Chapter IV: Preface: v (3)

Keys to orders to immature aquatic insects; keys to Mayfly and dragon-fly nymphs.

NEEDHAM, J. G.

1903. Life Histories of Odonata, Suborder Zygoptera. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 218-276.

Keys to nymphs.

1905. Ephemeridæ. Bull. No. 86, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 17-59.

Keys to genera of adults and to nymphs.

1908. Report on the Entomologic Field Station Conducted at Old Forge, N. Y., in the Summer of 1905. Bull. No. 124, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 156-248.

Life histories of crane flies, Tipulidæ; table of larval habits, p. 239, and fish food.

OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, U. S. DEPT. AGRIC.

1889. Experiment Station Record, Vol. I to date.

1903. General Index to Experiment Station Record, Vols. 1-12, 1889-1901, and to Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 2. pp. 671.

Useful for references to current literature on economic species, before they have appeared in the more slowly published bibliographies.

PACKARD, A. S.

1890. Forest Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr., Fifth Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm. pp. 957.

Almost an encyclopedia on forest insects, insects listed by food plants. Very useful.

PIERCE, W. D.

1907. On the Biologies of the Rhynchophora of North America. Ann. Rep. Neb. St. Bd. Agr., 1906-07, pp. 247-319.

This is an annotated list of breeding and food habits of the snout and bark beetles. References to the literature, index of plants and beetles. Very useful.

1908. A List of Parasites Known to Attack American Rhynchophora. Jour. Econ. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 380-396.

RILEY, C. V., PACKARD, A. S., and THOMAS, C.

1878. First Annual Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the Year 1877, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, etc. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden). pp. 477.

Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.

1880. Second Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the Years 1878 and 1879, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, and the Western Cricket, etc. U. S. Dept. Interior. pp. 322.

Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.

RLLEY, C. V.

1880. Food Habits of the Longicorn Beetles or Wood Borers. Amer. Ent., Vol. III, pp. 237-239, 270-271.

1881. General Index and Supplement to the Nine Reports on the Insects of Missouri. U. S. Dept. of Interior. U. S. Ent. Comm., Bull. No. 6. pp. 178.

1885. Fourth Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, etc. (On the Cotton and Boll Worm.) U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 399.

SCHWARZ, E. A.

1890. Food-Plants and Food-Habits of Some North American Coleoptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. Vol. I, pp. 231-233.

SCUDDER, S. H.

1889. Classified List of Food Plants of American Butterflies, drawn from Scudder’s Butterflies of the Eastern United States. Psyche, Vol. V, pp. 274-278.

1901. Index to North American Orthoptera. Occasional Papers of the Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI. pp. 436.

This is a complete alphabetical index to the literature of the species of North American Orthoptera--a unique and very useful work.

THOMAS, C., MIDDLETON, N., and MARTIN, J.

1881. Descriptive Catalogue of Larvæ. Tenth Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp. 60-140.

Description and keys to saw-fly and Lepidopterous larvæ.

TOWNSEND, C. H. T.

1893. A General Summary of the Known Larval Food-habits of the Acalyptrate Muscidæ. Can. Ent., Vol. XXV, pp. 10-16.

WARD, H. B., WHIPPLE, G. C., and others.

Fresh Water Biology. (In press.) New York.

This work consists of chapters by numerous specialists on the various groups of fresh-water animals including insects, gives keys for the determination of specimens, short chapters on their general biological relations, and references to the literature.

VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF
EXTERNAL NATURE”

THE DYNAMIC AND PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

“Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowledge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.”--JOHN STUART MILL.

“To study life we must consider three things: first, the orderly sequence of external nature; second, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and, third, the continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”--W. K. BROOKS.

“The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of theory and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for there the clue of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to this nascent theory it is his business to attend, because, by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments, or new observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest importance, namely to those _instantiæ crucis_, which are the criteria that naturally present themselves for the trial of every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where the transitions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence of former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the action of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion, a new approximation is made to the truth; and by the repetition of the same process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which there are so many and such just complaints, appears, nevertheless, as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and direct its efforts.”

--J. PLAYFAIR, “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.

The facts and ideas with which the animal ecologist needs to become acquainted are so widely scattered that a large amount of selective reading is necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and become an organizing center of things ecological. All of the facts and conceptions which he needs are not even confined to zoölogical or biological literature. In seeking an understanding of any problem, conventional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary boundaries must not bar one from fertile fields. Many of the conceptions of the physical sciences, due to their more advanced stage of development, anticipate the future development of biology. This is particularly true of their dynamic conceptions. For this reason we should not hesitate to utilize and deliberately strive to secure development along similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have stated (An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan, 1906, pp. 11, 12) that: “It is thus very apparent that as soon as ecological phenomena are investigated dynamically and expressed in terms of processes, this science will of necessity become more closely correlated with those allied sciences which have already availed themselves of such methods.... It seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea of the law of change, yet in its practical application this simplicity often vanishes at once when it is seen that it involves the relation of cause and effect.... As this method of thinking is not generally understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude and general sense that its bearing cannot be grasped when applied to special or concrete problems. There can be no question as to the general validity of this method, but what is now needed is to know how these processes are combined and related to produce particular environmental conditions or situations. That these difficulties are not confined to the ecologist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any attempt at scientific interpretation, is worthy of special notice. We are thus able to see why certain naturalists, apparently not recognizing or understanding the developmental processes which scientific ideas undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies of interpretation, dynamically considered, now making such rapid headway in ecological botany, geography, physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a fad or personal peculiarity of the student, and not of any particular consequence. Such ideas confuse the incidental with the essential and suggest a complete failure to grasp the situation or to realize the fundamental importance of stating explanations in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several of the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical interpretation have already made considerable advance. Here, then, is a resource, at present largely unworked by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas and explanations lies strewn over the surface and only need to be picked up in order to be utilized by those acquainted with this method of interpretation.... If the signs of the times are now read correctly, the most striking advance in scientific methods of thinking during the present century will be in the direction of interpretation from the standpoint of processes--dynamically.”

For these reasons I have begun the list of literature with certain references which deal with the dynamic relations of the environment. These publications are particularly valuable not only for this method of treatment, but also for their content. These papers clearly emphasize the “orderly sequence of external nature,” a conception which must be grasped much more than superficially, if one is to interpret the development or evolution of environments. Although this is an essential part of our problem, as has been so well expressed by Brooks, yet this phase is probably one of the least understood by zoölogists. And as long as zoölogical students lack the proper training this condition will continue. To neglect this aspect in the training of an ecologist is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist or of a physiological training in a psychologist. For one who is ignorant of the principles of “orderly sequence,” or successions of changes occurring in the physical, vegetational, and animal environments, it is manifestly impossible to realize their development; and the application of such principles to the interpretation of practical problems is utterly beyond his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the phrase “orderly sequence of external nature” is fundamentally a simple conception, it is not grasped without effort, training, and careful investigation.

Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of references with perfect satisfaction. The arrangement which will serve one purpose will not another, and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange the lists in more than one order. Certain general references, or some intended to facilitate the acquirement of the general _point of view_, are given first, and others are arranged alphabetically. For example, the papers listed on the processes of change in the physical and vegetational environment are approximately in an order in which they may profitably be studied to make the view as concrete as possible. It is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle of change, which is relatively easy to grasp, but to be able to apply it to any condition or location and to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And judging from my own observation upon others and my own experience this method is very rarely mastered, if at all, unless it is actually worked out in some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical consequences.

Only a few references are given on general physiology, metabolism, and allied subjects, but those given furnish a valuable index to further literature. Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between papers dealing with habits, behavior, and individual ecology, and for this reason most of the references selected are arranged alphabetically.

Particular attention should be called to the fact that it is not to be assumed that the various authors strive to make the points to which attention is here called; they may or may not do so. My aim is to call attention to the _utility_ of the publications from the _standpoint_ advocated throughout the book.

From this point onward in this book the references form its main feature. For this reason it is important that one should not get an exaggerated idea of the value of the literature. It is perhaps true that a large part of the best ecological work has been done with little knowledge of other ecological writings. This was of course particularly true of the early workers, and the best work of to-day does not come from the largest library centers. A student looking over these lists, and finding that he has access to relatively few papers, may conclude that all effort is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even a majority of the publications on the _general field_, but the relatively limited number which bear directly upon the problem at hand and enough of the general papers to aid him in a general orientation. It may be of some comfort to the isolated student, with his small shelf of books, to realize that there are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America which contain _all_ the references given in this book. The nearer one reaches the boundaries of our knowledge, the smaller the amount, and often the smaller the value of the literature, and the greater the value of a proper orientation, which comes only with a grasp of general principles.

* * * * *

(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their influence upon animals. The dynamic or process relation of the environment.)

BANCROFT, W. D.

1911. A Universal Law. Science, N. S., Vol. XXX, pp. 159-179.

The law of adjustment or response to strain. A very important paper viewed from the dynamic and process standpoint.

HENDERSON, L. J.

1913. The Fitness of the Environment. An Enquiry into the Biological Significance of the Properties of Matter, pp. 317. New York. The Macmillan Company.

Valuable ecologically because of its exposition of the orderly sequence and _regulatory_ character of physico-chemical and physiological processes, and the application of chemical equilibria and the Phase Rule to metabolic changes. He says, “Now there can be no doubt that, when feasible, the ideal method--from the physico-chemical point of view--to describe a material system is in terms of the phase rule.” p. 260.

CHAMBERLIN, T. C., and SALISBURY, R. D.

1904. Geology. Geologic Processes and their Results, Vol. I. pp. 654. New York.

To be considered from the standpoint of the _agents_ and _processes_ which change animal habitats and result in their “orderly sequence.”

VAN HISE, C. R.

1904. A Treatise on Metamorphism. U. S. Geol. Survey, Monog., Vol. XLVII, pp. 1-1286.

A formidable-looking volume on account of its size, but one which will abundantly repay a careful study of its method, aside from the value of the content, for problems related to animals of the soils, etc. Particular attention should be given to the formulation of dynamic principles, and the application of the process method.

DAVIS, W. M.

1909. Geographical Essays, pp. 777. New York.

Essays on the orderly sequence of changing land forms, or to the ecologist, the development of inland habitats, in so far as they are dependent upon the physiographic conditions.

WOODWORTH, J. B.

1894. The Relation between Baseleveling and Organic Evolution. Amer. Geol., Vol. XIV, pp. 209-235.

The influence of baseleveling factors in the development of the gross environment and upon evolution.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1901. Baseleveling and its Faunal Significance, with Illustrations from Southeastern United States. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXV, pp. 839-852.

The influence of baseleveling upon the sequence of changes in fresh-water and land habitats. (See Figures 4 and 5.)

FIG. 5.--A small river as an animal environment. The rapid water conditions of a stream in an early stage of topographic development, such as is shown in Fig. 4, is here replaced by long pools of relatively quietly flowing water, connected by narrow stretches of more rapidly flowing water. Wabash River, Bluffton Indiana. Photo. by N. Miller and E. B. Williamson. ]

BRANDT, K.

1899. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. Wissen. Meeruntersuchungen, heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel. N. F. Abth. Kiel, Bd. IV, pp. 213-230.

1901. Life in the Ocean. Smithsonian Report for 1900, pp. 493-506.

A translation of the preceding paper on the transformation of substance or “cycle of matter” in the sea. The extensive footnotes are omitted.

1902. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. 2 Abhand. Wiss. Meeresunt. heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel, N. F. Bd. VI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 23-79.

1905. On the Production and Conditions of Production in the Sea. Rapports et Procés-Verbaux, Inter. Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Vol. III, Appendix D. Copenhagen.

Not seen by the writer. Johnstone states that it is a summary of the papers of 1899 and 1902.

JOHNSTONE, J.

1908. Metabolism in the Sea. pp. 206-298. In “Conditions of Life in the Sea.” Cambridge, England.

BIRGE, E. A.

1907. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 223-241.

1904. The Thermocline and its Biological Significance. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc., Vol. XXV, pp. 5-33. Two studies in the sequential changes in the lake habitat.

BIRGE, E. A., and JUDAY, C.

1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Dissolved Gases of the Water and their Biological Significance. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. No. 22. pp. 259.

PETERS, A. W.

1907. Chemical Studies on the Cell and its Medium. Part II, Some Chemico-Biological Relations in Liquid Culture Media. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 321-346.

A study of changes in media and their biotic succession.

COWLES, H. C.

1911. The Causes of Vegetative Cycles. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LI, pp. 161-183. Also Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 1-20. 1912.

An important statement of the general principles and causes of vegetational changes. Includes a history of the subject.

1901. The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and Vicinity; A Study of the Origin, Development, and Classification of Plant Societies. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXXI, pp. 73-108, 145-182.

A study of changes in the vegetation from the process and genetic standpoint.

CLEMENTS, F. E.

1904. The Development and Structure of Vegetation. Bot. Surv. Nebraska, VII. pp. 175. Lincoln.

Deals with vegetative changes from the process standpoint.

1905. Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln, Neb.

CRAMPTON, C. B.

1911. The Vegetation of Caithness Considered in Relation to the Geology. pp. 132. Comm. for the Survey and Study of British Vegetation.

1912. The Geological Relations of Stable and Migratory Plant Formations. Scottish Bot. Rev., Vol. I, pp. 1-61.

Good examples of the process standpoint as applied to the vegetation.

WARMING, E. (Trans. by P. GROOM and I. B. BALFOUR.)

1909. Œcology of Plants. pp. 422. Oxford.

A treatise on the general principles of plant ecology, and an index to the literature.

ZON, RAPHAEL.

1906. Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, Vol. I, pp. 179-189.

Discusses the sequence of change in the forest.

OSTENFELD, C. H.

1908. On the Ecology and Distribution of the Grass-Wrack (_Zostera marina_) in Danish Waters. Rep. Danish Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol. XVI, 1908. Trans. from the Fiskeri-Beretning for 1907, pp. 1-62.

An important paper showing the controlling relation of marine vegetation upon animal associations and particularly the fish of the coast. References to related zoölogical papers.

MOORE, J. E. S.

1903. The Tanganyika Problem. pp. 371. London.

On pp. 107-119 Moore describes the invasion and succession of vegetation upon alluvial flats, recently drained. A graphic account of forest invasion. Apparently a little known study.

ERNST, A. (Trans. by A. C. SEWARD.)

1908. The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau. pp. 74. Cambridge.

A study of the invasion of vegetation upon a new land surface formed by volcanic activity. Such studies as this aid one in breaking away from the older static view of vegetation and in seeing its more vital aspect.

VAUGHAN, T. W.

1911. The Geological Work of Mangroves in Southern Florida. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. (Quart. Issue), Vol. LII, pp. 461-464.

Plants as agents in the formation of animal habitats.

WEISS, F. E.

1909. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere as Affecting the Feeding Ground of Fish. Mem. and Pro. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester Memoirs, 1908-1909, Vol. LIII, Mem. 11, pp. 1-9.

TRANSEAU, E. N.

1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.

Shows vegetational control upon the relative humidity of the air.

FULLER, G. D.

1911. Evaporation and Plant Succession. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LII, pp. 193-208.

Further studies of the vegetational control of the relative evaporating power of the air.

SHELFORD, V. E.

1907. Preliminary Note on the Distribution of the Tiger Beetles (Cicindela) and its Relation to Plant Succession. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIV, pp. 9-14.

The sequence of vegetational changes which determine the habitats of a predaceous insect.

1912. Ecological Succession. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land Animal Communities. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 59-99.

An important paper correlating the development of the vegetation and the changing animal associations.

COOK, O. F.

1909. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. No. 145. pp. 30.

Vegetational change in the tropics as affected by man and its relation to plant succession.

FERNOW, B. E., and HARRINGTON, M. W., and others.

1893. Forest Influences. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forestry Div., Bull. No. 7. pp. 197. Very valuable discussion of the atmospheric conditions in and about woodlands; temperature, evaporation, etc., in open and wooded areas. Not written from the process standpoint, but capable of such an interpretation. (See Figures 6 and 7.)

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1905. The Postglacial Dispersal of the North American Biota. Biol. Bull., Vol. IX, pp. 53-71.

Climatic sequences applied to inland habitats and the succession of their associations.

1909. Isle Royale as a Biotic Environment. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 1-56.

An attempt is made to treat the environment and biota from both the dynamic or process standpoint--so far as the present processes are concerned--and genetically with regard to the development of the present conditions.

RUTHVEN, A. G.

1906. An Ecological Survey in the Porcupine Mountains and Isle Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 17-55.

The environment and biotic associations are treated from the dynamic and genetic standpoint.

VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT”

THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL

1. General Physiology and Development. 2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers. 3. Animal Behavior as a Process. 4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies. 5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.

“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will be--The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.”--HERBERT SPENCER.

“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic--as processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something happening.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1907).

Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes, but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an orderly sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance, resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development, and behavior, _in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are ecological problems_. The changes in behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance, because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers which deal with those general physiological processes influencing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and _particularly those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or “orderly sequence.”_

In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal environment to which it is _attuned_ forms the natural unit or basis for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal. There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909; Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).

In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study, and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development. It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the environment. All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all will be of much utility in ecological work.

(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged alphabetically.)

_1. General Physiology and Development_

VERWORN, M.

1899. General Physiology. pp. 615. New York.

A very good general summary, but somewhat out of date. There is a German edition of 1909 (fifth).

ROSENTHAL, J.

1901. Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Physiologie. pp. 616. Leipzig.

FÜRTH, O. VON.

1903. Vergleichende chemische Physiologic der niederen Tiere. pp. 670. Jena.

An excellent general work. Indispensable. Full references.

PÜTTER, A.

1911. Vergleichende Physiologie. pp. 721. Jena.

WINTERSTEIN, H. (Editor).

1910. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie. (To be completed in four volumes.) Jena.

HAMMARSTEN, O. (Trans. by J. A. MANDEL.)

1911. A Text-Book of Physiological Chemistry. Sixth Edition, pp. 964. New York.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

1908. Experimental Morphology, pp. 509. New York.

Excellent summaries and full references to the influence of various stimuli upon growth and upon protoplasm.

LOEB, J.

1906. The Dynamics of Living Matter. pp. 233. New York.

PRZIBRAM, H.

1910. Experimental-Zoologie. 3. Phylogenese. pp. 315. Leipzig and Vienna.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.

The general chapters are particularly helpful.

MORGAN, T. H.

1907. Experimental Zoölogy, pp. 454. New York.

Summaries of a variety of experimental studies.

SEMPER, K.

1881. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. pp. 472. New York.

“‘The Physiology of _Organisms_,’ in contradistinction to the Physiology of _Organs_, ... [is] that branch of animal biology which regards the species of animals as actualities and investigates the reciprocal relations which adjust the balance between the existence of any species and the natural, external conditions of its existence, in the widest sense of the term.” p. 33.

JENSEN, P.

1907. Organische Zweckmässigkeit, Entwicklung und Vererbung vom Standpunkt der Physiologie. Jena. pp. 251.

VERNON, H. M.

1903. Variation in Animals and Plants. pp. 415. London.

VARIGNY, H. DE.

1892. Experimental Evolution, pp. 271. New York.

BACHMETJEW, P.

1901-1907. Experimentelle entomologische Studien vom physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Bd. I. Temperaturverhältnisse bei Insekten. pp. 160. Leipzig. 1901. Bd. II. Einfluss der Ausseren Faktoren auf Insekten. pp. 944. Sophia. 1907.

An extremely valuable index to environmental influences upon insects. Numerous summaries.

HERRICK, C. L.

1906. Applications of Dynamic Theory to Physiological Problems. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 362-375.

RICHARDS, H. M.

1910. On the Nature of Response to Chemical Stimulation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 52-62.

SCHÄFER, E. A.

1912. The Nature, Origin and Maintenance of Life. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 289-312.

BASKERVILLE, C.

1905. Life and Chemistry. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 641-648.

MORGAN, T. H.

1910. Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution of Adaptation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 201-210.

MATHEWS, A. P.

1905. A Theory of the Nature of Protoplasmic Respiration and Growth. Biol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 331-346.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1912. Age, Death and Conjugation in the Light of Work on Lower Organisms. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXX, pp. 563-577.

Death is due to differentiation and not to a “running down” of the organism.

LILLIE, F. R.

1909. The Theory of Individual Development. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXV, pp. 239-252.

HOLMES, S. J.

1904. The Problem of Form Regulation. Archiv für Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen (Roux), Bd. XVII, pp. 265-305.

1907. Regeneration as Functional Adjustment. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 419-430.

WILSON, E. B.

1905. The Problem of Development. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 281-294.

SHERRINGTON, C. S.

1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. pp. 411. New York.

The activity of the nervous system is viewed as a _regulatory process_.

The similar responses to diverse stimuli or the similar results produced by diverse causes are the conditions which make an analysis and the isolation of causes necessary. With departures from the normal and optimum into zones of stimulation and of unfavorable conditions many similar effects or results are produced. The similar results of extremes of high and low temperature as shown in Fischer’s experiments on Lepidoptera, and the effects of high temperatures, aridity, and the lack of oxygen may be cited as examples. Such effects have an important bearing upon the subject of physical and chemical _limiting factors_ which influence individuals, aggregations, and associations.

BLACKMAN, F. F.

1905. Optima and Limiting Factors. Ann. of Bot., Vol. XIX, pp. 281-295.

“When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the ‘slowest’ factor.” p. 289.

1908. The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the Living Plant. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1908, pp. 1-18.

ADAMS, CHAS. C.

1904. On the Analogy Between the Departure from Optimum Vital Conditions and Departure from Geographic Life Centers. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 210-211.

GREELEY, A. W.

1901. On the Analogy Between the Effects of Loss of Water and Lowering of Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VI, pp. 122-128.

ZOETHOUT, W. D.

1899. On Some Analogies Between the Physiological Effects of High Temperature, Lack of Oxygen, and Certain Poisons. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. II, pp. 220-242.

LYON, E. P.

1902. Effects of Potassium Cyanide and of Lack of Oxygen upon the Fertilized Eggs and the Embryos of the Sea-Urchin (_Arbacia punctulata_). Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VII, pp. 56-75.

PACKARD, W. H.

1905. On Resistance to Lack of Oxygen and on a Method of Increasing this Resistance. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XV, pp. 30-41.

1907. The Effect of Carbohydrates on Resistance to Lack of Oxygen. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 164-180.

FISCHER, E.

1903. Lepidopterologische Experimental-Forschungen. III. Allgem. Zeit. für Entomologie, Bd. VIII, pp. 221-228.

These experiments illustrate in a very striking manner how abnormally high and low temperatures produce the same kind of effect or response.

_2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers_

(Alphabetically arranged)

CLESSIN, S.

1897. Über den Einfluss der Umgebung auf die Gehäuse der Schnecken. Württemberg naturw. Jahreshefte 53, pp. 68-86.

COLTON, H. S.

1908. Some Effects of Environment on the Growth of Lymnaea columella Say. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 410-448.

KELLER, C.

1887. Humusbildung und Bodenkultur unter dem Einfluss tierischer Thätigkeit.

Not seen.

KNAUTHE, K.

1898. Zur Kenntnis des Stoffwechsels der Fische. Archiv f. d. gesammte Physiol. (Pflüger), Bd. LXXIII, pp. 490-500.

LANG, A.

1888. Über den Einfluss der festsitzenden Lebensweise auf die Thiere und über den Ursprung der ungeschlichtlichen Fortpflanzung durch Theilung und Knospung. pp. 166. Jena.

LOCARD, A.

1892. L’Influence des Milieux sur le Développement des Mollusques. pp. 140. Lyon.

MARSHALL, F. H.

1910. The Physiology of Reproduction. pp. 706. London.

MILLER, N.

1909. The American Toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le Conte). Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 641-668, 730-745.

A study of the natural history of a single species.

RIDDLE, O.

1909. The Rate of Digestion in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates,--The Influence of Season and Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XXIV, pp. 447-458.

RUSSELL, E. S.

1908. Environmental Studies on the Limpet. Proc. Zoöl. Soc., London, 1907, pp. 856-870.

SCHIEMENZ, P.

1911. Vergleichung der Fruchtbarkeit von Seen und Flussen. Aus deutscher Fischerei. pp. 75-82. Neudamm.

A comparison of the relative productivity of fish in standing and running water environments.

SHELFORD, V. E.

1911. Physiological Animal Geography. Jour. Morph., Vol. XXII, pp. 551-618.

An important paper. Explains the habitats and distribution of animals as due to physiological responses and characters. The dynamic and genetic standpoint of the present writer (p. 555) is erroneously _contrasted_ with a physiological process. The dynamic includes all processes, the physiologic process is a species of this genus. The genetic is the application of processes to explain origins. The responsive and functional processes are dynamic in character.

1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.

Further studies along the lines of the preceding paper.

VIRE, A.

1896. Modifications Produced in the Organs of Sense and of Nutrition in Certain Arthropods by Confinement in Caves. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol. XVII, pp. 407-408.

VOSSELER, J.

1902. Über Anpassung und chemische Vertheidigungs mittel bei nordafrikanischen Orthopteren. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. 1902, pp. 108-120.

1902-1903. Beiträge zur Faunistik und Biologie der Orthopteren Algeriens und Tunesiens. Zool. Jahrb. Abteilung f. Syst. Geog. u. Biol. der Tiere, Bd. XVI, pp. 337-404; Bd. XVII, pp. 1-98.

_3. Animal Behavior as a Process_

“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior,--including the application of definite chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence it,--becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1910).

“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”--F. H. HERRICK (1910).

“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work, especially of the American species, and I have made the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some extent to this misfortune.”--C. W. HARGITT (1912).

“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”--C. O. WHITMAN (1899).

The precedence here given to _changes in behavior_ is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon _processes_ and genetic phases or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment. Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p. 106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn, and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these four variables: two relatively changing, one in the organism and one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the organism and the other in the environment.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 473-494.

HOLMES, S. J.

1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in Phototaxis. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1905. Modifiability in Behavior. I. Behavior of Sea Anemones. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 447-472.

1906. Modifiability in Behavior, II. Factors Determining Direction and Character of Movement in the Earthworm. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 435-455.

1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.

1907. Behavior of the Starfish (_Asterias Forreri_ De Loriol). Univ. Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 53-185.

WALTER, H. E.

1907. The Reactions of Planarians to Light. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. V, pp. 35-162.

YERKES, R. M.

1901. The Formation of Habits in the Turtle. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LVIII, pp. 519-525.

PEARL, R.

1904. On the Behavior and Reactions of Limulus in Early Stages of its Development. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 138-164.

HADLEY, P. B.

1908. The Behavior of the Larval and Adolescent Stages of the American Lobster (_Homarus Americanus_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 199-301.

MAYER, A. G., and SOULE, C. G.

1906. Some Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 415-433.

CRAIG, W.

1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.

HERRICK, F. H.

1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.

YERKES, A. W.

1906. Modifiability of Behavior in Hydroides Dianthus V. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 441-449.

YERKES, R. M., and HUGGINS, G. E.

1903. Habit Formation in the Crawfish, Cambarus affinis. Psychol. Rev.; Series of Monog. Suppl., Vol. IV, No. I; Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol. I, pp. 565-577.

YERKES, R. M.

1905. Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic. Jour. Phil., Psychol., and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 141-149.

1905. Concerning the Genetic Relations of Types of Action. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 132-137.

ALLEE, W. C.

1912. An Experimental Analysis of the Relation between Physiological States and Rheotaxis in Isopoda. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIII, pp. 269-344.

A study of the responses of pond and stream Isopods to natural and experimental conditions.

WASHBURN, M. F.

1908. The Animal Mind. pp. 333. New York.

For modifications of behavior by experience see pp. 205-269. Also many references on behavior.

_4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies_

1911. [Reviews of papers on animal behavior for 1910.] Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 393-455, 465-470.

Reviews by Holmes, Turner, Wheeler, Watson, and Bohn.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1909. The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of Movements and Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 313-336.

CONGDON, E. D.

1908. Recent Studies upon the Locomotor Responses of Animals to White Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 309-328.

MAST, S. O.

1910. Literature of the Past Year on the Behavior of Lower Organisms. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VII, pp. 267-280.

1911. Recent Literature on the Behavior of the Lower Invertebrates. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 263-277.

YERKES, R. M.

1906. George Bohn’s Studies in Animal Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 231-238.

WASHBURN, M. F.

1908. French Work in Comparative Psychology for the Past Two Years. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 511-520.

WASHBURN, M. F. (Editor).

1912. Comparative Psychology Number. Psychol. Bull., Vol. IX, No. 8, pp. 281-313.

Reviews by Pearse, Turner, and Washburn.

COUES, E.

1877. Monograph of North American Rodentia. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden), Vol. XI.

Contains on pp. 255-264 and 951-1081 an extensive bibliography of North American mammals, and includes much on their habits.

_5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior_

(Alphabetically arranged)

ANDREWS, E. A.

1906. Egg-laying of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, pp. 343-356.

1904. Breeding Habits of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 165-206.

BAKER, F. C.

1911. Ecology of Lymnæas. pp. 19-51. Lymnæidæ of North and Middle America Recent and Fossil. Special Pub. No. 3, Chicago Acad. Sciences.

BANTA, A. M.

1910. A Comparison of the Reactions of a Species of Surface Isopod with those of a Subterranean Species. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, Part I, Experiments with Light, pp. 243-310; Part II, pp. 439-488.

BELDING, D. L., and LANE, F. C.

1909. The Shellfisheries of Massachusetts: their Present Condition and Extent. Report upon the Mollusk Fisheries of Massachusetts, pp. 16-233. Boston.

Contains some excellent photographs of the habitat.

1910. A Report upon the Scallop Fishery of Massachusetts, including the Habits, Life History of _Pecten irradians_, its Rate of Growth, and Other Facts of Economic Value. pp. 150. Boston.

1911. The Life History and Growth of the Quahaug (_Venus mercenaria_). Rep. Mass. Comm. Fisheries and Game for 1910, pp. 18-128. Boston.

These papers are examples of applied ecology, and contain much on the life histories and habits of these mollusks.

BENDIRE, C.

1892. Life Histories of North American Birds with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs, with Twelve Lithographic Plates. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. No. 1. pp. 414.

1895. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots to the Grackles, with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. pp. 508.

BLACKWALL, J.

1873. Researches in Zoölogy. London.

Not seen by writer.

BÖVING, A. G.

1910. Natural History of the Larvæ of Donaciinæ. Inter. Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. III, Biol. Suppl., Heft I, pp. 1-108.

BUTTEL-REEPEN, H. VON. (Trans. by M. H. GEISLER.)

1907. Are Bees Reflex Machines? Experimental Contribution to the Natural History of the Honey-bee. pp. 48. Medina, Ohio.

CALKINS, M. W.

1905. The Limits of Genetic and of Comparative Psychology. Jour. of Psychol., Vol. I, pp. 261-285; Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. V, pp. 712-734.

CARPENTER, F. W.

1908. Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference to Convulsive Reflexes. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psych., Vol. XVIII, pp. 483-491.

1910. Feeding Reactions of the Rose Coral (Isophyllia). Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLVI, pp. 149-162.

CASTEEL, D. B.

1911. The Discriminative Ability of the Painted Turtle. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 1-28.

CLARKE, W. E.

1912. Studies in Bird Migration. Vol. I, pp. 323; Vol. II, pp. 346. London.

Bird migration may be studied as a response of the animals to the conditions of their life, and the above work is a good example of the best kind of work being done along this line.

COLE, L. J.

1907. An Experimental Study of the Image-Forming Powers of Various Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol XLII, pp. 335-417.

A study of worms, insects, sow bug, snail, slug, and frogs.

1913. Direction of Locomotion of the Starfish (Asterias Forbesi). Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-32.

COLE, L. W.

1907. Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 211-261.

1912. Observations on the Senses and Instincts of the Raccoon. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 299-309.

COLE, L. W., and LONG, F. M.

1909. Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 657-683.

COLTON, H. S.

1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus Eat Oysters, Mussels and Clams. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 3-10.

COKER, R. E.

1906. The Natural History and Cultivation of the Diamond-Back Terrapin with Notes on other Forms of Turtles. Bull. No. 14, N. Carolina Geol. Survey, pp. 1-67.

CRAIG, W.

1909. The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The Blond Ring-Dove (_Turtor risorius_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 30-80.

DAWSON, J.

1911. The Biology of Physa. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 1-120.

Behavior is related to the natural environment.

DAVIS, H. B.

1907. The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 447-489.

DEAN, B.

1892. The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster Grounds of South Carolina. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890, Vol. X, pp. 335-361.

Contains good illustrations of the oyster habitat.

DIMON, A. C.

1905. The Mud Snail: Nassa obsoleta. Cold Spring Harbor, Monogr. V. pp. 48.

A behavior study of a marine snail.

EMBODY, G. C.

1912. A Preliminary Study of the Distribution, Food, and Reproductive Capacity of Some Fresh-water Amphipods. Inter. Revue. der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Biol. Suppl. III. Serie, Heft 2, pp. 1-33.

ENTEMAN, M. M.

1902. Some Observations on the Behavior of Social Wasps. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XLI, pp. 339-351.

FABRE, J. H. (Translated.)

1901. Insect Life. Souvenirs of a Naturalist. pp. 320. London.

FABRE, J. H. (Trans. by MIALL, B.)

1912. Social Life in the Insect World. pp. 327. London.

FLORENTIN, R.

1899. Études sur la Faune des Mares Salées de Lorraine. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Zoöl. (8ᵉ S.), Tome X, pp. 209-350.

FOREL, A. (Trans. by WHEELER, W. M.)

1904. Ants and Some Other Insects. Religion of Sci. Library No. 56. pp. 49. Chicago.

FOREL, A. (Trans. by YEARSLEY, M.)

1908. The Senses of Insects, pp. 324. London.

GILL, T.

1909. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907. Smithsonian Institution, No. 1858.

A collection of reprints on the natural history of fishes, including much on their habits.

GRAVE, C.

1904. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Industry of North Carolina. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1903, pp. 247-341.

On pp. 261-264 the growth or development of an oyster reef is described. This illustrates ecological succession on a reef. The food and the influence of storms are described.

GROOS, K. (Trans. by BALDWIN, E. L.)

1898. The Play of Animals. pp. 341. New York.

GURLEY, R. R.

1902. The Habits of Fishes. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XIII, pp. 408-425.

An important and apparently little known paper which explains the spawning habits of fish and their distribution in terms of their physiological responses. Compare with Shelford’s Physiological Animal Geography. 1911.

HAHN, W.

1908. Some Habits and Sensory Adaptations of Cave-inhabiting Bats. Biol. Bull., Vol. XV, pp. 135-193.

HARGITT, C. W.

1906. Experiments on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 295-320.

1909. Further Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII, pp. 157-187.

1912. Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids, III. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 67-94.

1912. Behavior and Color Changes of Tree Frogs. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 51-78.

HARRIS, J. A.

1903. An Ecological Catalogue of the Crayfishes belonging to the Genus _Cambarus_. Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 51-187.

Habits and distribution of crawfish. Very useful references to the stream environment and to crawfish.

HARTMAN, C.

1905. Observations on the Habits of Some Solitary Wasps of Texas. Univ. of Texas Bull. No. 65, Sci. Ser. No. 6, pp. 1-72.

HERRICK, C. J.

1903. The Organ and Sense of Taste in Fishes. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1902, Vol. XXII, pp. 237-272.

HERRICK, F. H.

1910. Instinct and Intelligence in Birds. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVI, pp. 532-556; Vol. LXXVII, pp. 82-97, 122-141.

1910. Life and Behavior of the Cuckoo. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IX, pp. 169-233.

Illustrates the orderly sequence of forms of behavior.

1911. Natural History of the American Lobster. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Vol. XXIX, pp. 149-408. Doc. No. 747.

HODGE, C. F.

1894. The Methods of Homing Pigeons. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XIV, pp. 758-775.

HOLMES, S. J.

1901. Observations on the Habits and Natural History of Amphithoe longimana Smith. Biol. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 165-193.

1906. Death-Feigning in Ranatra. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 200-216.

1908. The Instinct of Feigning Death. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXII, pp. 179-185.

1911. The Evolution of Animal Intelligence. pp. 296. New York.

JENNINGS, H. S.

1910. Diverse Ideals and Divergent Conclusions in the Study of Behavior in Lower Organisms. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 349-370.

Valuable for its discussion of points of view in the study of behavior.

KELLOGG, J. L.

1900. Observations on the Life-History of the Common Clam, Mya Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish and Fisheries Comm. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 193-202.

1903. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus Mercenaria. Bull. 71, N. Y. State Museum. pp. 27. Albany.

1904. Conditions Governing Existence and Growth of the Soft Clam (Mya Arenaria). Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1903, pp. 195-224.

A suggestive paper.

1905. Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Bull. No. 3, Gulf Biologic Station. pp. 43. Baton Rouge.

All of these papers by Kellogg are careful studies of the relation of animals to their environment. They also show the intimate relation of ecology to economic problems. Biological surveys intended for economic results should be ecological in their method.

1910. Shell-Fish Industries. pp. 361. New York, Henry Holt and Co.

A popular summary of the marine shell-fish industries of the American coast, from the standpoint of their biology, culture, and utilization. The oyster, hard and soft clams, and scallops are considered. The following subjects deserve mention: ciliary action, feeding reflexes, function of mucus, and food.

LEFEVRE, G., and CURTIS, W. C.

1912. Studies on the Reproduction and Artificial Propagation of Fresh-water Mussels. U. S. Bur. Fisheries for 1910, Bull. Vol. XXX, pp. 105-201.

LYON, E. P.

1904. On Rheotropism. I. Rheotropism in Fishes. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XII, pp. 149-161.

MAST, S. O.

1911. Light and the Behavior of Organisms. pp. 410. New York.

An elaborate treatise on reactions to light.

MEAD, A. D.

1900. The Natural History of the Star-fish. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 203-224.

MICHAEL, E.

1911. Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chætognatha of the San Diego Region. Univ. of Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 21-186.

The distribution is studied as a response to the conditions of life, and the optima are determined.

MILLS, W.

1898. The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. pp. 307. New York.