Chapter II: Introduction (1)

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=1.= The hardware used in building construction may be classified as _staple_ and _finished_. =Staple hardware= may be considered as including such materials as nails and spikes, bolts and screws, sash weights, and other materials of this character, while =finished hardware= may include such devices and appliances as locks and latches, hinges, door and window trimmings, and the various metallic fixtures used in equipping the different classes of buildings. To this last classification the term _builders’ hardware_ is frequently applied.

Strictly speaking, glass cannot be considered as hardware; nevertheless, it is frequently supplied to the builder through hardware supply houses, and it is so closely allied to the hardware of building construction that the subject of glass, its trade terms, and other information relating to its characteristics, will not be out of order in this Section.

While little consideration is given to the hardware on the average building, there is no more important part of the construction, nor one to which greater attention should be given. On the quality and the selection of proper hardware depends the avoidance of the petty annoyances often found in buildings where this subject has not received proper consideration.

The architect should be well informed regarding this subject, and should be in a position to know the kind and quality of hardware that, when specified, will give the best results. He will find that a thorough knowledge of builders’ hardware will assist him materially in writing comprehensive specifications for this portion of the work. Consequently, the writing of the hardware specifications will receive attention in this Section, and the proper manner of estimating, or “taking off,” hardware will also be considered.

CUT AND WIRE NAILS

=2. Cut Nails.=—The primitive nail was made or forged by hand, and this mode of manufacture still exists in certain sections of Europe. These hand-made nails sold at exorbitant prices compared with the machine-made nails of today.

The manufacture of cut nails is less automatic and requires more manual labor than is necessary in the making of wire nails. The iron or steel is first rolled into sheets, the thickness of which is equal to the thickness of the nail; it is then cut into strips as wide as the nail is long. This strip of metal is fed into the nail machine and sheared off in tapering strips having the form of the nail, when it is seized by clamps that hold it just long enough for the heading hammer to strike the blow that forms the head.

The nail manufactured in this manner is known as the =cut nail=, and is much superior to the wire nail, which is of more recent production. Not only has the cut nail greater holding power, but it is more durable, especially when used in damp places.

=3.= Nearly all cut nails used at the present time are made from sheet steel, a small percentage only being manufactured of iron, for which the makers charge a slightly higher price. The steel nail is undoubtedly the best for use in hardwoods, but the iron nail will outlast it where dampness exists, as, for instance, in shingling, etc.

As shown in Fig. 1, cut nails are made in many styles and sizes, and for various purposes. They are also known by the same trade term for the various styles. Cut nails are heavier than wire nails, and as they count fewer to the pound, are more expensive at equivalent prices. All nails are sold at base prices per keg of 100 pounds, the “extras” for smaller and special nails being added to the base price. For special work, certain types of nails can be obtained in copper and brass.

=4. Size and Gauge of Nails.=—Both cut and wire nails are designated by the trade term _penny_. The term penny as applied to nails is a relic of medieval England. This designation was due, it is said, to the fact that it defined the _cost per hundred nails_, so that _tenpenny nails_ would mean that 100 of such nails cost _ten pence_. A more likely interpretation of the term is that it implied the _weight_ and not the _cost_, and that the term penny is a corruption of the Old English word _pun’_ (for pound), so that _tenpunny_ or _tenpenny_ implied that 1,000 of such nails weighed 10 pounds. The smallest standard size of nail is known as _twopenny_ or _threepenny_, while the largest is designated as _sixtypenny_. These sizes range in length from 1 to 6 inches. In designating the size of the nail in list prices, the symbol “d” (for penny) is used, so that a nail about 2 inches long is designated as 6d. The thickness, or diameter, is indicated by the gauge number, the gauge of cut nails being an indication of the thickness of plate from which they are cut, while the gauge of wire nails is the size of the wire from which the nails are formed. The different wire gauges and their decimal equivalents of an inch are given in Table I. The special wire gauge commonly used to indicate the size of the nail is the Birmingham. In Table II is given a list of the stock sizes of standard, common, cut nails. This table, besides giving the thickness of the nail and its length, gives the number of nails to the pound.

TABLE I

STANDARD WIRE GAUGES AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF AN INCH

=======+==========+===============+=======+========+============
Number | American,| |Washburn|Trenton|United | Old English
of Wire| or, Brown| Birm-| & Moen | Iron | States | From Brass
Gauge | & Sharpe |ingham|Manufac-|Company|Standard| Manufac-
| | | turing | | | turers’
| | | Company| | | Lists
-------+----------+------+--------+-------+--------+------------
000000 | | | .4600 | | .46857 |
00000 | | | .4300 | .4500 | .43750 |
0000 | .460000 | .454 | .3930 | .4000 | .40625 |
000 | .409640 | .425 | .3620 | .3600 | .37500 |
00 | .364800 | .380 | .3310 | .3300 | .34375 |
0 | .324950 | .340 | .3070 | .3050 | .31250 |
1 | .289300 | .300 | .2830 | .2850 | .28125 |
2 | .257630 | .284 | .2630 | .2650 | .26563 |
3 | .229420 | .259 | .2440 | .2450 | .25000 |
4 | .204310 | .238 | .2250 | .2250 | .23438 |
5 | .181940 | .220 | .2070 | .2050 | .21875 |
6 | .162020 | .203 | .1920 | .1900 | .20313 |
7 | .144280 | .180 | .1770 | .1750 | .18750 |
8 | .128490 | .165 | .1620 | .1600 | .17188 |
9 | .114430 | .148 | .1480 | .1450 | .15625 |
10 | .101890 | .134 | .1350 | .1300 | .14063 |
11 | .090742 | .120 | .1200 | .1175 | .12500 |
12 | .080808 | .109 | .1050 | .1050 | .10938 |
13 | .071961 | .095 | .0920 | .0925 | .09375 |
14 | .064084 | .083 | .0800 | .0800 | .07813 | .08300
15 | .057068 | .072 | .0720 | .0700 | .07031 | .07200
16 | .050820 | .065 | .0630 | .0610 | .06250 | .06500
17 | .045257 | .058 | .0540 | .0525 | .05625 | .05800
18 | .040303 | .049 | .0470 | .0450 | .05000 | .04900
19 | .035390 | .042 | .0410 | .0390 | .04375 | .04000
20 | .031961 | .035 | .0350 | .0340 | .03750 | .03500
21 | .028462 | .032 | .0320 | .0300 | .03438 | .03150
22 | .025347 | .028 | .0280 | .0270 | .03125 | .02950
23 | .022571 | .025 | .0250 | .0240 | .02813 | .02700
24 | .020100 | .022 | .0230 | .0215 | .02500 | .02500
25 | .017900 | .020 | .0200 | .0190 | .02188 | .02300
26 | .015940 | .018 | .0180 | .0180 | .01875 | .02150
27 | .014195 | .016 | .0170 | .0170 | .01719 | .01875
28 | .012641 | .014 | .0160 | .0160 | .01563 | .01650
29 | .011257 | .013 | .0150 | .0150 | .01406 | .01550
30 | .010025 | .012 | .0140 | .0140 | .01250 | .01375
31 | .008928 | .010 | .0135 | .0130 | .01094 | .01225
32 | .007950 | .009 | .0130 | .0120 | .01016 | .01125
33 | .007080 | .008 | .0110 | .0110 | .00938 | .01025
34 | .006304 | .007 | .0100 | .0100 | .00853 | .00950
35 | .005614 | .005 | .0095 | .0090 | .00781 | .00900
=======+==========+======+========+=======+========+============

TABLE II

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON CUT NAILS

=5. Wire Nails.=—The term =wire nail= is applied to nails made from drawn wire, or wire rods. Since their introduction some years ago, wire nails have become decidedly popular, and in some localities are used in preference to the old-style cut nails, owing to the fact that there are a greater number to the pound, which makes them cheaper than cut nails at the same price per keg. The size and number of common wire nails to the pound are given in Table III. By comparing the columns in Tables II and III giving the number of nails to the pound for both cut and wire nails, it can be readily seen that the wire nails are greater in number for a given weight than cut nails of the same size. For this reason, the wire nails are used by contractors on cheap work.

Wire nails are more liable to rust than cut or wrought nails, and are consequently not so durable in damp situations; they also have less holding power and more must be used to obtain the same strength.

TABLE III

SIZE AND NUMBER TO THE POUND OF COMMON WIRE NAILS

====+========+========+=============+==============
Size| Length | Gauge | Approximate | Advance Over
| Inches | Number | Number to | Base Price
| | | the Pound |per 100 Pounds
----+--------+--------+-------------+--------------
2d | 1 | 15 | 876 | $0.70
3d | 1¼ | 14 | 568 | .45
4d | 1½ | 12½ | 316 | .30
5d | 1¾ | 12½ | 271 | .30
6d | 2 | 11½ | 181 | .20
7d | 2¼ | 11½ | 161 | .20
8d | 2½ | 10¼ | 106 | .10
9d | 2¾ | 10¼ | 96 | .10
10d | 3 | 9 | 69 | .05
12d | 3¼ | 9 | 63 | .05
16d | 3½ | 8 | 49 | .05
20d | 4 | 6 | 31 | Base
30d | 4½ | 5 | 24 | Base
40d | 5 | 4 | 18 | Base
50d | 5½ | 3 | 14 | Base
60d | 6 | 2 | 11 | Base
====+========+========+=============+==============

Common wire nails in sizes from twentypenny to sixtypenny are sold at base price, say $2 per keg, the smaller sizes costing an advance over the base price. Thus, an eightpenny common nail would cost 10 cents additional, or $2.10 per hundred pounds, while a twopenny nail would cost $2.70 per hundred pounds, etc. The present advance above the base price on 100-pound kegs for the several sizes is also given in this table. All wire nails can be procured “barbed” at an additional advance of 15 cents above base and extra prices.

The relative sizes of the common wire nail are best learned from samples of the same, but Fig. 2, which shows these nails full size, from sixtypenny to twopenny, clearly indicates their proportions.

=6. Wire Nails for Special Purposes.=—Wire nails as well as wrought or cut nails are made in a variety of forms especially suitable for the specific purpose for which they are intended. The several kinds of wire nails in common use are illustrated in Fig. 3.

A nail used about buildings for putting the trim, or finishing work, together is illustrated at (_a_), and from its use is known as a =finishing nail=. These nails are used almost exclusively for this purpose and are very light. They have a small head, so that when they are set into the wood with a nail set, a very small opening is left for puttying.

Another nail having practically the same use as the one just described is designated as a =casing nail=, and is shown at (_b_). This nail is a trifle lighter in gauge than the finishing nail, and from the fact that it is countersunk under the head, it draws better than the finishing nail. The fivepenny and sixpenny sizes are used for putting on siding.

The =common wire brad=, shown at (_c_), is used for practically the same purposes as the regular finishing nail, but it is from two to four gauges heavier. This wire brad is useful when a heavy nail with a small head is required, particularly in hardwood, where a light finishing nail will not penetrate without bending.

The =flooring brad=, shown at (_d_), is a nail used almost exclusively for flooring. This nail is made of heavier gauge wire than other nails of this type, and drives easily, even in hard, maple floor. The construction of the head of this type of nail allows for severe “drawing” without splitting the tongue of the flooring boards.

The =fine-wire nail=, shown at (_e_), commonly called a =lath nail=, is made in four sizes and is used for nailing lath to studding. Owing to its smoothness, cleanliness, and easy-driving qualities, this type of nail is extensively used.

A short, heavy nail, the whole length of which is barbed to increase its holding qualities, is shown at (_f_). This nail is known as a =barbed roofing nail=, and is generally used for nailing tin roofs and ready, or prepared, roofing of every description. It is also used with tin roofing caps.

At (_g_) is shown a =slating nail=. This type of nail is formed from heavy gauge wire, and has a flat head that is large in proportion to its length. This nail is used only for slating, but is not so durable as the cut nail made for this purpose. Nails of this kind are made in only five sizes.

A type of nail used for attaching wooden shingles, and known as the =shingle nail=, is shown at (_h_). This nail is seldom carried in stock, however, as threepenny and fourpenny common nails answer the purpose. These shingle nails are clean and easily driven, but are not so durable as cut nails.

A very heavy nail of the same character as the common wire nail, but made much heavier, in order to increase the holding qualities and to provide greater durability, is known as the =fence nail=. This nail is made as shown at (_i_).

At (_j_) is shown a =clinch nail= that is manufactured from soft wire or annealed hard wire. This nail answers the same purpose as the old-style wrought, or clinch-cut, nail commonly used in the construction of batten doors, etc. The metal being very soft at the end of the nail, allows the point to be bent and driven back into the wood to form the clinch. These nails do not differ from the common wire nail, except in the form of the head and the material from which they are made, as will be seen from Fig. 3 (_j_) and Fig. 2.

There is a form of headless wire nail, known as a =barbed dowel-pin=, which is made as shown in Fig. 3 (_k_). This type of nail, or dowel, is used for doweling through the mortises and tenons of sash, blinds, and frames of every description. In the mill, it has displaced the wooden dowel used in former times. The length of pin to be employed is regulated by the thickness of the wood to be secured, as the pins are used ¼ inch shorter than the thickness of the woodwork.

An exceptionally heavy nail, or spike, is made from heavy wire or round bar. These spikes are used for heavy construction work, such as splined flooring, for slow-burning mill construction, and for bridge flooring. They are made with both chisel points, as shown in Fig. 4, and diamond points, and in ordering them, the kind of point, as well as the style of head wanted should be specified. Spikes of this kind are made in all sizes from tenpenny, which is of No. 6 gauge and 3 inches long, to spikes ⅜ inch in diameter and 12 inches long.

=7. Galvanized Nails and Spikes.=—Nails and spikes, either cut or wire, that have been dipped into molten zinc and become coated with this metal are termed =galvanized=. By this process they are rendered practically rust-proof. Cut or wire galvanized nails can be obtained in the same sizes and types as ordinary nails, and if dealers do not regularly carry them in stock, they will as a rule have them galvanized to order. In order to secure durability, it is advisable to use galvanized nails in places that are exposed to dampness, as in shingling, in slating, in fence building, or in structures erected near the seashore, as it has been proved by numerous tests that ordinary nails rust through in such places in a few years. The galvanized nails cost from $1.50 to $3 more per keg than the plain cut or wire nails.

The cheaper grades of galvanized nails are frequently coated only with lead, and will not withstand the government test; that is, dipping them into vitriol. A simple way to test the coating of a galvanized nail is to rub the nail on a piece of white paper. A lead-coated nail will mark the paper the same as a lead pencil and should be rejected, as it is only a sham and has no redeeming qualities.

WOOD SCREWS, EXPANSION AND SPECIAL BOLTS

=8. Wood Screws.=—The ordinary =wood screw=, which is one of the staple articles of hardware, is very necessary in the application of all builders’ hardware about the building. Except in some lines of cheap or rough, unfinished goods, hardware manufacturers now pack with all hardware, screws that match the finish of the goods. The various types of screws now on the market are illustrated in Fig. 5, and the common types, such as flat-, round-, oval-, and fillister-headed screws are easily procured.

Iron screws are made with either flat, round, or oval heads and the following finishes: Bright, blued, japanned, tinned, galvanized, bronze-plated, brass-plated, coppered, silvered, and nickel-plated. Brass and bronze metal screws can also be procured with flat, round, or oval heads, in either natural color or, on special order, finished to match the hardware. Special screws are also manufactured for various purposes, which are sufficiently explained by the illustration, Fig. 5.

Screws are always measured for length from the point to the top of the head. The sizes in which screws can be obtained are given in Table IV. The diameter of screws is always measured directly under the head, and is always given in numbers of the screw makers’ gauge. The numbers vary from 0 to 30, going consecutively without skip from 0 to 18 and from then on using only the even numbers. In Table IV are also given the numbers of the screw makers’ gauge and their equivalents in decimals of an inch.

TABLE IV

SIZE OF WOOD SCREWS

SCREW MAKERS’ GAUGE
--------+---------------
Number | Equivalent
of Screw| in Decimals
Gauge | of an Inch
--------+---------------
0 | .05784
1 | .07100
2 | .08416
3 | .09732
4 | .11048
5 | .12364
6 | .13680
7 | .14996
8 | .16312
9 | .17628
10 | .18944
11 | .20260
12 | .21576
13 | .22892
14 | .24208
15 | .25524
16 | .26840
17 | .28156
18 | .29472
20 | .32104
22 | .34736
24 | .37368
26 | .40000
28 | .42632
30 | .45264
========+===============

=9. Drive Screws.=—A screw known as the =drive screw= is used mostly in the manufacture of various articles where cost is the controlling factor. These screws, shown in Fig. 6, are made somewhat on the order of the wood screw, but without the deep-cut thread and gimlet point. Screws of this type are driven into the wood with a hammer and have slotted heads so that they may be withdrawn by means of a screwdriver. The thread is so constructed that the wood may be penetrated without breaking down its fiber when the screws are driven, and is shaped so as to engage with the wood while resisting a pulling stress. These screws are made with flat, round, or oval heads, as illustrated respectively at (_a_), (_b_), and (_c_), and may be had in sizes from ½ inch to 4 inches in length.

=10. Expansion Bolts.=—The =expansion bolt= is a device that has proved extremely valuable in the building trades, as it provides a means of bolting to stone, brick, concrete, slate, or other materials of this nature. Expansion bolts are used principally in places where it is not desirable or practicable to drill through the material to which the fastenings are to be made. This type of bolt has also a great advantage over other fastenings in that it can be removed with as much ease and facility as it is applied, and also without injury either to the article fastened or the material to which it is fixed, the bolt likewise sustaining no injury.

Many styles of expansion bolts are now manufactured under various patents, and these may be procured in all sizes and made of iron, steel, or brass.

In Fig. 7 are shown several makes of expansion bolts. The _McCabe expansion bolt_, shown at (_a_), is constructed of a malleable, cylindrical-shaped, slotted case, or shell, _a_, the aperture of which reduces in size and engages with a bevel-shaped hexagon nut _b_. By turning the bolt, the nut is drawn toward the head and thus expands the outer case in its passage; this in turn binds against the sides of the hole in the masonry into which the bolt is inserted. The shell, as the outside case _a_ is called, can be procured in any length or diameter, and can be used with any machine bolt having a standard thread. The McCabe bolt is suitable for bolting any thickness of material, provided the proper length of bolt is employed.

The _Brohard expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_), performs the same functions as the bolt illustrated at (_a_). The case, or shell, _a_, is composed of two or more parts riveted to a wrought circular plate, near the head, as at _b_. These several parts are expanded by means of the beveled nut, which approaches the head as the bolt is turned. The principal feature of the Brohard expansion bolt is that the beveled nut _c_ cannot be forced from the case on account of the lug _d_, which is attached to the nut and travels in the slot _e_ when the bolt is turned.

The _Steward and Romaine double-expansion bolt_ is shown at (_c_). The shell of this bolt is composed of two semicylindrical parts, as at _a, a_, that are somewhat longer in diameter than the wedge-shaped nut and the sleeve at _b_ and _c_, respectively. Each half of the shell is held in place by light rubber bands. The wedge-shaped parts are caused to approach each other by the turning of the bolt, and thereby expand the split case at both ends simultaneously. From the fact that this bolt is expanded at both ends, it is called a =double-expansion bolt=, although it may be made single-expansion by omitting the wedge-shaped sleeve at the head.

The _Star expansion bolt_, shown in Fig. 8 (_a_), performs exactly the same duty as other expansion bolts, but its construction is radically different. This bolt consists of only two parts, called _shields_. Each shield is semicircular in form and interlocks at the joints. The exterior of these shields has four rows of corrugated ridges, or star-shaped projections, that prevent the shields from turning in the hole. The interior of the shell is threaded and decreases in size toward the farther end. Thus, by inserting a lag, or coach, screw of any length, so as to engage with the thread, the shields are spread apart at the farther end while the screw is entering the aperture.

The _Diamond expansion bolt_ shown at (_b_) is practically the same as the one just described, as will be observed from the figure.

Expansion bolts are also made with all the parts entirely of brass or bronze, with either plain, capped, or fancy heads, or nuts, and in any finish desired.

=11. Screw Anchors.=—The device known as a _screw anchor_ can be used in place of an expansion bolt for securing light materials. Several kinds of screw anchors are in the market at present. The _star anchor_, which is made in one piece of composition metal that is slotted about seven-eighths of its length, may be obtained in various diameters and lengths. The exterior has two star-like projections, to prevent the anchor from turning, while the interior is constructed of ridges projecting from the tube, with the hole reduced toward the slotted end. This internal construction permits the star anchor to be used in combination with trade wood or machine screws of any length. The screw used engages with the ridges in the interior, cutting its own thread and expanding the anchor in its passage. These composition anchors are very cheap, the price ranging from 1 to 3 cents, according to the size. They are made in different lengths, from ½ inch to 1½ inches, and for Nos. 6, 10, 14, and 18 wood screws.

=12. Special Bolts.=—In Fig. 9 is shown a =toggle bolt=. This device is a recent production for fastening materials to surfaces having a hollow interior that will not admit the use of expansion or tap bolts because of its frail character, as, for instance, sheet metal, hollow fireproofing, etc. The toggle bolt shown in the figure is constructed with long, fine-pitch threads cut nearly to the head, so as to allow for securing thin materials. The =T=-shaped head _a_ is constructed either hollow, as shown in the figure, or of flat strip metal, and is riveted loosely to the end of the bolt, allowing the head to pivot and fold over the bolt, and thus permitting the head to pass through a small opening. The head is then tipped into its proper position, when the bolt is ready for securing in place the work to be fastened. The construction of the bolt is shown in Fig. 9 (_a_), while the process of affixing it is illustrated at (_b_) and (_c_). These toggle bolts are generally made with ³/₁₆-, ¼-, and ⁵/₁₆-inch bolts, from 2½ to 6 inches long, and of either iron, steel, or brass.

SASH WEIGHTS

=13. Cast-Iron Weights.=—The term =sash weight= is applied to a counterweight used for balancing double-hung, or sliding, sash. These weights are generally very rough, being made from either the poorest iron or waste iron. The stock sizes are usually long and cylindrical in form—from 1⅜ to 2¼ inches in diameter—have an eye cast in the upper end, as shown in Fig. 10, and weigh from 2 to 30 pounds, the weight determining the length of the sash weight. In Table V are given the weight, diameter, and length of sash weights as they are generally furnished to the trade, although it is almost impossible to give this data with any degree of accuracy, as the different manufacturers vary the diameters of the weights slightly, and this changes the length measurement. Square weights or special weights can be easily procured at small additional cost.

=14. Lead Weights.=—The weight of lead is about 80 per cent. greater than that of cast-iron; hence, =lead sash weights= must be resorted to where the construction of the pockets is too narrow to permit the use of iron weights, or where heavy plate glass is used. They are also used in cases where the sash are very wide and low, as here a short weight must be used in order to obtain the necessary travel for the sash.

Lead weights can be procured in either round or square shapes, and of any diameter or measurement to suit existing conditions, but they are generally made to special order. A wrought- or malleable-iron eye, or fastening, for applying the cord or chain is usually inserted at the top. The cost of lead weights, however, is generally five times as great as that of iron weights.

=15. Sectional Sash Weights.=—There is a form of sash weight in the market known as the =Walda sectional weight=, which is illustrated in Fig. 11. This weight, as will be observed, is so arranged that units or sections may be detached or added, as desired, to diminish or to increase the weight. Such a weight can be nicely adjusted to counterbalance any sash, and has the advantage over the cast-iron weight in that each part is interchangeable and no mistake can be made in ordering, as the necessary weight for any sash can be made up on the site.

TABLE V

WEIGHT, DIAMETER, AND LENGTH OF SASH WEIGHTS

========+==========+========
Weight | Diameter | Length
Pounds | Inches | Inches
--------+----------+--------
3 | 1⅜ | 8½
3½ | 1⅜ | 9¾
4 | 1⅜ | 11
4½ | 1⅜ | 12¼
5 | 1½ | 12
5½ | 1½ | 12½
6 | 1½ | 14
6½ | 1½ | 15
7 | 1½ | 16
7½ | 1½ | 17
8 | 1½ | 18
8½ | 1⅝ | 16½
9 | 1⅝ | 17½
9½ | 1⅝ | 18½
10 | 1⅝ | 19½
10½ | 1⅝ | 20½
11 | 1⅝ | 21½
11½ | 1¾ | 19
12 | 1¾ | 20
13 | 1¾ | 21½
14 | 2 | 18
15 | 2 | 19
16 | 2 | 20¼
17 | 2 | 21½
18 | 2 | 22½
19 | 2 | 23½
20 | 2 | 24½
21 | 2⅛ | 25
22 | 2¼ | 23
23 | 2¼ | 24
24 | 2¼ | 25
25 | 2¼ | 25½
26 | 2¼ | 26
27 | 2¼ | 27
28 | 2¼ | 28
29 | 2¼ | 28½
========+==========+========

FINISHING HARDWARE

METALS AND THEIR MANIPULATION

=16. Historical.=—From the days of Tubal-Cain, “an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron,” to the present time, no element in the world’s composition has rendered greater service in advancing man’s development than has the uninviting metal known as _iron_.

Recent discoveries show the very ancient existence of iron in Assyria, and also in Egypt under the Pharaohs. It was found in considerable quantities in Syria, in Canaanite times, and many tools and implements of warfare were made from it. The Chalybes, located near the Black Sea, were in Biblical times considered famous workers in “northern iron,” while Damascus steel, for ages, has been justly celebrated.

_Copper_ was well known to the Israelites and Egyptians before the Exodus, and for many years previous to that event the Egyptians obtained it from Arabia. It was also a native product of Palestine, and was very largely exported from Cyprus, whence its name.

_Tin_ was early known in the Orient, being one of the imports of Egypt from Spain, through the Phoenician merchants, who also obtained it from Britain. It was one of the principal commodities in the marts of Tyre, and was used as an alloy with other metals.

_Gold_ and _silver_, the precious metals, are mentioned in the earliest times and were highly esteemed; they were utilized in the manufacture of articles for domestic use, for personal adornment, and for ceremonial accessories. These metals were obtained by the Hebrews from Arabia, Ethiopia, Egypt, and Spain. Gold was used as a medium of exchange, like money, as early as the time of Abraham, but was then weighed, not counted. Silver was profusely used at that time in the East, and seems to have been very abundant in the time of Solomon. An alloy of gold and silver, called _electrum_, was also used.

_Zinc_ was discovered in 1520 by Paracelsus, an alchemist and astrologer of Europe, and was immediately adopted as a valuable alloy.

_Bronze_, a composition of copper and tin, seems to have been much used in Europe before the adoption of iron for the same purposes, as Roman remains testify; this was probably due to its greater ease in working.

_Brass_, a composition of copper and zinc, soon became popular, owing to its being more easily worked than bronze.

_Burnished brass_ is mentioned in Ezekiel, but is considered to have been an alloy of copper, there being a white metal, greatly used for ornaments in the East, called _white copper_.

Locks and contrivances to secure protection and privacy were originally made of wood, and a wooden lock (the oldest yet discovered) was actually found in the ruins of Nineveh. This lock appears to have been used on a gate of an apartment in one of the palaces of Khorsabad. The ancient Egyptians constructed locks and keys from brass and iron, thus showing their creative mechanical skill, while the ornaments discovered in the royal tombs display the high order of their art.

The Greeks and Romans were skilled workers in the metals, and many beautiful examples remain to attest their ability and ingenuity.

During the dark ages, following the conflict waged between the barbarians of Northern Europe and the Romans, and resulting in the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, the art of working the metals nearly disappeared. Not until the Revival of Learning in the 13th century did the art again receive the attention to which it was entitled. As late as the reign of Edward III, of England, in the 14th century, the iron pots and pans of the royal kitchen were listed among the “jewels of His Majesty.” During the 15th and 16th centuries, great progress was made among all civilized nations by skilled artificers. Much of their work is still extant, and their “cunning of hand” and “keenness of intellect,” as displayed in their products, serve, like torches, to light the way to higher endeavor. From that time to the present, great progress has been made. During the latter half of the 17th, the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th centuries, especially, art work received a great impetus, and much of the present-day adaptations are modeled from the schools of ornament then produced.

=17. Metals Used in Hardware Manufacture.=—The metals chiefly used in manufacturing the products of the smiths’ art are iron and steel and the copper alloys known as brass and bronze. Iron remains as the chief material of construction for all the cheaper grades of hardware, while brass and bronze are more generally used for “destructible,” or wearing, parts and the finer and more elaborate decorative work. These alloys also adapt themselves admirably to the great variety of finishes that are now in vogue. Iron is also used considerably for elaborate decorations in wrought and cast designs, and is very desirable in the “rustless-iron” finish, technically known as “Bower-Barff,” which derives its name from its two inventors.

White metal has been recently introduced, but will probably not be so universally adopted as brass or bronze, owing to the great number and variety of items used in hardware fittings, which would necessitate stores carrying a full line of white-metal goods. At present, white metal is used principally for hospital buildings and bathrooms.

=18. Commercial and Stock Designs.=—In recent years, manufacturers have made rapid strides in producing beautiful and elaborate trim in the several schools of ornament, and the most exacting critic can now procure artistic designs. The finishes are made to harmonize or contrast with any color treatment.

The principal hardware manufacturers can provide from stock, locks, hinges, and escutcheons finished in any manner and designed in any of the following schools of architectural ornament. They will also provide hardware in special designs from sketches furnished by the architect, including armorial or emblematic designs, if required. These several schools of ornament are here arranged in alphabetical order.

Byzantine Gothic, French
Colonial Gothic, German
Elizabethan Gothic, Italian
Empire Greek
English Renaissance Henry II
Flemish Indian
Francis I Italian Renaissance
French Renaissance Japanese
German Renaissance L’Art Nouveau
Gothic, English

=19. Finishes.=—The basic metals upon which are applied the variety of finishes now obtainable, are iron, steel, brass, bronze, and white metal, of which the three latter, even in their highly polished natural state, are the most durable. These metals will not rust or corrode when exposed as will iron or steel, and when tarnished can be readily cleaned and polished.

Nearly all the fancy finishes are obtained by electroplating and acid treatment on the natural metals, the finish being then lacquered to preserve it. Some of these finishes are very attractive and desirable, but where exposed to constant usage, have not the durability of the natural metals, as they cannot be polished or cleaned without the finish being injured or destroyed.

Many architects or owners purposely select applied finishes with the object in view that they will need little attention. When selections are being made for exterior purposes or where there is likely to be excessive handling, it is best to select the darker shades with sanded surfaces. For interior purposes, the more delicate finishes are desirable for the decorative effect; they also wear reasonably well.

The variety of colors and shades of finishes is exceedingly large, and the choice of color, like that of texture, depends on the character of the design and on the personal taste of the one making the selection.

The standard finishes that can be had are numerous. Many of them may be obtained in various shades of oxidation and in from one to four different textures of surface. The most popular finishes are as follows:

Pompeian bronze Copper
Sage-green bronze Nickel
Royal copper bronze Silver
Ormolu metal Gold
Boston finish Bower-Barff
Enameled White enamel
Japanned Gun-metal brown
White metal Verde antique
Brass Statuary bronze
Bronze Olive bronze

HINGES, HINGE BUTTS, AND SPECIAL HINGES

=20. Strap Hinges.=—The common wrought hinges used to apply on the surface, for hanging doors, etc., and generally used in connection with rough work, such as bins, sheds, barns, etc., where a strong, serviceable hinge that may be easily applied is required, are known as =strap hinges=. They are constructed of wrought metal of various weights, according to the size of the hinge, and are stamped or cut from sheet metal, with _knuckles_, or sockets for the pins, formed on the strap; the pins passing through the knuckles are well riveted. There are two kinds of strap hinges; namely, _light-strap_ and _heavy-strap hinges_.

The =light-strap hinge=, which is shown in Fig. 12 (_a_), is so termed because of its light construction and narrow joint. This hinge is made in inch sizes, varying from 3 to 16 inches in length. By inch size is meant the longest dimension when the hinge is closed; thus, a 6-inch strap hinge is 12 inches long from end to end when opened. They are listed and sold by the pair.

The =heavy-strap hinge=, which is shown at (_b_), is similar to the light hinge, but is made from heavier metal and has large dimensions at the joints, or knuckles. This type of hinge is used where a strong, substantial hinge is required. The heavy-strap hinge is made in inch sizes, from 4 to 16 inches in length. The 4- and 5-inch sizes are listed and sold by the pair, the 6-inch and larger sizes being listed and sold by the pound; the larger the hinge the lower the price per pound.

As shown at (_c_), the heavy-strap hinges are also made with corrugated knuckles, which give additional strength where the construction is weakest. These are termed =corrugated-strap hinges=.

All of the hinges described are also made in plain steel, japanned or galvanized, and may have brass pins or rivets.

=21. T Hinges.=—As will be seen from Fig. 13, =T hinges= are so called to distinguish them from the strap hinge, as well as because of their construction, which is in the form of the letter =T=. The =T= hinge is used for practically the same purpose as the strap hinge, but is superior to it in strength, from the fact that its knuckle is wider than that of the strap hinge. =T= hinges are made in light, heavy, and extra-heavy grades, the former and latter types being shown in Fig. 13 (_a_) and (_b_). In arranging the sizes of =T= hinges, the measurements are given for the length of the strap only; the leaf of the hinge forming the =T= with the strap is not considered. Thus, a 6-inch =T= hinge measures 6 inches from the pin to the end of the strap leaf. =T= hinges may also be obtained in stamped metal, with corrugations, as shown at (_c_). These hinges can be had in all finishes. The light and heavy grades, as well as the 4- and 5-inch extra-heavy grades, are sold by the pair, while the larger sizes of extra heavy are sold by weight.

=22. Hinge Butts.=—In the selection of hardware for building purposes, no other article deserves more consideration, and probably receives less, than the =hinge butt=. This type of hinge is used for the purpose of hanging all of the exterior and interior doors of buildings, and is usually secured to the edge of the door and to the hanging stile of the frame with screws, the greater part of the appliance being thus unobtrusive and partly hidden from view. The hinge butt supports the entire weight of the door, and, ordinarily, is constantly in use, so that it is subjected to excessive strain and considerable wear. It is evident, therefore, that great care should be exercised in selecting hinge butts, so that proper sizes and qualities suitable for the purpose intended may be obtained.

=23. Cast-Iron Hinge Butts.=—Hinge butts made of cast-iron are used extensively in the cheaper class of buildings built for speculative purposes, in which cost is usually the controlling factor. An ornamental type of the =cast-iron hinge butt= is shown in Fig. 14. Butts of this type are not extensively used at present, but may be obtained in various finishes to imitate bronze or brass, and may likewise be obtained without ornamentation. As the genuine Bower-Barff finishes are produced with equal facility on iron or steel, a large number of the better grade of cast butts are finished in this manner.

While the cast-iron hinge butt is not so durable as the steel butt, being more easily broken when subjected to excessive stresses, it wears somewhat better at the joints, or knuckles, than the ordinary steel butt. Therefore, the extra-heavy types of cast-iron are becoming more popular for entrance doors, etc., where a good wearing butt is required, and where economy is the essential feature. The heavier grades of cast-iron butts can be procured with steel bushings inserted into the joints.

=24. Steel Hinge Butts.=—In recent years, the =steel hinge butt=, which is shown in Fig. 15, has been substituted for the cheaper cast-iron butts. The better grades are made with ball tips, as indicated in the figure, and these are now almost universally used for medium-class work and for the better class of interior work. Owing to the fact that they are made up with smooth surfaces, the steel hinge butts are adapted to the various buildings and finishings without grinding or buffing. These butts are stamped and formed by machinery, so that their cost is reduced to a minimum; they can be sold for less than cast-iron butts, and also possess the advantage over the latter in that they are practically unbreakable. The ordinary grades are not suitable for large and heavy entrance doors that are constantly in use, for they are made of soft steel and wear readily at the joints. Thus, in time, they will allow the door to sag and thereby necessitate readjustment, or the planing of the door at the sill. For such class of work, steel hinge butts should be used that are provided with ball bearings, as shown in Fig. 16, or with hardened-steel washers inserted at the joints, as shown in Fig. 17.

These steel butts are also made in smaller sizes, and for bookcases, cupboard doors, and light work of this kind in ordinary building operations, they are used almost exclusively, having practically forced the small cast butts for this class of work out of the market.

=25. Cast-Bronze and Brass Butts.=—All types of =brass= and =bronze butts= are made in several grades and qualities, and it is difficult to determine the grade after they have been placed in position. It is therefore advisable for the architect or building superintendent to make a careful inspection of this hardware, to determine whether it is furnished according to specification. Brass and bronze butts are made in light, or commercial, heavy, and extra-heavy grades, and in all cases should be steel-bushed, self-lubricating, and provided with five knuckles. The high-grade butts are now manufactured with ball bearings at the wearing joints. The construction of a solid bronze, ball-bearing hinge butt is shown in Fig. 18. In this figure, the hardened-steel balls are shown at _a_, and the cones, which are also of hardened steel, at _b_. Bronze hinges constructed in this manner can be obtained at a slight additional cost above the ordinary steel-bushed hinge.

Where hinge butts are exposed to the weather, as when used for exterior doors, bronze or brass butts should always be employed; and for extra-heavy doors that are in constant use, only the extra-heavy types should be used if permanency and durability are desired. There are a number of cheap grades of bronze, steel-bushed hinges on the market that are made of wrought or sheet metal. This kind of hinge has no merit, and should not be used on work of any quality.

=26. Sizes of Hinge Butts.=—The standard hinge butts are always square, but they may be procured in irregular sizes, at additional cost. In indicating the size of irregular hinge butts—that is, the butts that are not square, and that are consequently not standard—two dimensions must always be given. The first dimension stated should indicate the height of the butt, and the second the width of the butt when it is open. Thus, a 6" × 5" butt is 6 inches high and 5 inches wide when opened. This rule for indicating the size of hinge butts is easy to remember, from the fact that it is the reverse of that ordinarily employed by builders when indicating the sizes of doors and windows, for here it is customary to give the horizontal dimension first and the height of the opening last.

=27. Single-Acting Hinges, or Butts.=—There is a large butt, or hinge, in the market that has a coil spring either between the knuckles, or enclosed between the leaves. This device is known as the =single-acting hinge=, and is illustrated in Fig. 19. At (_a_) is shown the _Bommer single-acting hinge_, which has a spiral spring enclosed within the casing formed by one of the knuckles. The tension on this spring can be increased by operating the collar at _a_ with a pin, or bar. At (_b_) is shown a single-acting spring hinge known as the _Chicago single-acting spring butt_. This hinge butt has a spiral spring that is encased between two leaves. In operating, this spring always tends to throw the door back to its closed position. These two kinds of single-acting hinges are used more than any other hinge of the same nature now in the market, but for doors of large size the liquid door check is preferred, although it is more costly. Single-acting hinge butts are used principally for hanging water-closet slat doors; and they are also used for light doors that do not reach the full height of the opening, and which have no jambs. The Bommer hinge, as shown in Fig. 19 (_a_), has an advantage on account of the simple means provided for adjusting the tension of the coil, or spring, by which the momentum of the door in swinging to and fro can be reduced to a minimum, thus shutting the door with little noise as it strikes the stop.

Two other types of the Bommer single-acting spring hinge are shown in Fig. 20. At (_a_) are shown two types of single-acting, surface, spring hinges that are used for lavatory doors, while at (_b_) is shown a similar single-acting spring hinge arranged for securing to a marble or slate stile or partition. These hinges are commonly supplied in highly polished nickel plate, brass, or bronze. The clamp hinge illustrated at (_b_) is made to secure to slabs of marble or slate from 1 to 2 inches in thickness, advancing by quarter inches. This type of hinge is also adjustable ⅛ inch over and under the stated sizes.

The Bommer yoke-spring hinge is also made as illustrated in Fig. 21. This yoke hinge consists of two single-acting hinges hung right and left of the same partition on one box flange, the yoke or box flange being constructed as shown at _a_. As the box flange of this spring is not adjustable, the exact thickness of the marble, or partition, and the door must always be stated in ordering these hinges.

The single-acting spring hinges with clamps, as just described, are fastened to the marble partitions separating water-closet compartments by means of bolts having capnuts, as shown at _b_, Fig. 21, and are thus secured firmly in position. Special single-acting hinges may be obtained with a reverse spring that can be regulated to hold the door partly open, instead of in a closed position.

=28. Double-Acting Hinges.=—The =double-acting hinge= is similar in construction to a single-acting hinge, except that it is arranged so that the door can swing both ways. These hinges are combined in one piece of hardware, as illustrated in Fig. 22. Such hinges are much heavier and more costly than the single-acting hinge, and they are generally used for entrance doors of hotels and public buildings, and for doors between kitchen and pantry or dining room in private residences, where a door that will swing both ways and return to a closed position is desirable. The double-acting hinge is usually subjected to excessive wear and strain. Care should therefore be exercised in selecting this type of hinge; also, in determining the size, it is better to have a hinge slightly larger than required rather than one that is too small. While double-acting spring hinges made of cast-iron may be obtained, those of the latest manufacture are of steel. They may also be procured in brass or bronze, and of any desired finish to match the fixtures and other hardware.

In Fig. 23 is shown another type of double-acting spring hinge that is not so compact as those illustrated in Fig. 22. This hinge, as shown, is operated by a coil spring that fits into a rabbet formed in the two leaves of the spring; thus, the coil is invisible when the door is closed, or in its normal position. This hinge obtains a good purchase on the door and jamb.

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Hardware, estimating, and mill designChapter II: Introduction (1)

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