Chapter III: Preface: v (2)

6. Furnishing important conceptions to the study of the _processes_ of adaptation and the struggle for existence.

7. Furnishing important general principles of great value in applied ecology.

8. Furnishing one of the best methods of learning how to get acquainted with the _living aspect_ of the animals of any region.

III. FIELD STUDY

“Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean and the mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity? Was not the greatest scientific generalization of your times reached independently by two men who were eminent in their familiarity with living things in their homes?”--BROOKS, 1899, p. 41.

In taking up field work, or any other kind of complex study, a definite working plan is of much value. For this reason this subject deserves more than a mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping in mind the general aim of the study, and particularly the lesser aims which develop with the analysis of the subject. It further aids in the proper orientation and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in from all directions.

For many students it is a good plan to make out a general outline of any proposed study as soon as possible after the work has been started. In the beginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids in the perception of these relationships and becomes an important guide. Such an outline will need several revisions, but these changes will come with a broadening and deepening grasp of the subject. Perhaps the greatest value of such a plan is that it facilitates the conscious effort to seek a definite goal by maintaining a standard of measurement.

In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan others are useful. Particularly is this true when several lines of work are being done simultaneously or when the work must be interrupted frequently. Under such circumstances even a daily program may aid in utilizing many of the fragments of time which are so easily lost. In this way incomplete observations, verifications, and similar small items which are time-consuming may be made. These plans apply with particular force to field study when several lines of observation are being driven abreast. I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on note slips which will recall items needing further attention, at certain places in the field or on certain subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are suddenly changed and another locality is visited, the proper note slips indicating the points for special study at such a place are quickly secured, and one can hasten to the field prepared for the work of the day. Of course, similar plans are applicable to many kinds of work.

To learn how to study in the field, and not simply to collect, is one of the most important habits which a field naturalist and the ecologist has to acquire. This is one which he must, to a large degree, master alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is usually the case in the laboratory study. It is also a subject about which it is difficult to give useful suggestions, other than those of the most general nature. Directions for collecting are, on the other hand, simpler and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals filled with practical suggestions.

Field study is not confined to observations alone, but to the securing of all kinds of evidence from the field which will aid in the interpretation of the field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy with the animals can only be acquired through repeated and prolonged excursions in the field. This may mean excursions at any hour of the day or night. Part of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive study of some limited area or association, and by thus establishing a unit for comparison so that the differences in other places are more readily perceived and described.

Before selecting a limited area for study one should make a general examination of a much larger tract, so that one may be sure that the area selected is a fair sample and worthy of the special study. There are also many advantages in selecting areas little modified by man. Such modified areas may, to better advantage, be considered later; just as pathology should be studied after one is grounded in normal histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approximation, is the best foundation upon which to build, and here we have the educational argument for natural preserves for animals and their superiority over highly modified “parks” for the same purpose.

Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged visits, careful observation, and description of the place and animals will enable one to acquire the desired familiarity. For the study of the behavior of the animals concerned many observations can be made by remaining quiet, carefully concealed, and recording all observations. This method is particularly applicable to animals which live in exposed places, such as many insects, birds, and mammals. For other kinds, only indirect methods of observation are possible, or only when under controlled conditions. For the indirect methods of observation many forms of traps have been devised, traps not intended merely to receive the dead animal, but those also which will secure the animal and reveal something of its behavior. For the study of the habits and behavior of such animals as live in the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive collecting and examination of the animals in vivaria will also be necessary.

Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and fishes we have excellent guides for the technique of study and photographing of individual and associated kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It is very desirable that these methods be applied to the interrelations among the animals of an association. The student of behavior in nature has much to learn from many excellent studies of animal behavior which have been carried on in recent years by laboratory students. Fortunately the line between these two methods of study is breaking down to the mutual advantage of each. The border line between these two methods will give excellent returns to any student well prepared in each line of work.

Another essential for good field work is a clear understanding of what ecological studies attempt to do. This implies some general conception of what is worth while ecologically; it assumes a point of view or other criterion which may be applied to test the trueness of one’s aim. The ecologist will meet with much more than ecological facts, but it is to these that he should give primary attention. These accessory facts, no matter how interesting in themselves, should not divert him from the main course. The ecologist must select from this mass of experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions which help in the _interpretation_ of the responses of animals to their complete environment. It is thus evident why the ecologist must have a clearly defined aim, with criteria for estimating values, or he will be at the risk of dissipating his energies. This phase of our problem as applied to the studies of a geologist, but applying with equal force to the ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van Hise (1904, pp. 611-612) as follows: “I have heard a man say: ‘I observe the facts as I find them, unprejudiced by any theory.’ I regard this statement as not only condemning the work of the man, but the position is an impossible one. No man has ever stated more than a small part of the facts with reference to any area. The geologist must select the facts which he regards of sufficient note to record and describe. But such selection implies theories of their importance and significance. In a given case the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts for record, with a broad and deep comprehension of the principles involved, a definite understanding of the rules of the game, an appreciation of what is probable and what is not probable; or else making mere random observations. All agree that the latter alternative is worse than useless, and therefore the only training which can make a geologist safe, even in his observations, is to equip him with such a knowledge of the principles concerned as will make his observations of value.”

Early in field work one should learn that the collection of specimens is not the primary aim of excursions, that specimens are only _one_ kind of facts, but that field study should be devoted to the accumulation of specimens, and to observations on the habits, activities, interrelations, and responses of animals, as well as to all facts, inferences, and suggestions which are likely to be of use in the interpretation of the problems studied.

We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work should be reserved for the return to the laboratory or study. This advice seems to be based upon the assumption that study in the field is not particularly stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand deliberating interpretatively in the midst of the problems under consideration is one of the most favorable conditions possible for the improvement of the quality and quantity of one’s work. It should be recalled in this connection that Darwin and Wallace’s evolutionary theory did not _originate_ in the laboratory, but while in the field in the midst of their studies, while working reflectively upon their observations and collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter. The classic case of Bates discovering mimicry in his London study instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds not an argument for laboratory study, but one for field study. There are but few subjects which have suffered more from the preponderating influence of the laboratory.

To be sure, it may require more time to study in the field than if one collects specimens only, but it is economical in the long run. There are, of course, certain phases of more indirect observation which can be done best in the study or laboratory, but at present, field study, as contrasted with collecting, is a phase of effort urgently needing emphasis.

The processes of observation and field study and note taking are so intimately related that taking notes becomes one of the essential parts of careful observation. This is also one of the most difficult habits to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write them up, especially field notes, in the evening after his return from the field. Such notes are generally brief, lack details, and are usually of little value. Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe fully whatever seems of value, then to go over these facts again and by further observations increase the number of items noted several times. These observations should be recorded _as soon as made_, for generally the lack of notes means a lack of detailed observation. Some observations can be made only at long intervals, even of many years, others only with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of another season, and still others cannot be repeated. It is such considerations as these which emphasize the need of pursuing the safest course and recording _instantly_ and fully all observations when made. An excess of notes is of very rare occurrence. In the effort to write carefully worded notes one has a very important check upon the tendency toward hasty observation, because such a description requires one to think over the observation before it can be expressed. This deliberation is thus made at the time when reobservation can be made to the best advantage, and calls attention to the weak points to which special consideration may perhaps be given a moment later, and thus affords a chance to complete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897, p. 323) has well summed up the taking of notes as follows: “Fill your notebook with descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out for publication only those that exhaustive study and repeated observation prove to be valuable. In making observations _be sure_ you are right and then look again.” And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 326) has said, “The difference between _bad_ observation and _good_ observation is that the former is _erroneous_; the latter is _incomplete_.”

Notes are generally taken in one of two forms, in a book or on loose slips of paper or cards (Hopkins, 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to be very generally agreed that if a book is used it should be of small size, of about 4 × 6 inches, so that it may be conveniently carried in the pocket. For a permanent record such books are a great convenience when once indexed. But when using such notes, while preparing a report, they are not so convenient as the note slips, unless one limits such a report to the form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer began using a form of notebook in which an aluminum cover held the loose note slips. Thus while in the field one has the advantage of a book with a firm writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan. This form of cover is now used by a number of field naturalists. The disadvantage of the slips not being bound might be remedied in part by using some form of punched slips which are convenient for binding.

Each one must decide for himself which form of recording notes answers his needs most satisfactorily. There are advantages in uniformity, but with the variable nature of work, it is sometimes very convenient to use both methods of recording.

Some students have no method of recording their observations or reflections upon their lines of interest. This seems to be unwise and suggests a method of business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of some students is greater than that of others, not so much because they possess superior mental ability, but because they have superior methods of preserving whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others, from their lack of records, have no cumulative store upon which to draw. This is an important form of capital. Note keeping is readily seen to consist not only of observations, but also of suggestions, inferences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which will facilitate methods of work and the interpretation of the facts.

In describing environments, it is desirable to use the same general method for different localities so that the descriptions may be comparable and show some degree of standardization. This method has been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has similar advantages here. A brief general statement of the most conspicuous features may precede, and be followed by detailed descriptions. The order may well vary with individual workers, but a uniform method is desirable throughout any single piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus one practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe the substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest litter of organic débris, then the boles of the trees and the forest crown and its character, and finally the operation of those agencies which are causing changes in the forest and which will perpetuate or change it in the future. No practical forester would be content to shut his eyes to the future crop of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must not be content to rest below such a commercial standard. To some this seems very theoretical, and yet a farmer who counts upon a crop in five months, or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and the ecologist need have no fear in using such practical methods. In other words, we should consider the future stages of the developing habitat and learn to perceive the evidences which show in which direction development or change is taking place; or to determine the “orderly sequence of external nature.” Not only should the future be considered, but we should strive also to read the record backward and interpret the past in terms of processes now in operation. In this respect the point of view of the geologist who interprets the past in terms of present processes may well merit our attention. To understand our habitats they must be studied not only in their length and breadth, but also in depth--past and future--as they have all three dimensions.

The preceding remarks bear equally well upon observations of the activities of animals in nature, on account of the absence of controlled conditions, for these methods have almost as much significance as the study of the environments themselves; and equally careful observations and descriptions are essential, if the detailed processes of animal activities and their transformations are to be recorded.

An experienced naturalist finds that from year to year the amount of notes which he takes increases rapidly, and in a very direct ratio to the progress which he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind. The prolonged interest which is necessary to secure detailed observations implies such a frame of mind. Every one soon tires of any subject unless new features are constantly being discovered.

In the description of the associations in any given habitat, the problem is much simplified if one has a clear idea of dominance, knows how to recognize it, and understands some of its main implications. The dominant forms are the most common and powerful individuals in the association. They may or may not be the most conspicuous, from a superficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon size, but dominance refers to large absolute numbers and to influence exerted. We may profitably compare an association of animals in a given habitat to a play upon the stage. The environment corresponds to the stage. The dominant members of the association correspond to the leading characters, the secondary species, always present, to the essential but subordinate characters. The individual animals adjust themselves to one another, especially to the dominant forms, and to the environment, as the personalities in the play adjust themselves to the dominant characters, to one another, and to the environment. In both groups some individuals are dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated, others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory or parasitic, and all must be mutually adjusted to one another and to the environment.

The number of dominant species within an association is relatively limited, a fact which holds for both plants and animals. A knowledge of perhaps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants) will enable one to work advantageously in many localities (as in the state of Illinois). Of this number perhaps not more than about one half or one third can be considered dominant. Every one who has tried to make extensive local lists of species knows that it requires many years of collecting to secure a large number of species. These rare species are generally of quite minor importance ecologically. Considerations of this character should be encouraging to those who may be intimidated by the idea of large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should be remembered that there are many aspects of ecological work which do not meet with this variety of animals.

IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS

Ecological study does not end with collecting specimens, and it may not begin there. The importance of collecting and preserving specimens will vary with the phase of ecological study considered. In the field study of behavior of a single species there may be almost no collecting of animals but much collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily to the recognition and study of the composition of associations and their interrelations, much collecting will have to be done. Also, when studying the ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as in aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large that one must do rather extensive collecting. But even the exhaustive study of the behavior of any single species will necessitate considerable collecting. The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes (1880, The Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: “If one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass, for example, he will learn but little if he limits himself to that species. He must evidently study also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the various conditions upon which _these_ depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions affecting their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but overlooks one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element.”

Collecting is an important means of ecological study. This is particularly true in the early stages of such study, but as the student becomes familiar with species and comes to know many of them at sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the case of very small species and in those studies which depend upon the total catch as a means of securing data, as, for example, the case of plankton organisms. On account of the large number of species, very few students will be able to determine them at sight, but this does not disqualify a student for beginning ecological study. The greatest aid in handling such a varied population is a numbering of the individuals, or lots of specimens, consecutively and recording the full data for them in the notebook. The question arises at once as to how many specimens are to be assigned to _one_ number. No rigid rule can be followed, but in general it is safe to assign a single number to all specimens which agree in _all the fundamental data_, as date, place of capture, and exact habitat. And for my own part I number all individuals taken, upon which any special observations are made, as when a Phymatid is taken with a dying or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from the web of an _Argiope_. In this way the confusion which is particularly liable to creep into one’s work, where he deals with a large number of species, and before familiarity with them is acquired, may be reduced to the minimum. For small animals I have found useful a very liberal use of vials, into which field numbers, corresponding to numbers in the field notes, are placed _immediately upon capture_ of the specimens, and not minutes or hours later when the vials have become mixed, and recollection is less sharp. Specimens which have been thoroughly numbered may thus be sent to specialists for determination. This method uses up many numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited, and it gives greater precision to one’s notes, and encourages detailed observations on individual animals.

In the eyes of many the determination of specimens is such a formidable task that they are at once repelled from any subject which involves numerous species. But as we have previously remarked, there are phases of ecological study which involve only a minimum amount of such work. On the other hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numerous species, but no one can doubt that the smaller number of species found upon mountains or in the far north gives to a beginner certain advantages for study. But if one’s studies are confined to the more restricted habitats, the number of species involved is comparable to the more favored localities mentioned.

An accurately determined series of specimens, conveniently arranged, will be an important aid in one’s studies. Two forms of arrangement of such determined series are very helpful; one being synoptic or systematically arranged, and the other ecologically, by associations or by a topical arrangement in harmony with the subjects being investigated. With the use of such series and proper caution, aided by the best keys in the literature, one may hope to make many of his own determinations and thus economize his time.

There are many ways to secure the initial series of determined specimens, and some of these are the following: Our governmental departments, both national and state, and many of our large museums, universities, and academies, have numerous experts who are quite willing and even eager to aid earnest students who wish to have specimens determined. Then, in addition, there are many expert amateurs who are equally liberal, so that when all the sources of aid are considered, the list becomes a surprisingly long one. This is the fact that should be called to mind when considering large numbers of species. A student therefore does not need to work alone, but may have the coöperation of a large number of able and willing collaborators. Naturally we turn for aid to our United States National Museum as one of the first sources of assistance, to the Smithsonian Institution, and to the various scientific departments of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, particularly to the Bureaus of Plant Industry, Biological Survey, and Entomology. These sources alone are able to determine almost any reasonable series of specimens, particularly if they are well preserved. Arrangements for such determinations can probably be made by addressing the proper authorities.

The museums of our larger cities, as the American Museum of Natural History of New York, the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, the Field Museum of Chicago, and many smaller state and local museums are able to give very efficient aid in this line. Other local institutions are the State Universities and Experiment Stations, and the local natural history surveys, which often exist under the guise of a geological or agricultural organization. Frequently they are qualified and willing to do this work.

In very difficult cases it may be necessary to have recourse to Cassell’s Naturalist’s Universal Directory (Boston, 1905), in order to find the address of some specialist in a foreign land, who can help, but generally Americans are the best informed upon their own fauna.

Supplementary to, and in some cases a necessary substitute for, a reference series of authentically determined specimens, is one which the student is able to name for himself, by the study of the literature. Without some special training this may become dangerous ground to tread upon, but every now and then some young student begins in this way and develops such care in determining his own collections, that the method cannot be wholly condemned. Such work in itself has fascinations, and one may easily occupy all one’s time with it. From the ecological standpoint to stop with determinations only would be like acquiring a certain vocabulary, and stopping before learning how to use the language. Ecological work aims to use the names of species as the most concise method of referring to kinds of animals whose interrelations are to be described and interpreted. Taxonomy is the tool.

V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE

1. The Scientific Method.

2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.

3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and Proof Reading.

_1. The Scientific Method_

CHAMBERLIN, T. C.

1897. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses. Jour. Geol., Vol. V, pp. 837-848.

1906. The Method of the Earth Sciences. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXVI, pp. 66-75. Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 477-487.

Very important papers and worthy of careful study.

GILBERT, G. K.

1886. The Inculcation of Scientific Method by Example, with an Illustration drawn from the Quaternary Geology of Utah. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXI, pp. 284-299.

1887. Special Processes of Research. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXIII, pp. 452-473.

MELDOLA, R.

1895. The Speculative Method in Entomology. Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1895, pp. XLVIII-LXXIII.

VAN HISE, C. R.

1902. The Training and Work of a Geologist. Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, pp. 321-334.

KEYES, C. R.

1898. The Genetic Classification of Geological Phenomena. Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 809-815.

Valuable for its discussion of the criteria used in genetic studies.

VAN HISE, C. R.

1904. The Problems of Geology. Jour. Geol., Vol. XII, pp. 589-616; Inter. Cong. Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 525-548. 1906.

An excellent discussion of the energy, agent, and process method of investigation. I have seen no similar discussion applied to biological or zoölogical subjects.

BOAS, F.

1896. The Limitations of the Comparative Method of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. IV, pp. 901-908.

A suggestive paper for the student of ecology who uses the comparative method in his own work.

1904. The History of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. XX, pp. 513-524.

Application of the genetic and historical method to the study of man.

MILL, J. S.

1881. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation. Eighth Edition, pp. 659. New York.

PEARSON, K.

1900. The Grammar of Science. Second Edition, pp. 548. London.

JEVONS, S.

1879. Principles of Science. Third Edition, pp. 786. London.

Certain chapters are of special interest.

CRAMER, F.

1896. The Method of Darwin. A Study in Scientific Method, pp. 232. Chicago.

MACDOUGAL, ROBT.

1905. On the Discrimination of Critical and Creative Attitudes. Jour. Philos. Psy. and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 287-293.

LEBON, G.

1898. The Life History of Scientific Ideas. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LII, pp. 251-254.

_2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique_

There is such an abundance of literature on the technique of collecting and preserving specimens, and so much of it can easily be secured by any earnest student, that space will not be taken to discuss these subjects in detail. Reference will simply be made to the main convenient sources of information. It should perhaps be mentioned that very few of these papers have been especially prepared from the standpoint of the animal ecologist. The student must select and devise his methods from all available sources.

I have included in this list a few references on the subject of camping, photography, and the use of instruments needed in the determination of the physical features of the environment. A few miscellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods of technique are also added.

MANY AUTHORS.

1891-1899. Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum. Parts _A_ to _O_.

Contain directions for collecting and preserving a great variety of animals, including marine animals, mollusks, insects, spiders, myriapods, reptiles, amphibians, birds, birds’ eggs and nests, mammals, etc.

ANONYMOUS.

1896. Manual for Army Cooks, pp. 306. Washington.

The Manual used by the cooks in the U. S. Army. It includes chapters on camp cooking, a subject of much importance in certain ecological surveys.

1905. Terms used in Forestry and Logging. Bull. 61, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 53.

Useful in the descriptions of forest conditions.

1904. Instructions to Field Parties and Descriptions of Soil Types. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 198.

Useful in the description of soils in the study of subterranean animals.

BANKS, N.

1907. A “Census of Four Square Feet.” Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, p. 637.

A criticism of McAtee (1907).

1909. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Bull. 67, U. S. Nat. Mus. pp. 135.

An excellent manual. Should be in the hands of every student of insects.

BRETSCHER, K.

1902. Beobachtung über die Oligochaeten der Schweiz, VI. Folge. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., Ann. Soc. Zoöl. Suisse et du Mus. d’His. Nat. de Geneve, Tome 10, pp. (1-29).

1904. Die xerophilen Enchytraeiden der Schweiz. Biol, Centralbl., Bd. XXIV, pp. 501-513.

Quantitative studies of earthworms in the soil.

BRUNNER, J.

1912. Tracks and Tracking, pp. 219. New York. Outing Publishing Co.

An illustrated guide for the identification of mammal and bird tracks or foot prints. Devoted mainly to game and fur-bearing animals. Very valuable to the student of live animals in nature. Many of our smaller species are worthy of similar treatment.

BURNS, F. L.

1901. A Sectional Bird Census. Wilson Bulletin, N. S., Vol. VIII, pp. 84-103.

A quantitative study of the birds found breeding on an area of one square mile. Other similar studies should be made.

CHAPMAN, F. M.

1900. Bird Studies with a Camera. With Introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer, pp. 218. New York.

The title clearly indicates the character of this book.

COMSTOCK, J. H.

1897. Insect Life. pp. 349. New York.

Directions for the study of insects.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1905. Research Methods in Ecology. pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.

Important for methods of study in plant ecology, partly also applicable to animals; photography, and instruments for the study of environments.

DAHL, F.

1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.

1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftlicher Sammeln von Thieren. Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin. Jahrg. 1903, pp. 444-475.

This contains, in addition to its suggestions on collecting, an interesting outline or classification of animal habitats (Cf. also Enderlein, 1908, pp. 72-77). This is not a genetic classification. Dahl’s list of habitats will prove very suggestive to the student who wishes to develop the genetic system of classification. Ultimately we must, of course, develop the latter system.

1904. Kurze Anleitung zum wissenschaftlichen Sammeln und zum Conservieren von Thieren. pp. 59. Jena.

An enlarged edition of the preceding paper.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

1904. Statistical Variation with Special Reference to Biological Variation. Second, Revised Edition. pp. 223. New York.

FORBES, S. A.

1907. An Ornithological Cross-Section of Illinois in Autumn. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. VII, pp. 305-335.

1908. The Mid-Summer Bird Life of Illinois: A Statistical Study. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 505-519.

FLAHAULT, C., and SCHRÖTER, C.

1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions, IIIᵉ Cong. Inter. de Bot. 1910. Bruxelles. pp. 28. Zurich.

A very valuable discussion of ecological nomenclature for plants. Defines the use of such terms as biology, ecology, habitat, association, formation, etc. It is very desirable that the plant and animal ecologists coöperate as much as possible in this subject.

GIBSON, W. H.

1905. Camp Life in the Woods and the Tricks of Trapping and Trap Making. pp. 300. New York.

A book for boys, but not without value to the older student of live animals.

HENSEN, V.

1887. Ueber die Bestimmung des Plankton’s oder des in Meere treibenden Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren; nebst Anhang. Fünfter Ber. der Komm. zur wissensch. Untersuch. d. deutschen Meere in Kiel für die Jahre 1882 bis 1886, pp. 1-107, III-XVIII, Berlin.

This appears to be the original account of quantitative studies as applied to plants and animals of an association. These methods have been extended to the sea bottom by Petersen, to fresh water by many students, to land animals mainly by Dahl, and in recent years to plants by Clements and others.

HERRICK, C. L.

1905. Home Life of Wild Birds. Revised Edition, pp. 255. New York.

Very valuable for suggestions on the study of live birds and how to photograph them.

HOPKINS, A. D.

1893. Note and Record Keeping for the Economic Entomologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 103-108.

JOB, H. K.

1910. How to Study Birds. A Practical Guide for Amateur Bird-Lovers and Camera-Hunters, pp. 272. New York. Outing Publishing Co.

Intended primarily for beginners in bird study, but contains valuable practical advice on methods of studying and photographing live birds which will aid the ecologist. Consult also Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), and Herrick (1905).

KEARTON, R.

1907. Wild Life at Home: How to Study and Photograph It. New and Revised Edition, pp. 204. London.

KEPHART, H.

1912. The Book of Camping and Woodcraft. pp. 331. Fifth Edition. Outing Publishing Co.

This is the best all-round book on the technique of camping and living in the wilderness which I have seen. It includes direction for selecting outfits, making camps, cookery, pests in the woods, blazes and survey lines, rations, emergency foods, getting lost, accidents, etc.

KNAUTHE, K.

1907. Das Süsswasser, chemische, biologische, und bakteriologische Untersuchungsmethoden unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Biologie und der fischereiwirtschaftlichen Praxis. pp. 663. Neudamm.

A very important work on the technique of fresh water biology.

LEE, A. B.

1900. The Microscopist’s Vade Mecum. A Handbook on the Methods of Microscopic Anatomy. Fifth Edition, pp. 532. Phila.

Very useful for methods of preserving delicate animals, and those in which the detailed structure of the animal must be studied.

LIVINGSTON, B. E.

1906. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 50. pp. 78.

Methods of determination of moisture content of the soil and the air.

MCATEE, W. L.

1907. Census of Four Square Feet. Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, pp. 447-449.

A quantitative study of the species of invertebrates and seeds found on the forest floor and on a meadow.

1912. Methods of Estimating the Contents of Bird Stomachs. The Auk, Vol. XXIX, pp. 449-464.

1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.

An important critical study of the value of feeding experiments, conducted in captivity, as a method of determining normal food habits. The method is strongly condemned. Valuable series of references.

NEUMAYER, G. VON.

1906. Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Reisen. Dritte Auflage, Bd. 1, pp. 842; Bd. 2, pp. 880. Hanover.

A very important work, particularly for the traveling naturalist. Chapters by specialists, valuable references on collecting natural history specimens, and other phases of scientific exploration.

PEARL, R.

1911. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology; their Significance and Limitations. Scientia, Vol. X, pp. 101-119.

PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.

1911. Valuation of the Sea. 1. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of the Danish Biol. Sta. to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX. pp. 76. Translated from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910. Copenhagen.

Methods and results of a quantitative study of animals on the sea-bottom. A very important paper. Descriptions and figures of the apparatus used.

REIGHARD, J.

1908. Methods of Studying the Habits of Fishes, with an Account of the Breeding Habits of the Horned Dace. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1111-1136.

1908. The Photography of Aquatic Animals in their Natural Environment. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 41-68.

These papers also contain references to others on the habits of fishes.

KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.

1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 225-253.

SANDERSON, E. D.

1904. A Card-Index System for Entomological Records. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 46, pp. 26-34.

Contains references to other methods of recording notes.

SIMPSON, C. B.

1903. Photographing Nets of Hydropsyche. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. V, pp. 93-95.

SUMNER, F. B.

1910. An Intensive Study of the Fauna and Flora of a Restricted Area of the Sea Bottom. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1225-1263.

A study on our coast along lines similar to those of C. G. J. Petersen’s “Det Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaaden ‘Hauchs’ Togter I de Danske Have Indenfor Skagen I Aarene” 1883-1886. 1893. pp. 464. Atlas. Copenhagen.

TRANSEAU, E. N.

1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.

Methods of studying the relative humidity of the air in various plant associations, also applicable to certain studies of animals.

WAINWRIGHT, D. B.

1905. A Plane Table Manual. Department of Commerce and Labor, Report U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1905. Appendix No. 7, pp. 295-341.

In making local studies the plane table may be very helpful.

WRIGHT, A. H.

1907. A Graphic Method of Correlating Fish Environment and Distribution. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLI, pp. 351-354.

WILSON, H. M.

1905. Topographical Surveying. Second Edition. New York.

Directions for camping, emergency surgery, photography, etc., pp. 811-884.

In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the student the desirability of securing the following catalogues or lists of publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will show that a surprisingly large number of the papers or works are governmental publications, many of which have long been out of print, but many may still be secured from the different departments or from the Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D.C.

1. U. S. Geological Survey. List of Publications, including maps. Washington, D.C.

2. Superintendent of Documents. Lists of publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.

3. Smithsonian Institution. List of publications. Washington, D.C.

4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Washington, D.C.

5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission). List of publications. Washington, D.C.

6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks’ Bull. 81, U. S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of the best methods of securing many publications which are out of print.

_3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading_

The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in his work the student realizes the need of cultivating the _habit_ of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which should become _habitual_. Departures from such a standard necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections. One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of proof.

LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (Edited by F. N. Scott).

1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Boston. Allyn and Bacon.

A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which it is difficult to receive and apply advice.

WENDELL, B.

1899. English Composition. pp. 316. New York.

FERNALD, J. C.

1896. English Synonyms and Antonyms with Notes on the Correct Use of Prepositions. Tenth Edition. pp. 564. New York.

1904. Connectives of English Speech. The Correct Usage of Prepositions, Conjunctions, Relative Pronouns and Adverbs Explained and Illustrated. pp. 324. New York.

ALLBUTT, T. C.

1905. Notes on the Composition of Scientific Papers. pp. 164. London. Macmillan Company.

This book is by an experienced medical editor and contains many practical suggestions.

RICKARD, T. A.

1910. A Guide to Technical Writing. Second Edition. pp. 172. San Francisco. Mining and Scientific Press.

Intended primarily for writers on mining, and yet it contains much that is useful and suggestive to zoologists particularly the chapters on the need of simplicity in the language of science, and on the value of standardization.

WARMAN, P. C.

1903. A Plea for Better English in Science. Science, N. S., Vol. XVIII, pp. 563-568. Reprinted with revision, 1910. Washington.

DAVIS, W. M.

1911. The Disciplinary Value of Geography. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 105-119, 223-240.

An illuminating paper on the “art of presentation” of scientific results in oral and written form.

1909. The Systematic Description of Land Forms. Geogr. Jour., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 300-318.

1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LXV, pp. 281-350.

1910. Experiments in Geographical Description. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., Vol. XLII, pp. 401-435.

1911. The Colorado Front Range. A Study in Physiographic Presentation. Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 21-83.

The four preceding papers are in many respects models of presentation. They exemplify the process method applied to _regions_, a phase of much importance in certain ecologic studies, particularly ecological surveys. The last two papers are rather detailed applications of the same ideas. A very profitable study may be made of the method of presentation in these papers.

DEVINNE, T. L.

1902. The Practice of Typography. Correct Composition. A Treatise on Spelling, Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes, etc., with Observations on Punctuation and Proof-reading. Second Edition, pp. 476. New York.

Perhaps the highest American authority on all the subjects discussed.

WOOD, G. M.

1909. Suggestions to Authors of Papers Submitted for Publication by the United States Geological Survey with Directions to Typewriters. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 50. Washington.

Can be secured gratis from the Survey.

ANONYMOUS.

1903. Government Printing Office Manual of Style for Use in Composition and Proof Reading, pp. 191. Washington, D.C.

VAUX, C. B.

1910. How to Prepare a Paper for Publication. Bull. No. 4. Wistar Inst. Anat. and Biology, pp. 20. Phila.

1910. Style Brief. A Guide for Authors in Preparing Copy and Correcting Proof of Professional Papers and for the Use of Editors and Printer, adopted as the Standard of the Journals Published by the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. pp. 32. First Edition. Baltimore.

The Wistar Institute publishes the “Journal of Experimental Zoölogy,” which is devoted to “original researches of an experimental or analytical nature” on many branches of zoölogy, including _ecology_ and general physiology. The “Style Brief” can be secured from the Institute.

ORCUTT, W. D.

1912. The Writer’s Desk Book. pp. 184. New York. F. A. Stokes Co.

A useful handbook on punctuation, capitalization, spelling, abbreviations, numerals, etc., and with an appendix on weights and measures.

WOOLLEY, E. C.

1907. Handbook of Composition. A Compendium of Rules Regarding Good English, Grammar, Sentence Structure, Paragraphing, Manuscript Arrangement, Punctuation, Spelling, Essay Writing and Letter Writing. pp. 239. Boston.

VI. IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF INSECTS
AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES

Insects are to-day one of the dominant forms of life and are present in almost every large animal association or habitat. They therefore form an important element in a large number of ecological studies. And although facts of ecological significance have been accumulating for many years they are so widely scattered that to find them when needed is quite a serious problem. To aid in such a search the following references are given. It should be remembered that spiders, mites, and myriapods are commonly included in entomological literature and are therefore included in this list. The list is not intended as a substitute for the more elaborate sources such as the Zoölogical Record and similar standard works to be found in large libraries, but it includes publications that are more likely to be within the grasp of teachers and students not located at library centers. Many of these are public documents, and even if out of print, can easily be secured from second-hand dealers.

A student who has access to large libraries will find the following paper very valuable in suggestions as to the methods of finding the literature on many general zoölogical subjects.

MINOT, C. S.

1896. Bibliography. A Study of Resources, pp. 149-168. Biol. Lectures, Wood’s Holl, 1895. Boston.

(Alphabetically arranged.)

ALDRICH, J. M.

1905. A Catalogue of North American Diptera. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. XLVI, No. 1444. pp. 680.

Contains an extensive bibliography on flies.

ANONYMOUS.

1906. Catalogue of Publications Relating to Entomology in the Library of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Library Bulletin 55. pp. 562. Washington.

BANKS, N.

1892. A Synopsis, Catalogue, and Bibliography of the Neuropteroid Insects of Temperate North America. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. XIX, pp. 327-373.

1898-1905. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Economic Entomology, Parts VI, VII, and VIII. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.

A continuation of the work begun by Henshaw (1889-1896).

1900. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 24 (N. S.). pp. 95.

1902. An Index to Bulletins Nos. I-30 (N. S.), (1896-1901), of the Division of Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 36 (N.S.). pp. 64.

1910. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 81. pp. 120.

This and the preceding edition (1900) form a very useful index to the systematic literature of insects, spiders, myriapods, etc.

1910. Catalogue of the Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Amer. Ent. Soc. pp. 103. Philadelphia.

1910. Catalogue of Nearctic Spiders. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 72. pp. 80.

In the absence of special bibliographies these catalogues are the most convenient avenue to the literature.

BETHUNE, C. J. S.

1900. General Index to the Thirty Annual Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario, 1870-1899. pp. 76. Ontario Dept. Agr.

BEUTENMÜLLER, W.

1891. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Coleoptera. Jour. N. Y. Micros. Soc., Vol. VII, pp. 1-52.

1890. Preliminary Catalogue of the Described Transformations of the Odonata of the World, pp. 165-179. In Lamborn, R. H., Dragonflies vs. Mosquitoes. New York.

1893. On the Food Habits of the North American Rhynchophora. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. I, pp. 36-43, 80-88.

1896. Food-Habits of North American Cerambycidæ. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. IV, pp. 73-81.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.

1893. Note on the Food Habits of Some Species of Chrysomelidæ. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp. 261-267.

1897. General Index to the Seven Volumes of Insect Life, 1888-1895. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.

COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

1876. The General Index of the Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office for 1837-1861, and of the Department of Agriculture for 1862-1876. Washington.

COMSTOCK, J. H.

1879. Report upon Cotton Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 511. This report, like those of the U. S. Entomological Commission, gives very full accounts of the habits and life histories of certain species and gives particular attention to their predaceous and parasitic enemies. The predaceous insects are seldom given as detailed study as the vegetable-feeding kinds.

COQUILLETT, D. W.

1881. Larvæ of Lepidoptera. Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp. 145-186.

Descriptions, figures, and keys to many common larvæ.

CRESSON, E. T.

1887. Synopsis of the Hymenoptera of America, North of Mexico. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Supplem. Vol., 1887, Pt. 2. Catalogue of Species and Bibliography, pp. 155-350. Philadelphia.

CURRIE, R. P., and CAUDELL, A. N.

1911. An Index to Circulars 1 to 100 (Second Series) of the Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Circular No. 100. pp. 49.

The circulars contain a large amount of information on life histories of insects.

DIMMOCK, G., and KNAB, F.

1904. Early Stages of Carabidæ. Bull. No. 1, Springfield Mus. Nat. Hist. pp. 55. Springfield, Mass.

DODGE, C. R.

1888. The Life and Entomological Work of the Late Townend Glover. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 18 (O. S.). pp. 68.

DYAR, H. G.

1894. A Classification of Lepidopterous Larvæ. Ann. N. Y. Acad. of Sci., Vol. VIII, pp. 194-232.

EDWARDS, H.

1889. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Lepidoptera. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 35. pp. 147.

FELT, E. P.

1905-06. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Mem. 8, N. Y. State Mus., Vol. I, pp. 1-332, a435-a459, 1905; Vol. II, pp. 333-877, 1906.

Excellently illustrated, and with numerous references. This report and Packard’s Forest Insects form an excellent guide to the life histories and literature of forest insects.

1899. Memorial of Life and Entomologic Work of Joseph Albert Lintner, Ph. D. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 24, Vol. V, pp. 303-611.

Contains an index to Lintner’s thirteen reports as State Entomologist of New York. These reports contain rather full references and good summaries of life histories.

FOLSOM, J. W.

1906. Entomology with Special Reference to its Biological and Economic Aspects, pp. 485. Philadelphia.

A very useful bibliography is given on pp. 409-466.

FORBES, S. A.

1885. General Indexes to the First Twelve Reports of the State Entomologists of Illinois. App. to Fourteenth Rep. State Ent. Ill. pp. 120. Springfield.

1909. Contents and Index of the Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois, XIII-XXIV. 1884-1908. pp. 157. Office of State Entomologist.

FORBES, W. T. M.

1906. Field Tables of Lepidoptera. pp. 141. Worcester, Mass. Keys for the determination of larvæ.

1910. A Structural Study of Some Caterpillars. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. III, pp. 94-132.

Contains a very useful bibliography (pp. 125-127).

FORBUSH, E. H., and FERNALD, C. H.

1896. The Gypsy Moth. Mass. Board Agr. pp. 495. Boston.

Also discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the Gypsy Moth.

HART, C. A.

1895. On the Entomology of the Illinois River and Adjacent Waters. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, pp. 149-284.

Keys to immature stages of aquatic insects and many biological observations.

HENSHAW, S.

1887. The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 16. pp. 49.

Biological observations.

1889-96. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Economic Entomology, Parts I-V, and index. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent.

HUBBARD, H. G.

1885. Insects Affecting the Orange. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent. pp. 227.

JOHANNSEN, O. A.

1903, 1905. Aquatic Nematocerous Diptera. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. No. 68, pp. 328-448; Bull. No. 86, pp. 76-327.

Immature stages of several families are rather fully treated and valuable references on life histories given.

MACGILLIVRAY, A. D.

1903. Aquatic Chrysomelidæ and a Table of the Families of Coleopterous Larvæ. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 288-331.

Gives references to the most important papers on the immature stages of beetles.

NEEDHAM, J. G., and BETTEN, C.

1901. Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Bull. No. 47, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 383-612.