Chapter II: Preface: To the German Edition

While Italy and France possess an ample literature relating to Galileo, his oft-discussed fate and memorable achievements, very little has been written in Germany on this hero of science; and it would almost seem as if Copernicus and Kepler had cast the founder of mechanical physics into the shade. German literature does not possess one exhaustive work on Galileo. This is a great want, and to supply it would be a magnificent and thankworthy enterprise. It could only, however, be carried out by a comprehensive biography of the famous astronomer, which, together with a complete narrative of his life, should comprise a detailed description and estimate of his writings, inventions, and discoveries. We do not feel ourselves either called upon or competent to undertake so difficult a task. Our desire has been merely to fill up a portion of the gap in German literature by this contribution to the Life of Galileo, with a hope that it may be an incentive to some man of learning, whose studies qualify him for the task, to give our nation a complete description of the life and works of this great pioneer of the ideas of Copernicus.

We have also set ourselves another task; namely, to throw as much light as possible, by means of authentic documents, on the attitude Galileo assumed towards the Roman curia, and the history of the persecutions which resulted from it. To this end, however, it appeared absolutely necessary to give, at any rate in broad outline, a sketch of his aims and achievements as a whole. For his conflict with the ecclesiastical power was but the inevitable consequence of his subversive telescopic discoveries and scientific reforms. It was necessary to make the intimate connection between these causes and their historical results perfectly intelligible.

In the narration of historical events we have relied, as far as possible, upon authentic sources only. Among these are the following:—

1. Galileo’s correspondence, and the correspondence relating to him between third persons. (Albèri’s “Opere di Galileo Galilei.” Vols. ii., iii., vi., vii., viii., ix., x., xv., and Suppl., in all 1,564 letters.)

2. The constant reports of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador at Rome, to his Government at Florence, during and after Galileo’s trial. (Thirty-one despatches, from August 15th, 1632, to December 3rd, 1633.)

3. The Acts of the Trial, from the MS. originals in the Vatican.

4. The collection of documents published, in 1870, by Professor Silvestro Gherardi. Thirty-two extracts from the original protocols of the sittings and decrees of the Congregation of the Holy Office.[3]

5. Some important documents published by the Jesuit Father Riccioli, in his “Almagestum novum, Bononiæ, 1651.”[4]

We have also been careful to acquaint ourselves with the numerous French and Italian Lives of Galileo, from the oldest, that of his contemporary, Gherardini, to the most recent and complete, that of Henri Martin, 1869; when admissible, we have cautiously used them, constantly comparing them with authentic sources. As the part of the story of Galileo of which we have treated is that which has been most frequently discussed in literature, and from the most widely differing points of view, it could not fail to be of great interest to us to collect and examine, as far as it lay in our power, the views, opinions, and criticisms to be found in various treatises on the subject. We offer our warm thanks to all the possessors of private, and custodians of public libraries, who have most liberally and obligingly aided us in our project.

One more remark remains to be made. Party interests and passions have, to a great extent, and with but few exceptions, guided the pens of those who have written on this chapter of Galileo’s life. The one side has lauded him as an admirable martyr of science, and ascribed more cruelty to the Inquisition than it really inflicted on him; the other has thought proper to enter the lists as defender of the Inquisition, and to wash it white at Galileo’s expense. Historical truth contradicts both.

Whatever may be the judgment passed on the present work, to one acknowledgment we think we may, with a good conscience, lay claim: that, standing in the service of truth alone, we have anxiously endeavoured to pursue none other than her sublime interests.

KARL VON GEBLER.

MERAN, _November, 1875_.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PART I.

_GALILEO’S EARLY YEARS, HIS IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES, AND FIRST
CONFLICT WITH THE ROMAN CURIA._

CHAPTER I.

EARLY YEARS AND FIRST DISCOVERIES.

Birth at Pisa.—Parentage.—His Father’s Writings on
Music.—Galileo destined to be a Cloth Merchant.—Goes to the
Convent of Vallombrosa.—Begins to study Medicine.—Goes to
the University of Pisa.—Discovery of the Synchronism of the
Pendulum.—Stolen Lessons in Mathematics.—His Hydrostatic
Scales.—Professorship at Pisa.—Poor Pay.—The Laws of
Motion.—John de’ Medici.—Leaves Pisa.—Professorship at
Padua.—Writes various Treatises.—The Thermoscope.—Letter to
Kepler.—The Copernican System.—“De Revolutionibus orbium
Cœlestium” 3

CHAPTER II.

THE TELESCOPE AND ITS REVELATIONS.

Term of Professorship at Padua renewed.—Astronomy.—A New
Star.—The Telescope.—Galileo not the Inventor.—Visit to Venice
to exhibit it.—Telescopic Discoveries.—Jupiter’s Moons.—Request
of Henry IV.—“Sidereus Nuncius.”—The Storm it raised.—Magini’s
attack on Galileo.—The Ring of Saturn.—An Anagram.—Opposition
of the Aristotelian School.—Letter to Kepler 16

CHAPTER III.

REMOVAL TO FLORENCE.

Galileo’s Fame and Pupils.—Wishes to be freed from Academic
Duties.—Projected Works.—Call to Court of Tuscany.—This change
the source of his Misfortunes.—Letter from Sagredo.—Phases of
Venus and Mercury.—The Solar Spots.—Visit to Rome.—Triumphant
Reception.—Letter from Cardinal del Monte to Cosmo II.—The
Inquisition.—Introduction of Theology into the Scientific
Controversy.—“Dianoja Astronomica.”—Intrigues at Florence 27

CHAPTER IV.

ASTRONOMY AND THEOLOGY.

Treatise on Floating Bodies.—Controversy with Scheiner about
the Solar Spots.—Favourable reception of Galileo’s Work
on the subject at Rome.—Discussion with the Grand Duchess
Christine.—The Bible brought into the controversy.—Ill-fated
Letter to Castelli.—Caccini’s Sermon against Galileo.—Lorini
denounces the Letter to the Holy Office.—Archbishop Bonciani’s
attempts to get the original Letter.—“Opinion” of the
Inquisition on it.—Caccini summoned to give evidence.—Absurd
accusations.—Testimony of Ximenes and Attavanti in Galileo’s
favour 42

CHAPTER V.

HOPES AND FEARS.

Galileo’s Fears.—Allayed by letters from Rome.—Foscarini’s
Work.—Blindness of Galileo’s Friends.—His Apology to the
Grand Duchess Christine.—Effect produced by it.—Visit to
Rome.—Erroneous opinion that he was cited to appear.—Caccini
begs pardon.—Galileo defends the Copernican System at Rome.—His
mistake in so doing 59

CHAPTER VI.

THE INQUISITION AND THE COPERNICAN SYSTEM, AND THE ASSUMED
PROHIBITION TO GALILEO.

Adverse “Opinion” of the Inquisition on Galileo’s
Propositions.—Admonition by Bellarmine, and assumed Absolute
Prohibition to treat of the Copernican Doctrines.—Discrepancy
between Notes of 25th and 26th February.—Marini’s
Documents.—Epinois’s Work on Galileo.—Wohlwill first doubts
the Absolute Prohibition.—Doubts confirmed by Gherardi’s
Documents.—Decree of 5th March, 1616, on the Copernican
System.—Attitude of the Church.—Was the Absolute Prohibition
ever issued to Galileo?—Testimony of Bellarmine in his
favour.—Conclusions 76

CHAPTER VII.

EVIL REPORT AND GOOD REPORT.

Galileo still lingers at Rome.—Guiccardini tries to effect
his Recall.—Erroneous idea that he was trying to get the
Decree repealed.—Intrigues against him.—Audience of Pope Paul
V.—His friendly assurances.—His Character.—Galileo’s return to
Florence 91

CHAPTER VIII.

THE CONTROVERSY ON COMETS.

Studious Seclusion.—Waiting for the Correction of the Work
of Copernicus.—Treatise on Tides.—Sends it to Archduke
Leopold of Austria.—The Letter which accompanied it.—The
three Comets of 1618.—Galileo’s Opinion of Comets.—Grassi’s
Lecture on them.—Guiducci’s Treatise on them, inspired
by Galileo.—Grassi’s “Astronomical and Philosophical
Scales.”—Galileo’s Reply.—Paul V.—His Death.—Death of Cosmo
II.—Gregory XV.—“Il Saggiatore” finished.—Riccardi’s “Opinion”
on it.—Death of Gregory XV.—Urban VIII. 98

CHAPTER IX.

MAFFEO BARBERINI AS URBAN VIII.

His Character.—Taste for Letters.—Friendship for Galileo when
Cardinal.—Letters to him.—Verses in his honour.—Publication of
“Il Saggiatore” with Dedication to the Pope.—Character of the
Work.—The Pope’s approval of it.—Inconsistency with the assumed
Prohibition 108

CHAPTER X.

PAPAL FAVOUR.

Galileo goes to Rome to congratulate Urban VIII. on his
Accession.—Favourable reception.—Scientific discussions
with the Pope.—Urban refuses to Revoke the Decree of 5th
March.—Nicolo Riccardi.—The Microscope.—Galileo not the
Inventor.—Urban’s favours to Galileo on leaving Rome.—Galileo’s
reply to Ingoli.—Sanguine hopes.—Grassi’s hypocrisy.—Spinola’s
harangue against the Copernican System.—Lothario Sarsi’s reply
to “Il Saggiatore.”—Galileo writes his “Dialogues” 114

PART II.

_PUBLICATION OF THE “DIALOGUES ON THE TWO PRINCIPAL SYSTEMS OF
THE WORLD,” AND TRIAL AND CONDEMNATION OF GALILEO._

CHAPTER I.

THE “DIALOGUES” ON THE TWO SYSTEMS.

Origin of the “Dialogues.”—Their popular style.—Significance
of the name Simplicius.—Hypothetical treatment of the
Copernican System.—Attitude of Rome towards Science.—Thomas
Campanella.—Urban VIII.’s duplicity.—Galileo takes his MS. to
Rome.—Riccardi’s corrections.—He gives the _Imprimatur_ on
certain conditions.—Galileo returns to Florence to complete the
Work 127

CHAPTER II.

THE IMPRIMATUR FOR THE “DIALOGUES.”

Death of Prince Cesi.—Dissolution of the Accadémia dei
Lincei.—Galileo advised to print at Florence.—Difficulties and
delays.—His impatience.—Authorship of the Introduction.—The
_Imprimatur_ granted for Florence.—Absurd accusation from the
style of the Type of the Introduction 138

CHAPTER III.

THE “DIALOGUES” AND THE JESUITS.

Publication of the “Dialogues.”—Applause of Galileo’s friends
and the learned world.—The hostile party.—The Jesuits
as leaders of learning.—Deprived of their monopoly by
Galileo.—They become his bitter foes.—Having the _Imprimatur_
for Rome and Florence, Galileo thought himself doubly
safe.—The three dolphins.—Scheiner.—Did “Simplicius” personate
the Pope?—Conclusive arguments against it.—Effect of the
accusation.—Urban’s motives in instituting the Trial 151

CHAPTER IV.

DISCOVERY OF THE ABSOLUTE PROHIBITION OF 1616.

Symptoms of the coming Storm.—The Special Commission.—Parade of
forbearance.—The Grand Duke intercedes for Galileo.—Provisional
Prohibition of the “Dialogues.”—Niccolini’s Interview
with the Pope and unfavourable reception.—Report of it to
Cioli.—Magalotti’s Letters.—Real object of the Special
Commission to find a pretext for the Trial.—Its discovery in
the assumed Prohibition of 1616.—Report of the Commission, and
charges against Galileo 163

CHAPTER V.

THE SUMMONS TO ROME.

Niccolini’s attempt to avert the Trial.—The Pope’s
Parable.—The Mandate summoning Galileo to Rome.—His grief
and consternation.—His Letter to Cardinal Barberini.—Renewed
order to come to Rome.—Niccolini’s fruitless efforts
to save him.—Medical Certificate that he was unfit to
travel.—Castelli’s hopeful view of the case.—Threat to bring
him to Rome as a Prisoner.—The Grand Duke advises him to
go.—His powerlessness to protect his servant.—Galileo’s mistake
in leaving Venice.—Letter to Elia Diodati 175

CHAPTER VI.

GALILEO’S ARRIVAL AT ROME.

Galileo reaches Rome in February, 1632.—Goes to the Tuscan
Embassy.—No notice at first taken of his coming.—Visits
of Serristori.—Galileo’s hopefulness.—His Letter to
Bocchineri.—Niccolini’s audience of the Pope.—Efforts of the
Grand Duke and Niccolini on Galileo’s behalf.—Notice that
he must appear before the Holy Office.—His dejection at the
news.—Niccolini’s advice not to defend himself 191

CHAPTER VII.

THE TRIAL BEFORE THE INQUISITION.

The first hearing.—Galileo’s submissive attitude.—The events
of February, 1616.—Galileo denies knowledge of a special
Prohibition.—Produces Bellarmine’s certificate.—Either the
Prohibition was not issued, or Galileo’s ignorance was
feigned.—His conduct since 1616 agrees with its non-issue.—The
Inquisitor assumes that it was issued.—“Opinions” of Oregius,
Inchofer and Pasqualigus.—Galileo has Apartments in the Palace
of the Holy Office assigned to him.—Falls ill.—Letter to
Geri Bocchineri.—Change of tone at second hearing hitherto an
enigma.—Now explained by letter from Firenzuola to Cardinal Fr.
Barberini.—Galileo’s Confession.—His Weakness and Subserviency 201

CHAPTER VIII.

THE TRIAL CONTINUED.

Galileo allowed to return to the Embassy.—His
hopefulness.—Third hearing.—Hands in his Defence.—Agreement
of it with previous events.—Confident hopes of his
friends.—Niccolini’s fears.—Decision to examine Galileo under
threat of Torture.—Niccolini’s audience of the Pope.—Informed
that the Trial was over, that Galileo would soon be Sentenced,
and would be Imprisoned.—Final Examination.—Sent back to
“_locum suum_.”—No evidence that he suffered Torture, or was
placed in a prison cell 217

CHAPTER IX.

THE SENTENCE AND RECANTATION.

The Sentence in full.—Analysis of it.—The Copernican
System had not been pronounced heretical by “Infallible”
authority.—The special Prohibition assumed as fact.—The
Sentence illegal according to the Canon Law.—The Holy Office
exceeded its powers in calling upon Galileo to recant.—The
Sentence not unanimous.—This escaped notice for two hundred
and thirty-one Years.—The Recantation.—Futile attempts to
show that Galileo had really altered his opinion.—After the
Sentence, Imprisonment exchanged for Banishment to Trinita de’
Monti.—Petition for leave to go to Florence.—Allowed to go to
Siena 230

CHAPTER X.

CURRENT MYTHS.

Popular Story of Galileo’s Fate.—His Eyes put out.—“E pur si
Muove.”—The Hair Shirt.—Imprisonment.—Galileo only detained
twenty-two Days at the Holy Office.—Torture.—Refuted in 18th
Century.—Torture based on the words “_examen rigorosum_.”—This
shown to be untenable.—Assertion that the Acts have been
falsified refuted.—False Imputation on Niccolini.—Conclusive
Evidence against Torture.—Galileo not truly a “Martyr of
Science” 249

PART III.

_GALILEO’S LAST YEARS._

CHAPTER I.

GALILEO AT SIENA AND ARCETRI.

Arrival at Siena.—Request to the Grand Duke of Tuscany
to ask for his release.—Postponed on the advice of
Niccolini.—Endeavours at Rome to stifle the Copernican
System.—Sentence and Recantation sent to all the Inquisitors
of Italy.—Letter to the Inquisitor of Venice.—Mandate
against the publication of any new Work of Galileo’s,
or new Edition.—Curious Arguments in favour of the old
System.—Niccolini asks for Galileo’s release.—Refusal,
but permission given to go to Arcetri.—Anonymous
accusations.—Death of his Daughter.—Request for permission
to go to Florence.—Harsh refusal and threat.—Letter to
Diodati.—Again at work.—Intervention of the Count de Noailles
on Galileo’s behalf.—Prediction that he will be compared to
Socrates.—Letter to Peiresc.—Publication of Galileo’s Works in
Holland.—Continued efforts of Noailles.—Urban’s fair speeches 267