULTIPLE Numbers are formed from the Cardinals by adding the suffix *-obl*, with the requisite grammatical ending *o*, *a*, or *e*. Thus: _duobla_, double; _duoblo_, a double; _duoble_, doubly; _tridekoble_, thirty-fold; _sesoble naŭ estas_ (or _faras_) _kvindek kvar_, six nines are fifty-four; _duoble du estas kvar_, twice two are four.

COLLECTIVE Numerals are formed by the addition of the suffix *-op* (plus the grammatical termination required). Thus: _duope_, two at a time, two together; _naŭope_, nine at a time; _ili venadis dekope_, they came in tens; _dumilopa taĉmento_, a detachment two thousand strong.

DISTRIBUTIVES are shown by the preposition _po_, meaning _at the rate of_. Thus: _li aĉetis por ĉiu infano po ses pomoj_, he bought six apples for each child; _li ricevas po dek ŝilingoj por ĉiu tago_, he gets ten shillings a day; _la vagonaro veturas po sesdek mejloj en ĉiu horo_ (or _ĉiuhore_), the train travels at (the rate of) sixty miles an hour, etc.

The Pronoun.

The PERSONAL PRONOUNS are, in the nominative: _Mi_, I; _vi_, you (sing. and pl.); _ni_, we; _li_, he; _ŝi_, she; _ĝi_, it; _ili_, they.

The archaic English _thou_ may be translated by _ci_.

The Accusative case of the personal pronouns is formed like that of nouns and adjectives, by adding *-n*. Thus: _Min_, me; _vin_, you; _nin_, us; _lin_, him; _ŝin_, her; _ĝin_, it; _ilin_, them.

The REFLEXIVE PRONOUN of the 3rd person is _si_ (accusative _sin_), standing for _himself_, _herself_, _itself_, _one's-self_, or _themselves_, as the case may be. There is no special reflexive form for the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd person, _I_, _we_, and _you_.

The INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN is _oni_ (= the French _on_)--one, people, they, you. Ex.: _Li amas sin_, he loves himself; _ŝi amas sin_, she loves herself; _ĝi montras sin_, it shows itself; _ili diras al si_, they say to themselves; _oni vidas sin_, one sees one's-self; _mi lavas min_, I wash myself; _vi laŭdas vin_, you praise yourself.

Possessive Adjectives or Pronouns.

By adding the adjectival ending *-a* to the personal pronouns, the POSSESSIVE Adjectives and Pronouns are obtained. Thus: _Mia_, my, mine; _cia_, thy, thine; _via_, your, yours; _nia_, our, ours; _lia_, his; _ŝia_, her, hers; _ĝia_, its; _sia_ (reflexive), his, her(s), its, their(s), one's.

NOTE the following use of _sia_. In English the sentence, "He saw his friend with his brother," is not clear. Does it mean that he saw his friend (1) with his _friend's brother_, or (2) with his _own brother_? In Esperanto, the use of _sia_ makes the meaning quite clear; (1) would be: _Li vidis sian amikon kun LIA frato_, and (2) would be: _Li vidis sian amikon kun SIA frato_.

The word _mem_, meaning _-self or -selves_, may be added to a personal pronoun to give emphasis. Thus: _Konu vin mem_, know thyself; _li iris mem_, he went himself; _li mem_, himself; _li parolis al si mem_, he spoke to himself.

Like other adjectives, possessives agree in case and number with the noun to which they refer. Ex.:

_lia libro_, his book; _liaj libroj_, his books;
_ŝi havas lian, kaj li havas ŝian_, she has his, and he has hers;
_liaj estas la plej bonaj libroj_, his are the best books;
_mi preferas miajn_, I prefer mine; _li preferas siajn_, he prefers his;
_ili preferas siajn_, they prefer theirs.

Demonstrative Adjective or Pronoun.

The DEMONSTRATIVE Adjective and Pronoun "that" is rendered in Esperanto by the word _tiu_ (acc. _tiun_); plural _tiuj_ (acc. _tiujn_), those. The addition (either before or after) of the particle _ĉi_ to the singular and plural respectively, gives _this_ and _these_. Ex.:

_Tiu viro_, that man. _Tiu estas mia_, that (one) is mine.
_Mi elektas tiun_, I choose that (one).
_Mi preferas tiun ĉi_ (or _ĉi tiujn_), I prefer this (one).
_Tiuj ĉi_ (or _ĉi tiuj_) _estas miaj_, these are mine.
_Mi portos tiujn ĉi_, I will carry these.

Interrogative Pronouns.

_Kiu?_--who, which? Plural, _kiuj?_ _Kio?_--what? _Kies?_--whose? _Al kiu?_--to whom? _Kiun?_--whom? (acc.), _kiujn?_ (acc. plu.). Ex.:

_Kiu estas tiu?_--who is that?
_Kiun vi deziras vidi?_--whom do you desire to see?
_Kiuj foriris?_--which (ones) went away?
_Kiujn vi vidis?_--which ones did you see?

_Kiu_ is also used with ADJECTIVAL meaning. Thus: _Kiu libro estas via?_--which book is yours? _Kiun libron vi preferas?_--which book do you prefer? _Kiuj domoj apartenas al vi?_--which houses belong to you? _Kiujn stratojn vi konas?_--which streets do you know? _Kio estas tio?_--what is that? _Kion li volas?_--what does he want?

The English _-ever_ is translated by _ajn_. For example: _Kiu ajn li estas, ne parolu al li_, whoever he be, do not speak to him. _Kies ajn_, whosesoever. _Kiu(j)n ajn_, whomever.

Relative Pronouns.

The Relative Pronouns are identical with the Interrogative: _Kiu(j)_, who, that, which, _kiu(j)n_, whom, that, which. Ex.:

_La libro, kiun vi legas_, the book (which) you are reading.
_Tiu, kiu parolis al vi_, the one who spoke to you.
_La personoj, kiujn li konas_, the persons (whom) he knows.
_Tio, kion li diras, ne estas vera_, what he says is not true.
_La arbo, kies supron vi vidas_, the tree whose top you can see.

Indefinite Pronouns.

_iu_ (acc. _iun_), anyone, someone or other;
_ies_, anyone's, someone's;
_iuj_ (acc. _iujn_), any persons, some persons or other;
_io_ (acc. _ion_), anything, something.

_ĉiu_ (acc. _ĉiun_), everyone, each;
_ĉies_, everyone's, everybody's, each one's;
_ĉiuj_ (acc. _ĉiujn_), everybody, all;
_ĉio_ (acc. _ĉion_), everything, all.

_neniu_ (acc. _neniun_), no one, nobody;
_nenies_, no one's, nobody's;
_nenio_ (acc. _nenion_), nothing, not anything.

NOTE.--_Iu_, _ĉiu_, and _neniu_ are also used with nouns. Thus: _Kiun libron vi deziras?_ Which book do you desire? _Iun ajn libron._ Any book. _Iu homo_, any man, some man or other. _Ĉiu bona patro amas siajn infanojn_, every good father loves his children. _Ĉiuj liaj amikoj_ (or _ĉiu lia amiko_), all his friends, every friend of his. _Mi renkontis neniun amikon_, I met no friend.

Other PRONOMINAL WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS are:

_multaj(n)_, many; _multo(n)_, much; _malmultaj(n), malmulte da..._, a few. Ex.: _malmultaj personoj_, few persons; _malmulte da scio_, little knowledge.

_kelkajn_, some, several; _kelke da..._, some. Ex.: _kelkaj personoj_, some persons, several persons; _kelke da libroj_, some (quantity of) books.

_alia(n)_, another, other; _aliaj(n)_, others. Ex.: _ili parolis unu al alia_, they spoke to one another; _ni parolis unu al la alia_, we spoke to each other; _unu aŭ la alia taŭgos_, either (one or the other) will do; _nek unu nek la alia konvenas_, neither (one nor the other) is suitable.

_ambaŭ_ (invariable), both. Ex.: _ambaŭ venis_, both came; _mi konas ambaŭ fratojn_, I know both brothers; _mi vidis ilin ambaŭ_, I saw both of them; _mi ŝatas ambaŭ_, I like both.

The Verb.

Tenses.

The VERB in Esperanto has three main Tenses--the Present, Past, and Future. These are denoted by means of the verbal endings *-as*, *-is*, and *-os*. Thus, from the root _vid_, see, are formed:

Present. | Past. | Future.
_mi vidas_, I see | _mi vidis_, I saw | _mi vidos_, I shall see

Moods.

Every Esperanto verb has three Moods--the Conditional, the Imperative, and the Infinitive, which are formed respectively by means of the endings *-us*, *-u*, and *-i*. Thus:

Conditional. | Imperative. | Infinitive.
_mi vidus_, I should see | _vidu_, see! | _vidi_, to see

The CONDITIONAL Mood is used to express _supposition_; the three Tenses, on the other hand, are used to express _facts_ or actual happenings. (For examples, see §. "Conjunctions".)

The IMPERATIVE Mood is used to express an order, desire, wish, will, etc. (See §. "Use of Imperative".) Used with the personal pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons, this mood corresponds to the English _let_, used as an expression of a wish. Thus: _mi pensu_, let me think; _li venu morgaŭ_, let him come to-morrow; _ili parolu_, let them speak.

NOTE that _let_ sometimes means _to allow, to give leave_, in which case the verb _lasi_ is used. Thus: let (allow) him come, _lasu lin veni_; leave it there, _lasu ĝin tie_.

The Imperative may be used interrogatively to translate the English _shall_, with an idea of wish or desire. Thus:

What shall I give you? _Kion mi donu al vi?_
What shall we do to-day? _Kion ni faru hodiaŭ?_

_What will he do?_ would of course be simply _Kion li faros?_--for there is here no question of desire or wish, but merely a question of future action.

The INFINITIVE Mood is used to express the mere idea of the verb, without any limit of person or number, and corresponds to the English _to_ before the verb. Thus: _kuri_, to run; _paroli_, to speak.

NOTE.--In Esperanto, as is largely the case in English, the mood and tense endings of the verb _do not vary_ according to person or number. For instance: _mi vidas_, I see, _li vidas_, he sees; also _ni vidis_, we saw, _ili vidis_, they saw; _vi vidos_, you will see; _oni vidos_, one will see; _ŝi vidus_, she would see, _vi vidus_, you would see.

Participles.

There are in Esperanto _six_ participles, three active and three passive, corresponding to three tenses. They are formed in the ACTIVE by means of the endings *-ant*, *-int*, and *-ont*, and in the PASSIVE by means of the endings *-at*, *-it*, *-ot*, with the addition of the adjectival termination *-a*. Thus:

ACTIVE.
Present. | Past. | Future.
_vidanta_, seeing | _vidinta_, having-seen | _vidonta_, about-to-see

PASSIVE.
_vidata_, | _vidita_, | _vidota_,
(being) seen | (having-been) seen | (about-to-be) seen

The PARTICIPLES may be used either as _Nouns_, _Adjectives_, or _Adverbs_, the terminations *-o*, *-a*, *-e* being added to the participial endings as required. When used as nouns or adjectives, they of course take the sign of the Plural (*-j*) and of the Accusative (*-n*) when the construction of the sentence so requires. Ex.:

(1) ACTIVE. _En la venonta jaro_, in the coming year. _La parolanto_,
the speaker. _La aŭskultantoj_, the audience (_lit._, listeners). _Mi
vidis lin skribantan_, I saw him writing. _Li foriris kurante_, he
went off at a run. _Li revenis ne vidinte sian amikon_, he returned
without having seen his friend.

(2) PASSIVE. _La ekzamenato_, the examinee. _La mortigitoj kaj
vunditoj_, the killed and wounded. _Estimata sinjoro_, dear (_lit._,
esteemed) sir. _Frapote, li sin defendis_, about to be struck, he
defended himself. _Mi aŭdis tiun himnon kantatan_, I heard that hymn
sung.

Compound Tenses.

The COMPOUND TENSES are formed by means of the auxiliary verb *esti*, to be. Thus, by the combination of the participles with the six tenses and moods, we obtain thirty-six compound tenses, enabling us to express with the utmost precision any time-relation whatsoever. We have in all:

_li estas_, or _estis_, or _estos_ { _vidanta_ or _vidata_
or _estus_, or _estu_, or _esti_ { _vidinta_ or _vidita_
{ _vidonta_ or _vidota_

The use of the participles is very easy when once one grasps the fact that the auxiliary _esti_ serves to denote the particular division of time, or the particular manner, of the occurrence of the action denoted by the participle. Ex.:

_Li estis skribanta, kiam mi vidis lin_, he was writing when I saw him.
_Li estis fininta, kiam mia amiko alvenis_, he had finished (_lit._,
was having finished) when my friend arrived.
_Mi estis tuj forironta, kiam vi aperis_, I was just about to go out
when you appeared.
_Li estas nunmomente parolanta_, he is speaking at this very moment.
_Li estas mortonta_, he is about to die.
_Li estus jam foririnta_, he would have already departed (_lit._,
would be already gone away).

The word _by_ after a Passive is translated by the preposition *de*. Thus: The wood was being chopped by the boy, _la ligno estis hakata de la knabo_. He has been seen by all, _li estas vidita de ĉiuj_.

NOTE.--The COMPOUND TENSES should not be used if the SIMPLE TENSES suffice to show the meaning clearly. Thus, _I have seen him_ is more neatly expressed by _mi jam vidis lin_ than by _mi estas vidinta lin_. _Li jam foriris_ might stand for either _he had gone_ or _he has gone_, according to circumstances, and the context would clearly show which was meant. _Li parolas_ is generally quite right for _he is speaking_. _Li estas parolanta_ should be used only when it is particularly intended to show that he is _actually engaged_ in the act of speaking.

The Adverb.

In Esperanto, ADVERBS are denoted by the ending *-e*, and may be placed in any position, either before or after the verb. Thus: _bela_, beautiful--_bele_, beautifully; _vera_, true--_vere_, truly. _Li parolas saĝe_, he speaks wisely. _Li rapide kuras_, he runs quickly.

Adverbial Numbers.

ADVERBIAL NUMBERS are formed by adding *-e* to the Cardinals. Thus: _unue_ (_1e_), firstly; _trie_ (_3e_), thirdly; _sepe_ (_7e_), etc.

The Preposition.

In English, one preposition often has many different meanings. In Esperanto, on the contrary, every preposition, with the exception of the word _je_, has one precise and fixed meaning.

The preposition *je* is the only one in Esperanto without a definite meaning. It sometimes happens that one wishes to use a preposition of some sort or other, but is uncertain just which preposition will precisely express the idea. In such cases _je_ is used. Thus: He laughed _at_ me, _li ridis je mi_; full _of_ water, _plena je akvo_; six metres long, _longa je ses metroj_; fear _of_ him, _timo je li_, etc.

_Je_ should not be abused. Its too frequent use is a mark of the beginner in the language.

Use of Accusative.

When there is no ambiguity to be feared, the preposition _je_, and even other prepositions, are often omitted in Esperanto; and the word to which the preposition, if expressed, would have referred is put into the accusative. Thus, instead of saying _li ridas je mi_ (he is laughing at me), one might say _li ridas min_; similarly, _du metrojn alta_ would stand for _alta je du metroj_. _Ĝi kostis je tri ŝilingoj_ is more usually expressed: _ĝi kostis tri ŝilingojn_. _Mi restis tie dum kvin horoj_ (I stayed there for five hours) could be: _mi restis tie kvin horojn_; and so on.

Certain prepositions, viz., _antaŭ_, before, _ĉe_, at, _en_, in, _sub_, under, _sur_, on, _kontraŭ_, against, _super_, over, and _trans_, across, are often used to denote _movement towards_, whereas of themselves they only express _rest at_. In order to make it quite clear whether motion or rest is intended, use is made of the accusative. Thus: _li promenis en la urbo_, he took a walk _in_ the city; but _li promenis en la urbon_, he took a walk _into_ the city. _Li kuris antaŭ mi_, he ran (along) before or in front of me; but _li paŝis antaŭ min_, he stepped in front of me; and so on.

ADVERBS are sometimes used with prepositional force. Thus: _proksime de la domo_, near the house; _dekstre de la arbo_, on the right of the tree, etc.

The Conjunction.

A full list of CONJUNCTIONS will be found on §. 37. The following constructions should be noted:

Tenses after _Ke_ (that).

_Mi vidis, ke ŝi ploras_, I saw (that) she was crying.
_Mi sciis, ke li venos_, I knew that he _would_ come.
_Mi sciis, ke li jam alvenis_, I knew (that) he had already arrived.
_Li diris, ke se li estus tiel granda, kiel mi, li facile farus tion_,
he said that if he were as tall as I, he would easily do that.

Note that in Esperanto the verb is put in the exact time or tense used by the speaker. Thus: _mi ne sciis, ĉu li venos_, I did not know whether he would (_lit._, will) come; _ili ne diris, ĉu ili vin renkontis_, they did not say whether they had met you.

Use of Imperative.

After verbs expressing wish, intention, will, or desire, or command, the verb following is put in the IMPERATIVE MOOD. Thus: _mi ordonas, ke li venu_, I order that he come (him to come); _mi tre deziris, ke li vivu_, I very much wanted him to live; _ili intencis, ke ni perdu_, they intended us to lose. Here the actual expressions used were: _li venu_, _li vivu_, _ili perdu_.

Use of Conditional after _Se_.

_Se vi tiel diris, vi malprave faris_, if you spoke thus you did
wrongly.
_Se vi tiel dirus, vi estus malprava_, if you said (were to say) thus,
you would be wrong.
_Se vi venos, vi vidos_, if you (will) come, you will see.

Interjections.

The following are the principal INTERJECTIONS:

_adiaŭ!_ adieu! farewell!
_ah!_ ah!
_antaŭen!_ forward!
_atentu!_ look out!
_bis!_ encore!
_bone!_ good!
_certe!_ certainly!
_ĉu ne?_ or _ĉu ne vere?_ is not that so?
_ĉu vere?_ is that so?
_efektive!_ indeed!
_fi!_ fie!
_for!_ away! be off!
_ha!_ ha!
_halt!_ halt!
_he!_ hey! halloo!
_ho!_ oh!
_ho ve!_ alas!
_hontinde!_ shameful!
_jen!_ there!
_kompreneble!_ naturally! of course!
_ne!_ no!
_neeble!_ impossible!
_nu!_ well!
_rapide!_ quick!
_rapidu!_ hurry up!

Formation of Words.

In Esperanto, considerable use is made of prefixes and suffixes, every one of which has a clear, fixed meaning. Great economy of vocabulary is thus effected, one root-word in Esperanto sufficing, when modified by suitable affixes, to translate many English words. Many of the affixes are often met with as single words. In such cases the English translation is added after the various examples of the affix in question.

Prefixes.

*bo-* denotes RELATIONSHIP BY MARRIAGE: _patro_, father, _bopatro_, father-in-law; _filo_, son, _bofilo_, son-in-law.

*dis-* denotes SEPARATION: _ĵeti_, to throw, _disĵeti_, to scatter, throw about; _peli_, to drive along, _dispeli_, to dispel, _fali_, to fall, _disfali_, to fall apart, fall to pieces.

*ek-* denotes a BEGINNING OF AN ACTION, a MOMENTARY ACTION: _iri_, to go, _ekiri_, to begin to go, to start; _brili_, to shine, _ekbrili_, to begin to shine, to flash.

*ge-* denotes the TWO SEXES TAKEN TOGETHER: _patro_, father, _gepatroj_, father and mother, parents; _frato_, brother, _gefratoj_, brother(s) and sister(s); _Gesinjoroj B._, Mr. and Mrs. B.

*mal-* denotes the OPPOSITE OF AN IDEA: _bona_, good, _malbona_, bad; _ŝati_, to like, _malŝati_, to dislike; _amiko_, friend, _malamiko_, enemy; _laŭta_, loud, _mallaŭte_, softly.--_Malo_, an opposite; _male_, on the contrary.

*pra-* is a prefix of RELATIONSHIP, corresponding to the English FORE-, GREAT-: _patro_, father, _prapatro_, forefather, ancestor; _avo_, grandfather; _praavo_, great-grandfather; _nepo_, grandson, _pranepo_, great-grandson.

*re-* denotes RETURN AND REPETITION: _iri_, to go, _reiri_, to go back, or to go again; _repreni_, to take back; _revidi_, to see again.--_Ree_, again.

Suffixes.

*-aĉ* denotes that a word is used in a BAD SENSE, with DISPARAGEMENT: _domo_, a house, _domaĉo_, a hovel; _ridi_, to laugh, _ridaĉi_, to sneer.

*-ad* denotes CONTINUATION OR DURATION of an action: _paroli_, to speak, _paroladi_, to make a speech; _kanto_, a song, _kantado_, singing; _vojaĝo_, a voyage, _vojaĝado_, travelling; _rido_, a laugh, _ridado_, laughter.

*-aĵ* denotes some CONCRETE THING characterized by the idea contained in the root: _bela_, beautiful, _belaĵo_, a beautiful thing; _nutri_, to feed, nourish, _nutraĵo_ (or _nutrantaĵo_), food; _ĝentila_, polite, _ĝentilaĵo_, a polite act, act of politeness; _bovo_, ox, _bovaĵo_, beef.--_Aĵo_, a thing.

*-an* denotes a PARTISAN OF, a MEMBER, an INHABITANT: _Kristo_, Christ, _Kristano_, a Christian; _eklezio_, a church, _ekleziano_, a churchman; _Londonano_, a Londoner.--_Ano_, a member.

*-ar* denotes a COLLECTION OF, a NUMBER OF: _arbo_, tree, _arbaro_, a forest; _homo_, a human being, _homaro_, mankind; _vorto_, a word, _vortaro_, a dictionary.--_Aro_, a collection, number, gathering.

*-ĉj* added to the first two to five letters of a word, is used to denote MASCULINE DIMINUTIVES OF ENDEARMENT: _Johano_, John, _Joĉjo_, Jack; _patro_, father, _paĉjo_, papa, daddy.

*-ebl* denotes POSSIBILITY, and corresponds to the English suffixes -ABLE, -IBLE: _kredi_, to believe, _kredebla_, credible; _videbla_, visible; _al_, to, _iri_, to go, _alirebla_, accessible.

*-ec* denotes ABSTRACT IDEAS, QUALITIES and corresponds to the English suffixes -NESS, -SHIP, etc.: _feliĉa_, happy, _feliĉeco_, happiness; _alta_, high, _alteco_, height; _reĝo_, king, _reĝeco_, kingship.

*-eg* denotes AUGMENTATION, INTENSITY OF DEGREE: _granda_, big, great, _grandega_, enormous; _bela_, beautiful, _belega_, magnificent; _ŝtono_, stone, _ŝtonego_, rock; _pafilo_, a gun, _pafilego_, cannon.

*-ej* denotes a PLACE SPECIALLY SET APART FOR or allotted to: _preĝi_, to pray, _preĝejo_, church; _manĝi_, to eat, _manĝejo_, refectory; _kuirejo_, kitchen; _enirejo_, entrance; _elirejo_, exit.

*-em* denotes PROPENSITY, INCLINATION, DISPOSITION: _paroli_, to talk, _parolema_, talkative; _mensogi_, to lie, _mensogema_, untruthful.

*-er* denotes an ELEMENT OF, a UNIT, a GRAIN: _polvo_, dust, _polvero_, a grain of dust; _fajrero_, a spark; _hajlero_, hailstone; _mono_, money, _monero_, a coin.--_Ero_, particle, grain, element.

*-estr* denotes a CHIEF, LEADER, HEAD: _regno_, state; _regnestro_, head of the state, ruler; _lernejo_, school, _lernejestro_, head-master.--_Estro_, leader, chief; _estraro_, the authorities; _estri_, to act as chief.

*-id* denotes a DESCENDANT, OFFSPRING, YOUNG OF: _bovo_, ox, _bovido_, calf; _ŝafo_, a sheep, _ŝafido_, lamb; _Izraelido_, Israelite; _la homidoj_, the sons of man; _Sro. Brown kaj la Brownidoj_, Mr. Brown and the little Browns.--_Ido_, a descendant, child; _idaro_, descendants, offspring.

*-et* denotes DIMINUTION OF DEGREE (compare _-eg_ above): _bela_, beautiful, _beleta_, pretty; _venteto_, breeze; _ridi_, to laugh, _rideti_, to smile; _bona_, good, _boneta_, fairly good, mediocre.--_Eta_, tiny.

*-ig* denotes a MAKING, RENDERING, CAUSING TO BE: _granda_, great, _grandigi_, to enlarge; _venigi kuraciston_, to send for (cause to come) a doctor; _halti_, to stop (intr.), _haltigi_, to stop (tr.); _tranĉigi al si la harojn_, to get one's hair cut.--_Igi_, to make, render.

*-iĝ* denotes a BECOMING, GETTING, GROWING, BEING MADE: _hela_, bright, _heliĝi_, to grow or become bright; _ruĝa_, red, _ruĝiĝi_, to redden, blush; _disiĝi_, to separate (intr.).--_Iĝi_, to become.

With transitive verbs _iĝ-_ is used to make intransitive verbs, thus: _renversi_, to overthrow, turn upside down, _renversiĝi_, to turn (intr.) upside down, to get overthrown; _fari_, to make, _fariĝi_, to become; _perdiĝi_, to get lost; _vidiĝi_, to be seen.

Used with intransitive verbs, _iĝ-_ gives the idea of a becoming, a GRADUAL TRANSITION from one state to another: _morti_, to die, _mortiĝi_, to become dead, to die away, to expire; _sidi_, to be seated, _sidiĝi_, to become seated, to sit down.

NOTE that, since verbs in _-iĝ_ are of necessity intransitive, their participles should only be used in the ACTIVE FORM. Thus: _renversiĝ_*inta*, having become overthrown, and not _renversiĝ_*ita*; _perdiĝ_*inta*, having become lost, not _perdiĝ_*ita*; and so on. One might of course simply say _renversita_, overthrown, and _perdita_, lost, though the meaning would in that case not be quite the same.

*-il* denotes an INSTRUMENT, TOOL, or MEANS: _tranĉi_, to cut, _tranĉilo_, a knife; _filtri_, to filter, _filtrilo_, a filter; _teni_, to hold, _tenilo_, a handle.--_Ilo_, tool, instrument; _ilaro_, set of tools.

*-ind* denotes WORTHINESS (English -WORTHY): _laŭdi_, to praise, _laŭdinda_, praiseworthy; _vidinda_, worth seeing, _vidindaĵoj_, things worth seeing, sights.--_Inda (je)_, worthy (of); _indeco_, worthiness.

*-ing* denotes the HOLDER OF A SINGLE OBJECT (compare _-uj_ below): _plumo_, pen, _plumingo_, penholder; _fingro_, finger, _fingringo_, thimble; _cigaringo_, cigar-holder.--_Ingo_, a socket, holder.

*-in* denotes FEMININES: _viro_, a man, _virino_, a woman; _patro_, father, _patrino_, mother.--_Ino_, a female.

*-ist* denotes TRADE, OCCUPATION, PROFESSION: _labori_, to work, _laboristo_, workman; _kuraci_, to treat (medically), _kuracisto_, doctor.

*-nj* added to the first two to five letters of a word, is used to form FEMININE DIMINUTIVES OF ENDEARMENT (compare _-ĉj_ above): _Johanino_, Jane, _Johanjo_, Jenny; _patrino_, mother, _panjo_, mamma.

*-uj* denotes a RECEPTACLE which contains or bears a COLLECTION OR A QUANTITY of things or material (compare _-ing_ above): _mono_, money, _monujo_, purse; _inko_, ink, _inkujo_, inkstand.--_Ujo_, a utensil case, bin.

The suffix _-uj_ is also used to denote TREES bearing certain fruits: _pomo_, apple, _pomujo_, apple-tree; _ĉerizujo_, cherry-tree; _rozujo_, rose-bush. The word _arbo_, however, is more frequently used in such cases: _pomarbo_, _rozarbeto_, etc.

_-Uj_ is also used to denote the NAMES OF COUNTRIES: _Anglo_, Englishman, _Anglujo_, England; _Franco_, a Frenchman, _Francujo_, France. (See footnote 4.)

*-ul* denotes a BEING CHARACTERISED BY THE IDEA CONTAINED IN THE ROOT-WORD: _bela_, beautiful, _belulino_, a beautiful woman, a beauty; _kulpo_, blame, _kulpulo_, culprit; _laŭdindulo_, one worthy to be praised; _bonulo_, a good fellow; _bonegulo_, a jolly good fellow.

*-um* is an INDEFINITE SUFFIX, like the word _je_ among the prepositions, Thus: _pleni_, to fill, _plenumi_, to fulfil (compare _plenigi_, to fill); _kolo_, neck, _kolumo_, collar; _aero_, air, _aerumi_, to air (a room, clothes, etc.).

[Words containing _-um_ should be learnt as independent roots.]

Compound Words.

In Esperanto, any word can be combined with any other word or words to form a compound word. Considerable use is made of prepositions for this purpose. The requisite grammatical ending must of course be added in each case. The student should carefully study the following words, and also those given above, and endeavour to form words for himself.[9] Ability to form words readily is absolutely necessary to fluent speech or composition in the language. In the examples given below the component parts of the words are separated by a small stroke ('), but these are of course omitted in ordinary usage:

_El'iri_, to go out
_antaŭ'ĉambro_, antechamber
_pri'pensi_, to think over, reflect upon
_preter'paŝi_, to pass by
_per'labori_, to earn (gain by working)
_per'forto_, violence
_tra'vivi_, to live through, experience
_supre'n'iri_, to go up, ascend
_inter'rompi_, to interrupt
_kun'veno_, an assembly, meeting
_al'paroli_, to address, accost
_inter'rilati_, to relate one with another
_inter'rilatoj_, inter-relations
_inter'nacia_, international
_skrib(o)'tablo_, writing-table
_dorm(o)'ĉambro_, bedroom
_naz'tuko_, handkerchief
_ter'tremo_, earthquake
_glit'iri_, to skate
_glit'veturilo_, a sleigh
_pied'ir'anto_, a pedestrian
_bru'fermi_, to slam
_facil'mova_, agile, easy-moving
_hom'amo_, philanthropy
_bon'far'anto_, benefactor
_strat'lanterno_, street-lamp
_bot'far'isto_, bootmaker
_sam'profesi'anoj_, members of the same profession
_ĉio'potenca_, all-powerful
_libr'amanto_, a book-lover
_doktor'edzino_, doctor's wife
_mon'akir'ilo_, a means of getting money
_ĉio'n'faranta_, all-doing
_alt'anima_, high-souled
_vivi'pova_, capable of life
_ali'landulo_, foreigner
_ali'maniere_, in another way
_tiu'speca_, of that kind

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

CONVERSATIONAL PHRASES AND SENTENCES.

38. Useful and Necessary Expressions. (_Utilaj kaj Necesaj Esprimoj._)

39. Expressions of Emotion, etc. (_Esprimoj de Emocio, k.t.p._)

40. Enquiries. (_Demandoj._)

41. Public Notices. (_Publikaj Avizoj._)

42. Travelling: By Railway. (_Veturado: per la Fervojo._)

(For Vocabulary see §. 19.)

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Esperanto Self-Taught with Phonetic PronunciationChapter III: Part 3

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