Chapter II: Part 2

(_c_) If a ball is unintentionally hit across the goal line by a defender or glances off her stick over the goal line, it is a corner. In a corner, the attackers line up around the outer edge of the striking circle--feet and sticks--behind the line, with one of their team hitting the ball to them from the corner of the field (on the side or back line not more than three yards away from the corner) on the side of the goal line where ball went out. The defenders must stand--feet and sticks--behind their goal line at least five yards away from the player taking the corner hit. The defenders may rush out as soon as the ball is hit. Before the attackers may hit the ball toward the goal, the ball must be stopped--not necessarily dead. The player taking the corner hit may not hit the ball again until touched by another. (Penalty, free hit for opposing side.) If an attacker shoots for goal before ball has been stopped, it is a free hit for opposite side. If the player taking the corner hit misses it entirely on the first stroke, she may hit it again.

(_d_) If a ball is deliberately hit over goal line by a defender, it is a penalty-corner. Both teams line up as in an ordinary corner. The hit is taken, however, from a point on the goal line at least ten yards from the nearest goal post and no opposing player may be nearer than five yards. Ball must be stopped before replayed by attacker teammate unless it has been touched by defender.

VI. RULES FOR UNDERCUTTING.

(_a_) The ball may not be so hit that it is lofted or raised intentionally above the shoulder.

(_b_) The ball may be “scooped” so that it may be raised moderately in air.

(_c_) Penalty for intentionally lofting is a free hit for opposing side.

VII. RULES FOR OFFSIDE.

(_a_) In the opponents’ territory, no player may receive a ball from one of her own team standing farther from the goal than she, the receiver, unless there are at least three of her opponents between her and the goal. Violation of this rule is called offside.

(_b_) A player is not penalized for offside if she does not touch the ball; if it was touched last by an opponent; if one of her own team nearer the opponents’ goal than she hits the ball; if she is in her own half of the territory.

(_c_) Penalty for offside is free hit for opposing side.

VIII. RUNNING IN ON THE LEFT.

No player shall run in on the left side of her opponent in order to gain possession of the ball so that any part of her person or stick touches any part of the person or the stick of the opponent. Penalty is free hit for opposing side.

IX. TURNING ON THE BALL.

No player having possession of the ball shall interpose her person between the ball and an opponent, nor shall she turn around the ball in order to obtain a more favorable position for her stroke. Penalty is free hit.

X. HANDLING.

The ball may be caught or stopped by the hands, but must be immediately dropped perpendicularly to the ground so that no advance is made nor direction changed. It may not be picked up, carried or thrown. There shall be no shoving, pushing, or holding. If the ball stopped by goal keeper rebounds from her hand it is not a foul. Penalty is free hit.

XI. KICKING.

_No player may kick the ball_ except the goal keeper within her own striking circle. The foot may be used to stop the ball, but must be withdrawn and not used to block opponent’s stroke at the ball. Penalty is a free hit.

XII. ROUGH PLAY.

There should be no charging (rushing or running into), shinning, tripping, personal handling, impeding progress, or hitting with stick. No player may obstruct, i. e., prevent opponent from reaching the ball or prevent opponent from attacking teammate. Penalty is free hit or disqualification if umpire decides the play is rough.

XIII. TIME-OUT.

Time-out may be called by the umpire at the request of either captain only in case of injury or accident to clothing or stick. Time-out should be called by umpire in case of loss of ball or dispute in regard to decision.

XIV. UMPIRE.

The umpire, or umpires, have control of the game, and are responsible for it. They must see that there is no rough play, and that the game is played according to rules. The umpires judge goals, roll-ins, bullies, corners. They also have the power to punish players for intentionally delaying the game. The ball is in play until umpire’s whistle blows.

Basket Ball

Basket ball needs no introduction. It is probably the most popular game played by girls. Through the work of the Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules, headed by Mrs. Senda Berenson Abbott, chairman, the playing rules and the conditions under which the game may best be played have been thoroughly studied and set forth in the Spalding Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, No. 7A.

The game may be played either outdoors or indoors, depending upon conditions. When the circumstances permit it is always desirable to play out of doors. The writer is a firm believer in outdoor exercise wherever and whenever possible, but there is a decided need for a wholesome, interesting game for indoors during the long winter months. Basket ball undoubtedly fills this need.

The game is played by two teams consisting of either five, six, seven, or nine players each. If the teams play with five on a side, there are two forwards, a center and two guards each; if with six on a side, there are two centers each; if with seven, three centers; if with nine, three forwards, three centers and three guards.

The court (floor or field) is divided into three equal parts. The lines dividing the court are parallel to the end lines. They are known as field lines. The reason the court is thus divided is to define the space in which the various players may operate. Thus each set of players can operate only on their third of the court, so that the line game makes a minimum physical demand upon the player. That is, the forwards of Team A and the guards of Team B may run only in the third of the floor before the former’s basket; the centers of both teams in the space in middle, and the guards of Team A and the forwards of Team B in the third of the floor before the latter’s basket.

The three general positions call for three different kinds of skill. The forwards should possess a good eye, should have the knack of handling the ball well and should have agility and speed. The center should have height, ability to get possession of the ball and the knack of feeding well, that is, passing the ball to her forwards. The center rarely shoots for the basket in the line game. The guards, as their name implies, must prevent the opposing forwards from shooting a goal, so must be quick, active and able to jump well.

The game begins with each team in position. The referee puts the ball in play by tossing it up between the centers, who jump and bat it (they must not catch it). When once in play the ball must be passed from one player to another--not handled, nor rolled, nor kicked. Nor may any player carry it, but she may bounce it once, taking not more than two steps during the bounce. Thus the game is essentially one of team play, which calls for fast, clever, clean co-operation in playing. The play continues until a score is made, or a player fouls, or the ball goes out of bounds. A score is made when a player shoots the ball into the basket from the field, which counts two points for the score of her team. A foul is made when a player of one side transgresses a rule of the game--running with the ball, holding the ball more than three seconds, touching over the line with some part of person, guarding too closely, etc. When a player fouls, a free throw from a mark fifteen feet from and directly in front of the basket is allowed to a forward of the opposing side. When the ball passes through the basket, rim and net, one point is added to the score of the team.

When the ball goes over the boundary lines, the game is stopped and the ball is given to the nearest opponent of the girl who touched it last. She then passes the ball to one of her teammates, thus starting play again.

The winning of the game is determined by the scoring of the most points (both field goals and free throws) in a given time--usually fifteen-minute halves with a ten-minute intermission. Baskets are exchanged at the end of the first half.

From my own experience and observation I find the average player is weak in passing. One of the faults is inaccuracy. Every pass should count; but if the pass is wild, thrown _at_ a teammate rather than _to_ one, much strength and time is wasted. Throw directly to an unguarded player, or if she signals to send the pass to a certain spot, send the pass there. Think carefully what results come from a careless, inaccurate pass. It may end in fumbling, or the ball out of bounds, or the ball obtained by opponent, waste of time, delaying the game.

The passing is apt to be slow. Get the ball out of your hands as quickly as possible. To do this, every player must know the relative positions of all her teammates. She must decide the moment the ball touches her hands to whom she is going to pass, then pass quickly and carefully. By quickly I do not mean hurriedly; I mean the player should not hold the ball an undue length of time deciding what to do with it.

Many players have but one way of throwing the ball, always using the same pass. Vary your passing according to the need. If a high ball with a drop to it can be used, use it when your teammate is in a good position to receive. But do not use this style of pass exclusively. Try a short, swift pass. If when you are guarded for one pass, quickly change to another, such as, from an overhead pass--both arms holding ball high over head--to a low side pass--the arm held out toward the side, the palm of hand around the ball, which rests on the flexed hand and wrist. It takes a great deal of practice and team work to make the passing perfect, but remember always be wide awake and alert, ready to receive the ball.

Needless to say, the team work is the main factor. It is the way the team plays, not the way one player stars, that counts.

Each of the different players has a different duty to perform. The forwards have to shoot both field and foul goals. In shooting baskets, it is of prime importance to have some chosen point on basket or back board to aim at. Of course, there are many forwards who shoot at random; goals are made, but many more are missed. Once this spot for the aim is made definite--through much practice--the aim becomes surer.

Many a game has been lost through the inability to shoot foul goals. The feet should toe the 15-foot line, slightly apart, fixed firmly on the ground. The ball is held in both hands, palms flat on opposite sides of the ball; the lace is turned toward the basket. The knees are bent; the ball is carried forward and down, arms straight. Simultaneously the knees are straightened, the arms are carried forward and up, the ball leaves the hands. Just as the ball leaves the hands an “English” is put on it. That is, the ball is twirled as it leaves the hands. The advantage of the “English” lies in the fact that it serves to make the ball shoot through the basket instead of bounding out, as is often the case when it is tossed up a little off the true and without the spin.

Good passing is necessary for the forwards. The forward should remember never to shoot unless she is in a favorable position; one forward should always stick close to the basket. Always try to keep free; pass to your opponent whenever possible; never keep the ball selfishly in order to gain a shot for yourself.

The center should realize the importance of this position. Naturally the forwards cannot score goals unless the ball is sent to them. Thus, the center should be alert and quick, free to receive the pass from the guards and quick to send a good pass to her forwards, who should be dodging their guards, trying to get in a favorable position. Often the center can well make use of the bounce and step to get away from the opposing center.

The guard has to remember that every time the forward gets the ball, if she is good, she has a chance to get it in the basket. Thus, it should be the main object of the guard to get the ball away from her end of the field. Every guard should try to get the ball and send it out of dangerous territory. Then she should stick closely to her forward, guarding her as closely as the rules allow.

One fault of the guards is over-guarding. This is generally done through over-anxiety. The guards should watch carefully so as not to foul.

Jumper or middy blouse, bloomers and rubber-soled shoes make up the accepted costume.

Above all, the element of good sportsmanship and fair play should enter into every game, no matter how strenuous the playing, and the slogan of the whole team should be, “Put the ball in the basket.”

BASKET BALL GAMES OR TOURNAMENT.

An umpire who is competent and fair should have entire jurisdiction over the game. The game should be conducted in an orderly fashion, according to the rules.

For a series or tournament, a set number of games should be played, such as two out of three; the winner is then the champion. If more than two teams play, the winners should play the winners, etc. Let me impress the importance of set rules agreed to and known thoroughly by every player; this saves much dispute and sometimes bitter feeling.

Leagues of basket ball teams, such as are to be found in some cities, etc., organized for the purpose of clean sport and good fellowship, have been extremely successful. Each team may play a set number of games with every other team, the winner of the most games being the champion of the league.

Gymnastics

Gymnastics, or work in a gymnasium, indoors or out, is recognized the world over for its utility. The term gymnastics usually applies to a group or class drilled by an instructor or coach. Gymnastic exercises may be, however, adapted to fit an individual, prescribed for her by a competent authority (which may be herself).

The very great and growing popularity of gymnastic exercise is due to several facts. First of all, there is a general awakening to the need for organized exercise at most schools and colleges and within the ranks of many social organizations. Aside from walking, gymnastic exercises, as they have been developed by the Swedes and the Germans, are possibly the most obvious form of beneficial physical exercise. Then this form of physical training has the very decided advantage of being susceptible to the widest kind of application. It may be graded so as to be beneficial to various groups of individuals of varying physical development. It may be given in the most scientific quantities--more so than any other form of exercise save walking. It may be used as a drilling force to instill discipline--against fire, for instance--in great groups of persons, for ability and sufficient knowledge in handling one’s body quickly and efficiently in a crowd under abnormal conditions is quite an important and necessary accomplishment. In fact, everyone, no matter at what age, could do well by her or his body to indulge in some form of calisthenics or gymnastic exercise.

There are two main divisions of gymnastics--floor work and apparatus work.

The floor work consists mainly of tactics, calisthenics, drills with hand apparatus, such as wands, dumb bells, Indian clubs, etc., dancing and posturing exercises.

The tactics consist mainly of marching by ones, twos, threes, fours, etc., of flank marching, and of circle marching. Form in this counts for a great deal together with quick execution of commands and memory of the proper method by which the figure is to be executed. Perfect form in marching consists of the head erect, the eyes straight ahead, the shoulders back, the arms down straight at the sides, the palms of the hands turned toward the body, the fingers close together; the toes should be pointed and reach for the floor, so that the muscles of the leg and the thigh can feel the effort made. Also the marchers should observe carefully the space between each one and the straightness or regularity of the line. Watch the person ahead of you and beside you. This keeps the marching from being ragged.

In the calisthenics and drills--Indian clubs excepted--the most used exercises are: the arm stretching or raising upward, downward, sideward, forward; the bending of the head, trunk, arms, or legs; the bending of the knees; the stretching of the legs; the lunges sideward and forward; the raising and sinking on the toes. These are the fundamental exercises and may be combined to form the different drills. To attain perfect form in these, it is best to watch a competent gymnast; after so doing it is possible, by careful imitation, to attain good form yourself. These exercises may easily be practised in any sufficient space, in front of a mirror when possible. It is well to remember that form and grace are very important factors. Always keep in mind that the lines of the body should be kept symmetrical; that a lot of snap in executing the exercises is a help.

The Indian club drills consist of full arm swings, circles, dips, etc. These can best be taught by a teacher. Form is the all-important factor here also.

Dancing is divided into three separate groups: æsthetic, social, and folk dancing. The æsthetic develops the natural grace of the body; social dancing does this, too, but not to such a great extent. There are many girls who feel ungainly and unnatural in the æsthetic and social dances. For these are the folk dances. These dances are a natural expression of joy and good humor. The girl who is most unsuited to other types of dancing may enjoy and ultimately become very efficient in folk dancing.

Posturing may be added here. This is practising and attaining the correct poise and positions of the body.

Apparatus work consists of exercises on the following: stall bar, horizontal bar, parallel bar, trapeze, swinging rings, traveling rings, ropes, rope ladder, horizontal ladder, side horse, buck, etc.

The secret of success in apparatus work lies in the knowledge of muscular control and of the balance of the body. By muscular control, I mean the power to exert the proper amount of strength at the exact moment; by balance, I mean adapting the weight of the body to the strength. Apparatus work should be undertaken carefully--if possible, under the supervision of an instructor; mats should always be placed to break any fall. Too continued exercises tire even the best gymnast; sometimes the girl does not realize she is tired. Between exercises give yourself plenty of rest and relax your muscles.

As the subject is so extensive and so varied I can only mention a few exercises. The most popular pieces of apparatus seem to be the side horse, the parallel bars, and the swinging rings.

_The Side Horse._--The most elementary exercises on the horse are the rests. The girl grasps the pommels of the horse and jumps to a straight-arm position; the body is straight, weight on the arms. Or she may jump to a kneeling position between the pommels; or she may jump to her toes. There are different ways of ending these exercises, either jumping back to the first position or jumping to the other side of horse. Another exercise is to run, grasp the pommels with both hands, arms straight, draw the legs up and shoot them between the pommels, landing on opposite side of the horse. The landing may be straight or by retaining a grip with one hand on the pommel, you can turn either to the left or the right, according to the hand on pommel.

Next comes the vaults. In vaulting you must remember always to jump from both feet from the center of the springboard. The best form in vaulting is gotten by keeping the arms as straight as possible; the body should be straight with toes pointing and together, the legs thrown high in the air. The different kinds of vaults which may be taken on either side are: The front vault; the face and front of the body are turned above the top of the horse, the landing is made facing the side. The flank or side vault; the side of the body is above the horse, the landing is made between the pommels with the back toward the horse. The back vault; the back of body is over the horse, the landing is the same as the side vault. The wolf vault; for the right side, the left leg passes through pommels, the right leg passes over the right pommel; as the right leg passes over the pommel, the right hand is taken away so that leg may pass; the hold is kept by the left hand. Same for left side, except leg and hand used are the left instead of the right.

Besides the vaults there are cuts, circles, dives, and inversions, which may be acquired by practice.

_Parallel Bars._--As on the horse, the most elementary are the rest positions. Jumps to straight arm position at sides or ends accompanied by lifting of arms and legs, etc. It is important that every gymnast know how to swing and vault well on the bars. For the swing, the hands grasp the bars directly opposite each other. You then jump to a straight-arm position. To start to swing, the heels are drawn back, the legs brought forward and upward with free movement from the hips. The head should be held up, trunk kept erect, legs straight, toes pointed and together. For the front vault, the front of body faces the bar; for the back vault, the back of the body is over the bar.

On both the horse and the parallel bars are a multitude of cuts and circles combined with each other and with vaults.

_Flying Rings._--The proper way to swing on the rings is to have the rings at such a height so that the arms are straight and the feet touch the ground comfortably. Then step backward, grasping the rings, one in each hand, until the tips of the toes just touch the ground; run forward, swing the legs forward and upward from the hips. As the body swings backward, touch the floor with both feet as if stepping; do the same on the forward swing. The legs in swinging should be kept straight both forward and backward, toes together. Another popular exercise on the rings is the inversion, that is, hanging head down, feet in air, the body straight.

There are many exercises on these three pieces of apparatus together with those on the other apparatus, for which there is not room in this book.

GYMNASTIC MEET OR EXHIBITION.

An interesting event at many gymnasiums is a meet or exhibition--in case of school, college, or club, generally the results of the year’s work. If these events are competitive or non-competitive, it is, for the most part, the most carefully practised work by the most proficient girls.

If these events are judged, the judges, as a rule, have a certain mark, such as 10, for each event. If the performance of the event is perfect, then the number won for that event is 10; if nearly perfect, then 9 is given, etc. The judges consider entrance; general appearance, such as neatness, regularity of order, etc.; manner of executing the exercise, such as form, position, memory, rhythm, etc.; the finish or exit. All of these factors are taken into account by the judges in scoring.

Whether for individual or group prizes, it is advisable to have competent judges who have a decided system of marking. Usually there are three judges, each marking the score independently of the others. Comparisons are made at the end of each event. The scores of all judges for each performer are added together and divided by three (or as many times as there are judges) and the result is the score for the performer.

Track Athletics

Everybody knows that a certain amount of exercise is beneficial to all persons physically able to indulge. But there are still many protests against more active competitive exercise. In particular, track and field athletics for girls and women have been criticised. Of course, it is only reasonable to admit that for a girl physically unfit, over-indulgence in track work is a mistake. But in these days when the majority of schools and colleges have competent teachers for their athletic work, and when the girls are allowed to participate in events only after a thorough medical examination, the danger from track work seems to be rapidly diminishing.

Tennis, basket ball and battle ball were the first competitive sports to be widely participated in by the colleges. Miss Harriet Ballintine, Director of Physical Culture at Vassar College, thus tells of the beginning of track and field sports for women in her book, “The History of Physical Training at Vassar College”: “Following basket and battle ball a demand was made for other out-of-door activities. The students became interested in hurdling, running and jumping, etc. They organized an athletic association and in November, 1895, the first field day was held. This was the beginning of track and field sports for women. Before this time there was no record of girls taking part in such competitive events. In 1896 at the Harvard Summer School a course in athletic training was opened to women. This first class was composed principally of teachers from schools and colleges whose students had asked for instruction in athletics. After Vassar’s first field day many schools and colleges became interested in such contests. Previous to 1896 a course in athletics had been offered to women at the Chautauqua Summer School, but as there was no demand for it, the Harvard Summer School was, therefore, the first school to give systematic instruction to girls in track and field sports. This first class in athletics for women was in charge of Mr. James Lathrop, for many years athletic trainer at Harvard and instructor in the Theory and Practice of Athletics at the Summer School. He ordered for Miss Eva G. May, then an instructor in the gymnasium at Vassar, the first pair of spiked running shoes ever made for a woman. The Vassar College Athletic Association provided these running shoes for every student who entered field day.”

One of the main difficulties in track work at the present time is that there is no set standard for coaches and participants to use. A very creditable attempt has been made by Dr. Harry E. Stewart, Physical Director of the New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, to collect the records made by girls and women. (See Spalding’s Athletic Almanac, published annually.) However, it is not the exceptional girl who is of the record-breaking ability that should be considered entirely. Track work should be first regarded from the point of view of exercise. The equipment for track work should be supervised carefully. The clothing worn should be the lightest and the least harmful to the limbs. Light shirt waist or middy blouse, bloomers, spiked or rubber-soled shoes should be adopted. The track itself should be level and smooth, the jumping pits soft so that there is no jar, and the throwing events should have plenty of room.

TRACK.

The track, if possible, should be a straight 100 yards. If the work is done inside it is necessary to work on the circular track or on the floor of the gymnasium. A cinder track is the most desirable if it can be procured. First the earth is dug up, then mixed with coarse ashes; the earth and coarse ashes are then packed down; fine ashes are mixed on the top layer. The whole track is then wet thoroughly and rolled until level and smooth. The track is generally divided into lanes, three feet six inches in width, and is made wide enough to have four lanes.

DISTANCES.

There are a variety of distances from 25 yards to the 100 on the straight track, and the 220 and the 440 on the circular track. A few coaches still believe that the long sprints--220 and 440--are not injurious, while others contend that the half-mile is not so harmful. However, the 50, 75, and 100-yard dashes seem to be most common at different schools and colleges. According to the records collected by Mr. Stewart, 12 seconds is the best time for the 100-yard; 8-3/5 seconds for the 75-yard; 6 seconds for the 50-yard. The other dashes noted by him are the 25-yard, 3-4/5 seconds; 30-yard, 4-3/5 seconds; 40-yard, 5-1/5 seconds; 60-yard, 8 seconds; 80-yard, 11 seconds. Also the 220-yard, 30-3/5 seconds, and 440 yard, 1 minute and 16 seconds. There is also a short relay, 300 yards, four girls, each running 75 yards. This race is very popular at the colleges.

HURDLES.

As in the running races so in the hurdles there is a wide difference of opinion as to length and as to height of hurdles and number of hurdles. The 100-yard hurdle race seems very popular, 8 hurdles, varying from 1-1/2, 2 or 2-1/2 feet in height. There is also the 120-yard, 10 hurdles, 14 inches high; 90-yard, 7 hurdles, 1-1/2 and 2-1/2 feet in height; 80-yard, 6 hurdles, 2-1/2 feet; 65-yard, 6 hurdles, 2-1/2 feet; 60-yard, 4 hurdles, 2-1/2 feet; 60-yard, 3 hurdles, 2-1/2 feet; 50-yard, 4 hurdles, 2 feet; 40-yard, 5 hurdles, 2 feet; 40-yard, 4 hurdles, 1-1/2 feet. There is a great variety of choice.

The hurdles should be arranged: First hurdle, 15 yards from start and each hurdle 10 yards apart, allowing 15 yards between last hurdle and finish line.

In a pamphlet reprinted from the American Physical Education Review, January, 1916, “A Survey of Track Athletics for Women,” Mr. Stewart has made the following selection in order to standardize track events.

_Junior Events:_ 50-yard dash
75-yard dash
60-yard, four 2-foot hurdles
Standing broad jump
Running broad jump
Running hop, step and jump
Base ball throw
Basket ball throw
_Senior Events:_ 50-yard dash
100-yard dash
100-yard, eight 2-1/2-foot hurdles
Standing broad jump
Running broad jump
Running high jump
Running hop, step and jump
8-pound shot-put
Base ball throw
Basket ball throw

Mr. Stewart also says: “Only the exceptional girl should pole vault, run the 220-yard race, or put the 12-pound shot. Hurl ball (Sargent), discus (free style), javelin throw, standing high jump, and many other events are good, but the above groups seem sufficient and best adapted to competitive work.”

JUMPING.

While all jumping may be done in one pit, where the space is available it is better to have one pit for the high jumps, one for the running broad, one for hop, step and jump, another for the pole vault.

The pits should be soft. All pits are made the same way but differ in size. The earth should be dug up to a depth of at least a foot and a half. If ground is hard, pits should be deeper. This soft dug-up earth should be equally mixed with sand or sawdust or both. Pits should be kept well raked up and not allowed to become packed.

For the high jump the pit should be wide, at least eight feet in width and six or seven feet long. For high jumping, two adjustable standards and a bamboo or thin cross-bar are required. These standards are placed six feet apart, directly opposite each other in a straight line. The standards are perforated by little round holes into which the pegs (not more than 3 inches long) are inserted to hold the cross-bar. There should be a runway or approach of at least twenty yards. There is _no take-off_.

For the running broad jump there is a runway--cinder track, if possible--20 to 30 yards in length, 3 feet in width. A take-off is sunk, marking division between runway and pit. This is a planed joist, 5 inches wide, sunk into ground so that top is on a level with runway, and painted white. The pit should be at least 25 feet long and about 6 feet wide. This may also be used for standing broad. The pit for the hop, step and jump is constructed in the same way.

For the pole vault the uprights should be 10 feet apart, placed opposite each other. There is a runway--cinder track, if possible--about 20 or 25 yards long, 10 feet wide. Between the two uprights a plank 16 inches deep should be sunk, 2 inches of which should be above ground level. In front of plank, in center, a hole 5 or 6 inches deep should be dug.

PUTTING THE SHOT.

The contestant stands in a 7-foot circle and the put or throw must be made from within the circle. It is a foul for either foot to touch the ground outside until the shot has landed. A toe board raised 4 or 5 inches above the ground and sunk firmly into the earth should form about one-quarter of the circle. Spalding’s official 8 and 12-pound shots are used.

SPRINTING.

From my own observation, I have seen few girls that really know how to run. One great trouble is that the instinct is to run as speedily as possible from the minute you get on the track. First of all you should learn to run well in good form. I shall try to give a few hints to the runner which may be helpful.

_Head._--The head should be up, the eyes looking straight ahead and firmly fixed on the finish line.

_Shoulders._--The shoulders should be kept straight up and back, not allowed to wiggle from side to side.

_Body._--The whole trunk from waistline up, however, should be bent slightly forward.

_Arms_.--The arms should be held loosely in a bent position, the forearm at right angles with the upper arm. The movement of the arms should be controlled; they should be allowed to swing forward and backward in accordance with the motion of the rest of the body. Many runners do not control the swinging of the arms, letting them flap sideward, downward, thus wasting energy. Some runners use cork grips for the hands; personally, I prefer to run with my hands clenched into a fist.

_Legs._--Many runners make the mistake in thinking the longer your stride, the better your form and the faster you run. If you have a long stride it is often apt to be very helpful, but the runner should not try to take an abnormally long stride. By that I mean take only as long a stride as you can manage without strain, or without appearing to be running in leaps and bounds. Neither should the knees be dashed high in front.

_Feet._--A great deal in running depends upon the way the feet are placed. The toe of the foot should reach out for the ground; the toe should be pointed straight ahead and each foot should be put down on the ground directly in front of its former position. The runner should take care not to run heavily, and she should, whether in practice or competition, always stride well up on her toes.

In running you should always think of yourself as a unit, running with the smoothest possible action. Some runners are not units, but arms, legs, body and knees, all wobbling in different ways, giving the general appearance of falling apart. Yet you must not go too far the other way, that is, don’t run tensely. Be limber but not loose. Try to get all the spring and lightness possible. To do this get the balance over the feet; don’t run with balance too far forward or too far back.

_The Start._--The crouch start is conceded to be the best. This should be practised until the runner learns to get away at the word “go,” to get the proper push with the rear leg, and to rise to an upright position gradually. There are three counts for the crouching start: “Get ready.” The fingers are placed just behind starting line; the arms should be carried straight down from the shoulders, thus making the hands shoulder width apart; the runners then kneel on one knee, either right or left, according to preference; the toe of the forward foot should be as close to starting line as is comfortable for runner; the knee of rear leg should be on a line with front leg, close up to it, with lower part of leg (that is, below the knee) reaching back as far as possible in a straight line from the knee. A hole should be dug for the toe of each foot. “Get set.” The rear knee is raised, the whole body tense ready for the spring; the weight is thrown over the front knee so that the toe of front foot feels the weight and can get a good push over; the head is up; the whole strength of the body seems concentrated in the muscles used in springing forward. “Go” (or the pistol shot). The sprinter springs forward with all the force possible from the front foot. But she should not assume an upright position at once, but gradually, after three or four strides have been taken. In other starts you stand upright with one leg back, other leg front. Front leg is slightly bent, weight of body is over front leg.

HURDLING.

In hurdling, the crouching start is very important. All the form of sprinting should be considered and also there should be perfect form over the hurdles. A girl may be a fast runner, but if she cannot take the hurdles well and quickly she will be defeated by a slower girl who can. Many hurdlers twist toward the side, or, in landing, land too far to one side of hurdle. First the approach from the start to the first hurdle should be carefully measured by strides. The runner should always take just this number of strides. The strides between each hurdle should be counted also. Then a mark should be made in front of each hurdle, from which point the hurdler should always rise to the hurdles. The long low stride is the best over the hurdles. There are two forms of hurdling, that of the leg bent sideways, usually recommended for girls, and the “straight-leg.” For the first, the front leg--leg first over the hurdle in the stride--is bent across the other leg; the arms are stretched out toward the side; the rear leg is trailed over the hurdle; the front foot reaches the ground first, the hurdler landing squarely on the ball of the foot, the toe pointed straight ahead. Personally, I prefer the “straight-leg” hurdle to the “side-leg” style. In the latter the rise over the hurdle is greater, the upright position of the trunk meets more resistance from the air, the landing is made with more of a jar. In the “straight-leg” the stride over hurdle is long and as low as possible; the body is bent as far over the front leg as possible; the front leg shoots over the hurdle straight, for as great a distance as possible, the arm (on same side of body) is forward when leg is; the rear leg is trailed, extending slightly to the side from the thigh to the toe; the weight of body is as far forward as possible, thus enabling a longer stride; the front foot should land on ground, on the ball, toe pointed forward; the rear foot should be ready to shoot out for next stride. My advice is for hurdlers to practice until they are sure of themselves before running in a race. They must not hesitate before hurdles, thus forced to jump off both feet. The rise should be with the least possible effort; the landing should be light, the runner immediately resuming the stride. Never be afraid of a hurdle. Practice until you are perfect and sure of yourself, and sure of the hurdle. Confidence makes you successful.

RUNNING BROAD JUMP.

There are two important parts to the running broad jump--the run and the jump. The run should not be so long as to tire the jumper. The first few strides are slow, then at a mark placed by the jumper the speed increases until the take-off is reached. The momentum gathered in this run aids in the jump greatly, thus it is important that a mark be made the proper number of strides away from the take-off. The foot which takes the jump from the take-off should always be the same one, therefore the strides before the take-off should be carefully observed.

A spring is made when the foot lands on the take-off. It is a foul to step over the take-off. After the jumper has given the best leap possible from the ball of the foot on the take-off, she tries to augment this leap by drawing her legs up under her, throwing her arms up and forward. When nearing ground the feet should shoot forward, the whole body thrown so that the balance is forward. This insures a better landing. The jump should be high. Many coaches teach the girls to jump over a bar, thus forming a habit of getting height. It is always well to fix your eye on a point about four feet high and beyond the distance you can jump. Fix your eye on this at the beginning of the run and keep it there until a landing is made.

STANDING BROAD JUMP.

The jumper stands with both feet on the take-off, toes overlapping the outer edge to get a grip. Many jumpers like to rock back and forth on the toes, knees slightly bent; the arms also are swung gently backward and forward. When the jumper is ready to spring, the arms should be held above the head and brought back with a snap as the spring is made, with the knees bent forward and all the strength concentrated for the jump. As in the running broad, the jump should be high, thus the eyes should be fixed on a spot high and beyond the distance you expect to jump. While in the air, shoot the arms, legs and body as far forward as possible in order to gain distance.

RUNNING HOP, STEP AND JUMP.

The run is the same as in the running broad jump, except at the end instead of jumping you first take a hop, immediately followed by a step and then a jump. The hop ends on the same foot which landed on the take-off; then the step, the opposite foot landing on the ground; then the jump is taken from the foot then on the ground. The greatest effort should be in the jump; the other two should not take such a lot of effort that the speed is slowed up.

RUNNING HIGH JUMP.

As in the running broad jump, the girl should have a mark by which she can tell the point where her speed should be increased. The same foot should always be brought to the same position for jumping; thus, the number of strides should be carefully taken from the mark to the bar every time. Some jumpers approach from the left, some from the right. The spring is taken from the ball of the foot nearest to the bar at a distance determined by practice, usually three to four feet. The nearer leg is thrown over the bar. As the nearer leg is thrown high, the far leg with a strong push leaves the ground; thus, as the near leg is coming down the far leg is going up and over the bar. It is often advisable to throw the body away from the bar.

It is bad form to touch or knock the cross-bar.

STANDING HIGH JUMP.

The form of the standing high is the same, except that the jumper stands about a foot away from the bar, side turned toward it. As in the broad jump, she may gather speed by swinging the arms and rocking on the toes until strength is summoned for the spring. The feet must not leave the ground until the spring is made.

POLE VAULT.

As in the jumps, the pole vaulter must determine her run to the point where the foot makes the spring. She should run slowly until the point for the faster run is marked, then she should gather speed and come to the spot from which spring is taken. The spring should always be taken from the same foot, and the run should always start with this foot.

The pole should be grasped with both hands, the palm of the lower hand facing inward and the top hand outward. The vaulter should grasp the pole at the height of the cross-bar, which she measures on pole at each increase of height and at each trial.

During the run the pole is held across the body, with the hands gripping the pole at proper spot; then the pole is placed in the hole in front of cross-bar and a spring is taken from the foot; the arm underneath should be straight, the one above bent; as the pole swings to a vertical position the body swings up, and if the vaulter is strong enough in the arms she should slide the lower hand up to the top one; an extra push is given to propel the body over the bar as the pole is released. While crossing the bar the body should be arched; in falling, the face should be downward. The landing should be easy and light.

SHOT PUT.

The competitor must stay within the circle and must not step over the toe board. If the shot is held in the right hand, the left side of the body is turned in the direction shot is going; the weight is on the right foot, the left foot and left arm are raised to help the balance of the body; the shot is carried in right hand, which is held up slightly above the shoulder, elbow of right arm bent and well back, and held as close as possible to the ribs. A quick hop forward is taken, the same position is retained; then the body is turned, the weight transferred to the left leg, and as this is done the shot is thrust forward, with the weight and entire strength of body behind the throw; the right foot comes forward to preserve the balance; the toe should be against the springboard.

It is important to learn the correct form in shot putting, thus it is advisable to practice with a light weight.

BASKET BALL THROW.

This throw is similar to the shot put in form, the ball being held high over the body. It is a foul to step outside the circle, 6 feet in diameter. The ball also may be thrown from the flexed wrist position, that is, the ball rests in palm of hand and on the bent wrist. In both the throws the ball is thrown after a spring on the right foot is taken. It is better to throw the ball high.

BASE BALL THROW.

As in the basket ball throw, the base ball throw should have height. The throw must be an overhand throw and the competitor must not step out of the circle. The ball is grasped by some people by the first two fingers and the thumb, the other two fingers are bent into the palm.

HURL BALL THROW.

The regulation hurl ball has a short strap on it. This strap is grasped in one hand; the side of body is turned in direction the ball is going; the ball is carried high overhead and then down, describing a circle; a hop forward is taken, the ball released as it is starting up--this then insures height.

JAVELIN THROW.

The javelin is grasped by one hand or by both hands. The center of balance is found on the javelin; here it is gripped by the hand, the first and second fingers and thumb holding it; the hand should be over the shoulder; a short run should be taken; then, with right foot back and all the weight on it, the javelin is carried back; then the arm, shoulder, and body come quickly forward, the hand releases the javelin and the weight is on the left (forward) foot. The competitor may not cross the board or the mark.

DISCUS THROW.

The discus is thrown in two ways:

1. Free Style.--The discus is held in the palm of the right hand, the edge resting between the first and second joints of the fingers. The flight is guided by means of the index finger. The right hand is swung down and across the body; the right foot is at the rear of circle, the left a little forward; when the right hand has been swung back to the maximum reach of the arm, the thrower should pivot on the left heel, then she should crouch, straighten body and throw the discus, making a spring so that the feet are changed; thus, right foot is back, left forward.

2. Greek Style.--This is generally from a block or pedestal; the competitor, right leg forward, holds the discus in both hands overhead, then the discus is shifted to the right hand, which is brought down and back as far as possible. The knees are bent. Now the knees are straightened, a jump forward is taken and discus is hurled in the air.

* * * * *

The main difficulty with track athletics is that they are overdone, that is, a girl does not consider her strength. In training a horse, the trainer does not urge it to tear over the course two or three times at full speed. This is just the way some girls think they are improving their running or jumping, getting to the top form sometimes two or three times a day.

It is advisable to practice for form slowly at first, then increase your effort. In this way then your maximum effort can be made when you are perfect in form and condition; not too jaded by overwork to do your best or so used to hurried efforts that your form is neglected.

One of the great troubles with girls in athletics is that they pitch in too strenuously, with too much enthusiasm. This exuberance should be carefully diverted into the proper channels by the coach. Confine yourself to a few events, all of which you can do well. It is a useless waste of energy to spend your strength in events for which you are too tired to perfect your form. Not only do you owe to your coach and your school or college the responsibility for your good health, but to yourself. Therefore never over-exert in track work.

A coach plays a very great part in track athletics and should watch closely over the girls. If any of them seem tired or stale, let them rest for three or four days. Don’t, in your desire and enthusiasm, forget that more harm may be done through overwork and too strict training than in more obvious ways.

How to Conduct a Track Meet

THE COMPETITORS.

Every athlete should be entered in the meet a sufficient time before in order that the places, events and handicaps may be arranged. Handicaps may be granted if a mediocre runner is running with one of stellar ability. Every athlete should have a number.

THE OFFICIALS.

_Referee._--The referee has entire charge of the meet and is responsible for the good conduct of the meet. All fouls are dealt with by her. She may disqualify an offender and give the runner fouled another trial, or allow a new race to be run.

_The Clerk of the Course._--This position deals mainly with the executive part of the meet. The clerk of the course sees that the events are run in order and on scheduled time. She sees that the contestants are called on time for their events. She also assigns the contestants to their places--1st, 2nd, 3rd lane, etc.--for the races.