Chapter XI: Section VIII (4)

The term “Geological Observations” is, however, often, but incorrectly, used in a second sense, which implies a restriction of the observations to the useful minerals found in any country, or to what is termed economic geology. Here also a preliminary knowledge of the elements of geological science will be found very useful, and will frequently enable the traveller to form much more trustworthy conclusions as to the nature and value of mineral deposits than he could without such a guide. But the essential point is to recognise a valuable mineral when seen, and for this some knowledge of mineralogy is requisite.

_Outfit._—The essential articles of a geologist’s outfit are neither numerous nor cumbrous. A very large proportion of the known geology of the world has been made out with no more elaborate appliances than a hammer, a pocket compass with a small index to serve as a clinometer, a pocket-lens, a note-book and a pencil. No scientific observer has to depend more on his own knowledge and faculty for observation, and less on instrumental appliances, than a geologist.

The best hammer for general purposes should weigh from 12 to 24 oz. and should have a square flat end, and a straight cutting end—the latter should be horizontal, and the inner face of the hammer a continuous plane surface. The ends should be of steel, not too highly tempered. The hole for the handle should be as large as possible (with a small hole the handles are so weak as to be liable to break), and the handle should be secured in the hole by a wooden wedge, and an iron one driven into and across the wooden one. It is advisable to take a few spare ash handles and iron wedges. Cut a foot-measure in notches on the handle—this is very useful for measuring thickness of beds, &c. It is as well to have more than one hammer in case of loss, and if fossil-collecting is anticipated, at least one heavy hammer, with one end fashioned to serve as a pick, three or four cold chisels of various sizes, and a short crow-bar will be found useful. In London, hammers, chisels, &c., may be procured of Messrs. Buck, 242, Tottenham Court Road.

A very good pocket compass, the shape and size of a watch, with a clinometer arm, is made by Troughton and Simms, 138, Fleet Street. The use of the clinometer is for measuring the angle of dip in rocks. If more accuracy of measurement is required than is afforded by looking at a bed, a section, or a hill-side, and holding the straight-edge attached to the compass parallel to the dip, and if a surface can be found that affords the exact inclination, it is usually practicable, by means of a note-book laid on the rock surface, or, better still, a folding two-foot rule with a slot for sliding in the compass-clinometer, to obtain a plane sufficiently close to that at which the beds dip to enable the angle to be determined with a very short straight-edge. As a rule, except with very low angles of dip, the variation in the inclination of the rocks themselves exceeds the limits of error of the instrument. A little care, however, is necessary in taking dips; for the apparent dip seen in a section, such as is often exposed in a cliff, may differ widely from the true dip, which will only be shown _if the section runs at right angles to the strike of the beds_. Dips seen on the sides of hills at a distance are but rarely correct for the same reason.

A prismatic compass and an aneroid are frequently of great service: the former to determine the position on the map, if one exists, and to aid in making a rough map, if there is none; and the latter to estimate roughly the heights on the road travelled, especially in mountainous countries, and also to measure the thickness of horizontal beds. Both form a part of the outfit of most modern travellers. A good aneroid gives sufficiently accurate determinations of height for a rough but adequate geological section across any country, if the distances are known. The Watkin mountain aneroid of Hicks and Co., Hatton Garden, is the most accurate for considerable heights.

_Collections._—Geological specimens require little more than paper and boxes, or biscuit tins, for packing. Occasionally fossils or minerals are fragile, and need tow or grass to protect them from injury; but there is no risk from the animal and vegetable enemies of zoological or botanical collections. The only important point to be borne in mind is that _every specimen should be labelled on the spot_, or, at all events, in the course of the day on which it is collected. Strong paper is best for labels, and these should not be put up in contact with the rock-fragments themselves, or they will be worn by sharp edges and become illegible, if not rubbed to fragments. Always wrap each specimen in paper, or some substitute, then add the label, and then an outer covering. The label,[3] if nothing else is written, should always record the locality distinctly written.

A collection of rock specimens may show what kinds of rock occur in a country, but the information afforded is very meagre, and, in general, of very small value. Such collections, indeed, unless made by a geologist, and accompanied by notes, are scarcely worth the carriage. If such specimens are taken, care should be used to select them from the rocks in place, _not from loose blocks_ that may have been transported from a distance. In certain cases, however, where the traveller does not intend to penetrate beyond the low ground, pebbles brought down by streams give some indication of the strata which occur higher in the drainage basin, and the information may be useful to future explorers, but they should always be labelled as such. No fragments of spar or crystals should be collected merely because they are pretty.

In taking specimens of useful minerals, such as coal or metallic ores, the traveller should always endeavour to procure them himself from the place of occurrence, and if such are brought to him by natives, he should, if practicable, visit the locality whence the samples were procured. The value of all useful minerals depends both on quality and quantity; the former can to some extent be ascertained from a sample, but the amount available can only be estimated after a visit to the locality. Most metallic ores occur in veins or lodes. These were originally cracks in the rock, and have been irregularly filled with minerals, different from those in the neighbourhood. It is, however, very difficult, and often impossible, to estimate from surface examination whether the quantity of ore occurring in veins is likely to prove large; some idea may possibly be obtained if underground workings exist. Many of the ores of iron and manganese, some of those of other metals, and all coal and salt occur in beds, and here it is important to see what is the thickness, and to ascertain whether the mineral is equally pure throughout. Iron ores occur in most countries, and unless very pure and within easy reach of water-carriage, are not likely to be worth transport. The value of salt also depends on facilities for carriage. Coal, however, may be of value anywhere; but it is improbable that seams of less thickness than four or five feet can be of much use, except in countries where there is a skilled mining population and a considerable demand for the mineral. It does not follow because much thinner seams are sufficiently valuable to be worked in Western Europe, that they would pay for extraction in a country where the mechanical arts are less advanced. Still the occurrence of thin seams is worthy of record, as thicker deposits may exist in the neighbourhood. It must not be inferred, however, that a seam of small thickness at the surface will become thicker below. The reverse is equally probable.

A blow-pipe is extremely useful for ascertaining the nature of ores, and for determining minerals generally, and a small blow-pipe case might be added to a traveller’s kit, if he thinks it probable that he may meet with minerals in any quantity. But in general they are not to be found in such profusion as to render it difficult to carry away specimens sufficient for determination at leisure. A blow-pipe, too, is of no use to any one unacquainted with the method of employing it, though this is easy to acquire.[4]

To form a rough idea of the value of iron ore, see whether it is heavy; to form some notion of the quality of coal, pile up a heap and set fire to it. If it does not burn freely, the prospects of the coal being useful are small. It may be anthracitic, and very valuable with proper appliances; but anthracite is not of the same general utility as bituminous coal. Good coal should burn freely, with more or less flame, and should leave but little ash, and it is preferable that the ash should be white, not red, as the latter colour is often due to the presence of pyrites, a deleterious ingredient.

Gold and gems have, as is well known, been procured in considerable quantities from the sands of rivers and alluvial deposits. The deposits known to the natives of any country are often of small value, and the rude methods of washing prevalent in so many lands suffice to afford a fair idea of the wealth or poverty of the sand washed. Gold and, wherever it is found, platinum occur in grains and nuggets, easily recognised by their colour and their being malleable; but gems, such as diamond, ruby, sapphire, are not so easy to tell from less valuable minerals. They may be recognised by their crystalline form and hardness. A diamond is usually found in some modification of an octahedron, and the crystalline facets are often curved; rubies and sapphires are really differently coloured varieties of corundum or emery, and occur, when crystalline, in six-sided pyramids or some modification. A diamond is the hardest of known substances; nothing will scratch it, and it will scratch all other minerals. Sapphire will scratch everything except diamond. Topaz will scratch quartz.

In collecting fossils, it is useless to take many specimens of one kind unless carriage is exceptionally plentiful. Two or three good examples of each kind are usually sufficient, but as many kinds as possible should be collected. Great care is necessary that all specimens from one bed be kept distinct from those from another stratum, even if the bed be thin and the fossils in the two beds chiefly the same species. If there is a series of beds, one above the other, all containing fossils, measure the thickness roughly, draw a sketch-section in your note-book, apply a letter or a number to each bed in succession on the sketch, and label the fossils from that bed with the same number or letter.

Remains of Vertebrata, especially of mammals, birds and reptiles, are of great interest; but it is useless to collect fragments of bones without terminations. Skulls are much more important than other bones, and even single teeth are well worth collecting. After skulls, vertebræ are the most useful parts of the skeleton, then limb bones. If complete skeletons are found, they are usually well worth some trouble in transporting. If fossil bones are found abundantly in any locality, and the traveller has no sufficient means of transport, he will do well to carry away a few skulls, or even teeth, and carefully note the locality for the benefit of future geologists and explorers. The soil of limestone caverns, and especially the more or less consolidated loam, rubble, clay, or sand beneath the flooring of stalagmite, if it can be examined, should always be searched for bones, and also for indications of man or his works.

The foregoing remarks are intended for all travellers, especially for those who have paid little or no attention to geology. It would be far beyond the object of the present notes to attempt to give instruction in the methods of geological observation; all who wish to know more fully what questions are especially worthy of attention, should consult the article on Geology by the late Dr. Charles Darwin and Professor. J. Phillips in the ‘Admiralty Manual of Scientific Enquiry.’ But a few hints may be usefully added here for those who have already some knowledge of geology, who do not require to have such terms as dip, strike, fault, or denudation explained to them, and who are sufficiently conversant with geological phenomena to be able to distinguish sedimentary from volcanic, and metamorphic from unaltered rocks, and to recognise granite, gneiss, schist, basalt, trachyte, slate, limestone, sandstone, shale, &c., in the field. Assuming then that a traveller with some knowledge of field geology is making a journey through a tract of the earth’s surface, the geology of which is unknown, what will be the best method of procedure and the principal points to which he should direct his attention?

On the whole, the most useful record of a journey, whether intended for publication or merely as a memorandum, is a sketch geological map of the route followed, with the dips and strikes of the rocks and approximate boundaries to the formations, supplemented by notes and sketch-sections. Where, as is commonly the case in mountain-chains, and frequently in less elevated portions of the country, the rocks are much disturbed, and especially if the number of systems exposed is large and the changes frequent, no traveller can expect to do more than gain a very rough and general idea of the succession of beds in detail, and of the structure; but by making excursions in various directions, whenever a halt is practicable, by searching for fossils as a guide to the age and for the identification of beds with each other, and by carefully noting the general dip and strike of the more conspicuous beds, it is often possible, especially if an opportunity occurs of retracing the road followed, or of traversing a parallel route, to make out the structure of a country that at first appears hopelessly intricate. Dense forest is perhaps the worst obstacle to geological exploration; snow is another, though not quite so serious a disadvantage. It is always a good plan to climb commanding peaks; the general direction of beds, obscure from the lower ground, not unfrequently becomes much clearer when they are seen from above.

In level and undulating regions, on the other hand, it frequently happens that enormous tracts of country are occupied by the same formation, and if the rocks are soft, and especially if they are horizontal, or nearly so, little, if any, rock is to be seen in place. In this case water-courses should be searched for sections, and the pebbles found in the stream-beds examined, care being taken not to mistake transported pebbles derived from overlying alluvium or drift for fragments of the underlying rock. Where the same formation prevails over large tracts, it is usually easy, by examining the stones brought down by a stream, to learn whether any other beds occur. It is astonishing how even a small outcrop of hard rock at a remote spot in the area drained by a stream will almost always yield a few fragments that can be detected by walking two or three hundred yards up the stream-bed and carefully examining the pebbles.

Not infrequently different rocks support different vegetation, and by noting the forms that are peculiar, the constitution of hills at a considerable distance may be recognised. Thus some kinds of rock will be found to support evergreen, others deciduous trees, others grass, whilst a fourth kind may be distinguished by the poverty or want of vegetation. It is not well to trust too much to such indications, but they may show which hills require examination and which do not. The form assumed by the outcrop of some hard beds is often characteristic, and may be recognised at a considerable distance.

One most important fact should never be forgotten; mineral character, whether of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, is absolutely worthless as a guide to the age of beds occurring in distant countries. The traveller should never be led to suppose, because a formation, whether sedimentary or volcanic, in a remote part of the world, is mineralogically and structurally identical with another in Europe, or some country of which the geology is well known, that the two are of contemporaneous origin. The blunders that have been made from want of knowledge of this important caution are innumerable.

There are a few points of geological interest well worthy of the investigation of those who traverse unexplored, or partially explored, tracts of the earth’s surface. Amongst these are the following:—

_Mountain-Chains._—Few, if any, geologists now believe that mountains were simply thrust up from below; all admit that, at least in the majority of cases, where great crumpling of the strata has taken place, there has been lateral movement of the earth’s crust. But the causes, extent and date, of the lateral movements are still, to a great degree, matters of conjecture, and every additional series of observations bearing on the question is of importance. There are many mountain-chains of which very little is yet known. In every case good sections are required, drawn as nearly to scale as practicable, through the range from side to side, and including the rocks at each base. The nature and distribution of all volcanic and crystalline rocks, both in the range and throughout the neighbouring areas, are especially noteworthy, and also the relations of the later beds, if any, on the flanks of the mountains, to those constituting the range itself. The derivation of the materials of the former from the latter, and the relative amount of disturbance shown by the two, and by the different members of each, will afford a clue to the date of upheaval; and two or more periods of movement may thus be determined, where intrusive igneous rocks, such as granite, occur, their relations to the surrounding rocks should be carefully noted, and specimens at the contact of the two rocks collected. If altered sedimentary rocks are found these should be traced, if possible, away from the igneous rock until some indication of their age is obtained from included fossils.

The distinction between a contemporaneous lava flow and an intrusive sheet of igneous rock is not always at first sight apparent; if the latter, it may pass from one bed to another or send tongues upwards into the overlying strata. Search should be made in the beds overlying the igneous rock for signs of alteration by heat. Thus limestone may be re-crystallised into marble, or shales altered into flinty hornstone.

_Volcanoes and Volcanic Rocks._—It is almost needless to say that any additional information on the distribution of volcanic vents, recent or extinct, is of interest. In the case of extinct vents, the geological date of the last eruptions should be ascertained if practicable. This may sometimes be determined by finding organic remains or sedimentary beds of known age interstratified with the ashes or lava-streams near the base of the volcano.

_Coasts._—The subject of the erosion of coasts is now fairly understood, and there is no doubt that the relative importance of this form of denudation was greatly overrated by many geological writers, who took their ideas of geological denudation generally from the phenomena observed in the islands, and on some of the coasts of Western Europe. Still, wherever cliffs occur, they afford good sections, and deserve examination. One question will usually present itself to almost every geological observer, and that is, whether any coast he may be landing upon affords evidence of elevation or depression. In the former case, beds of rolled pebbles or of marine shells, similar to those now living on the shore, may be found at some elevation above high-water mark. Very often the commonest molluscs in raised beds are the kinds occurring in estuaries, which are different from those inhabiting an open coast. Caution is necessary, however, that heaps of shells made by man, or isolated specimens transported by animals (birds or hermit-crabs), or by the wind, be not mistaken for evidence of raised beds.[5] If the shore is steep, terraces on the hillsides may mark the levels at which the sea remained in past times, but some care is necessary not to mistake outcrops of hard beds for terraces. If dead shells of species of mollusca, only living in salt-water estuaries, are found in places now beyond the influence of the tide, it is a reasonable inference that elevation has taken place.

The evidence of depression, on the other hand, unless there are buildings or trees partly sunk in the water, is much less readily obtained, and neither trees nor buildings are available as evidence, unless the depression is of comparatively recent date. The best proof is the form of the coast. If deep inlets of moderate breadth occur, with numerous branches, a little examination will frequently show whether such inlets are valleys of subaërial erosion, as they not unfrequently are, that have been depressed below the sea. A good and familiar example of such a depressed valley is to be found at Milford Haven in South Wales. In higher latitudes, the coast should be examined for signs of the action of sea ice, and stones should be collected from icebergs which have drifted from outside the accessible area; the shape of these stones and the proportion of those having only one smoothed side should be noted.

_Rivers and River-Plains._—At the present time a question of much interest is the antiquity of existing land-areas, and some light may be thrown upon this, if the relations of existing river-basins to those of past times can be determined. If a stream cuts its way through a high range, it is probable that the stream is of greater antiquity than the range, and either once ran at an elevation higher than the crest of the ridge now traversed, or else has cut its way through the range gradually during the slow elevation of the latter. Where a river traverses a great alluvial plain, it may fairly be inferred that a long time has been occupied in the accumulation of the deposits to form the plain; but it remains to be seen whether those deposits are not partly marine or lacustrine. If upheaval has taken place over any portion of the plain, or if the river has cut its bed deeper, sections may be exposed, and these should always be examined for fossil remains. Bones of extinct animals are not unfrequently found in such deposits.[6]

_Lakes and Tarns._—The mode of origin of lakes is always a subject of considerable geological interest, and any evidence which bears on the origin of a particular lake should be carefully noted. Lakes may be divided broadly into two classes: (1) Rock basins, (2) impounded hollows. Lakes of the latter class may, as a rule, be readily recognised and accounted for. The material forming the barrier may be due to a moraine, screes, or a landslip, or may result from the presence of a glacier in the main valley damming back the drainage of a lateral tributary. When lakes occur near the summit of a pass, they may often be traced to deposition of delta material on the floor of the valley brought down by a tributary stream. In this case, the inability of the stream to remove the material may often be traced to the abstraction of the head waters of the valley by the encroachment of the stream on the other side of the watershed. Rock basins, on the other hand, are frequently difficult to account for. They may occupy volcanic craters, or lie in areas of special depression (earthquake districts), or synclinal folds. They may be due to upheaval of old valley systems, causing reversal of drainage, or to subsidence at the upper end of a valley.

In special cases they may be due to the solution of soluble rock (rock-salt, gypsum, limestone, or dolomite). Many not otherwise explicable have been attributed to ice erosion during glacial periods, and it is still a moot point how far these lakes are due to partial changes in the elevation of the country, some observers having adopted, while many others dispute, the views of the late Sir A. Ramsay, who believed all these hollows to have been scooped out by ice moving over the surface in the form of a glacier or an ice-sheet. The origin of any lake met with should, if possible, be investigated and assigned to one of these causes.

_Evidence of Glacial Action._—Closely connected with the subject of lakes is that of glacial evidence generally. There is probably no geological question which has produced more speculation of late years than the inquiry into the traces of a comparatively recent cold period in the earth’s history, and the former occurrence of similar glacial epochs at regular or irregular intervals of geological time.

The evidence of the last glacial epoch may be traced in two ways—by the form of the surface, which has been modified by the action of ice, and by changes that have taken place in the fauna and flora of the country in consequence of the alteration in the climate. The effects of an ice-sheet, like that now occurring in Greenland, if such formerly existed in comparatively low latitudes, must have been to round off, score and polish the rocks of the country in a peculiar manner, easily recognised by those familiar with glaciated areas. Care should be taken that the peculiar scoring and grooving of rock surfaces produced by the action of sand transported by the wind be not mistaken for glacial evidence. Cases also occur where movement among a mass of unconsolidated conglomerate or scree material has produced striation of the pebbles; in this case, however, careful observation will disclose a similar striation in the material of the matrix as well. Glaciers, properly so called, are confined to hilly or mountainous countries, and the valleys formerly occupied by them retain more or less the form of the letter U instead of taking the shape of the letter V, as they do when they have been cut out by running water. The sides of the valley, when modified by a glacier, have a tendency to assume the form of slopes unbroken by ravines, and with all ridges planed away or rounded, whilst in ordinary valleys of erosion by water, the sides consist of a series of side valleys or ravines, divided from each other by sharp ridges running down to the main valley. Large and small masses of rock, preserving to a considerable extent an angular form, but frequently polished and grooved by being ground against the sides or bottom of the valley, are carried down by the ice, and either left behind, perched up high on the slopes of the valley, or accumulated in a vast heap or bank, known as a terminal moraine, at the spot where the ice has terminated, or as lateral moraines on the sides of the valley. The nature of the rock will usually show whether the fragments on the side of a hill or at the bottom of a valley are derived from the higher parts of the drainage area, or whether they have merely fallen down from the neighbouring slopes. In the latter case, they may be due to landslips; in the former, their shape and the erosion they have undergone will aid in showing whether they have been transported by water or ice.

The surfaces that have been modified by earlier glacial epochs must in general have been long since removed by other denuding agencies. The most important evidence of former ice action consists in the occurrence, embedded in fine sediment, of large boulders, occasionally preserving marks of polish and striation, and usually, though not always, angular. Accumulations of this kind afford evidence of transport by two different agencies, water, which has brought the silt, and ice, which has carried the boulders. If the water had been in rapid movement, and thus capable of moving the boulders, it would have carried away fine silt or sand, instead of depositing it. Evidence of ice action has thus been traced equally in the boulder clay of North-Western Europe, and in the Palæozoic boulder beds of India, South Africa, and Australia, and probably of South America.

It is well to search in all mountain ranges for traces of glacial action. In many mountain chains, even in comparatively low latitudes, proofs have been found of the existence of glaciers, at a much lower level than at present, dating from a comparatively recent geological period, whilst in other mountain regions none have been recognised. The question also whether glacial action has been contemporaneous in the two hemispheres is of the greatest importance, and the evidence hitherto adduced is of a very conflicting character.

_Deserts._—The great sandy or salt plains, with a more or less barren surface, that occupy a large area in the interior of several continents, have only of late years received due attention from geologists. A great thickness of deposits must occur in many of these vast, nearly level, tracts, for the underlying rocks are often completely concealed over immense areas. The investigation of the deposits is frequently a matter of great difficulty for want of sections; but, where practicable, a careful examination should be made, and exact descriptions of the formations exposed recorded. Some, at all events, of these beds appear to be entirely deposited from the air, and consist of the decomposed surfaces of rocks and the sand and silt from stream deposits, carried up by wind and then redeposited on the surface of the country. Such deposits are very fine, formed of well-rounded grains, and, as a rule, destitute of stratification. The geologist who has especially described these formations, Baron F. von Richthofen, in his work on China, attributes to the loess of the Rhine and Danube valleys a similar origin. It is usual to find beds due to water-action, rain-wash and stream-deposits, interstratified with the subaërial accumulations. Further observations on these formations are desirable. The occurrence of blown sands, the origin of these accumulations, and the peculiar ridges they assume, usually at right angles, but in some remarkable cases parallel to the prevailing winds, are questions deserving of additional elucidation.

_Early History of Man in Tropical Climates._—Very little has been discovered as to the races of men formerly inhabiting tropical regions. It is evident that a race unacquainted with fire could only have existed in a country where suitable food was procurable throughout the year, and this must have been in a region possessing a climate like that found in parts of the tropics at the present day. It is possible that an investigation of the cave deposits in the tropics may throw some light on this subject. “Kitchen middens,” as they are termed—the mounds that have once been the refuse heaps of human habitations—are also worthy of careful examination.

_Permanence of Ocean-Basins._—Within the last few years some geologists have adopted the theory that all the deep-sea area has been the same from the earliest geological times, and that the distinction between the depressions occupied by the oceans and the remaining undepressed portion of the earth’s crust, constituting the continents and the shallow seas around their coasts, is permanent. This view is very far from being universally or even generally accepted amongst geologists, although many who hesitate to accept the theory as a whole admit that parts of the oceans may have been depressions since the earth’s crust was first consolidated.

The argument on both sides depends upon theories to which travellers can contribute but little except by observations on the geology, fauna, and flora of oceanic islands, and by the investigation of coral-reefs and especially of atolls. In ranges of hills or mountains near the coast both of continents and islands and in all tracts where evidence of recent elevation exists, search should be made for deep-sea deposits. These are fine calcareous or argillaceous beds, often containing small Foraminifera or Radiolaria, which, however, are generally extremely minute, and require microscopical examination for detection. If any beds of consolidated calcareous or siliceous ooze or especially if red or gray clay (in older rocks, slate, or even quartzite) be found associated with pelagic deposits, such as coral limestone, a few small fragments of the beds should always be brought away for examination, and any distinct fossil remains found in such beds, for instance echinoderms (sea-urchins or star-fishes) or sharks’ teeth, should be carefully preserved with some of the matrix. Deep-sea deposits have recently been discovered in several parts of the world, for instance, the West Indies, the Solomon Islands, the islands of Torres Straits and Southern Australia, as well as in Europe.

_Atolls or Coral-Islands._—Each of the remarkable coral-islands of the Pacific and Indian oceans consists usually of an irregular ring, part or the whole of which is a few feet above the sea, and which encircles an inner lagoon of no great depth. The outer margin of the reef around each island slopes rapidly, sometimes precipitately, to a depth of, usually, several hundred fathoms. Darwin, taking these facts into consideration, together with the circumstance that no coral-reefs are known to be formed at a greater depth than about 15 to 20 fathoms (90 to 120 feet), showed that all the facts of the case could be explained by the theory that coral-islands were formed in areas of subsidence. This view was generally accepted until Prof. A. Agassiz, Sir John Murray, and other writers brought forward evidence in favour of coral-islands being founded on shoals that may be areas of elevation.

Much light has been thrown on this subject by recent exploration. Two instances in especial may be mentioned. The examination of Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean, South of Sumatra, by Mr. Andrews, has shown it to be a raised atoll, founded on a volcanic base, whilst, on the other hand, borings on the atoll of Funafuti, one of the Marshall Islands in the Western Pacific, carried to a depth of over 1000 feet on the ring itself, and to 245 feet below sea-level in the middle of the lagoon, have yielded results which, in the opinion of the geologists engaged, Prof. Sollas and Prof. Edgeworth David, completely confirm Darwin’s theory.

It is probable that atolls originate in more than one way, some being formed in rising or stationary tracts, others in areas of depression. The important question, from a geographical point of view, is not so much how isolated atolls were formed as whether the great tracts in the Pacific and Indian oceans in which no islands occur except atolls, for instance, the Marshall, Gilbert and Low archipelagoes in the former, and the Laccadives and Maldives in the latter, have been areas of extensive subsidence during the later geological periods. Further evidence on this question may perhaps in time be furnished by additional borings, for one of which an island of the Maldive group would furnish an excellent locality, since there is in this case independent evidence to indicate that the archipelago occupies part of a sunken tract. Meantime any additional details would be useful, such as careful soundings around those atolls which have not been fully surveyed, so as to give an accurate profile of the sea-bottom in the neighbourhood.

MEMORANDUM ON GLACIER OBSERVATIONS.

Revised by ALAN G. OGILVIE.

The recent movements of glaciers may be noted by the following signs:—

When the ice is advancing, the glaciers generally have a more convex outline, the icefalls are more broken into towers and spires, and piles of fresh rubbish are found shot over the grass of the lower moraines. Moraines which have been comparatively recently deposited by advancing ice are disturbed, show cracks, and are obviously being pushed forward or aside by the glacier. There is a tendency for the glacier to terminate in a vertical front, or “Chinese wall,” as distinguished from the sloping snout of a stationary or retreating glacier, owing to the more rapid advance of the upper layers. If the advance is rapid the overhanging layers will fall, and an ice talus will collect in front. An inspection of the ice will often disclose horizontal lines of sheering which in a side view are seen to rise towards the terminal wall. Search should be made along these sheer planes for included moraine material, and any proofs of elevation of this material noted.

When the ice is in retreat it terminates in a gently sloping snout. The marks of its further recent extension are seen fringing the glacier both at the end and sides in their lower portions, the glacier fails to fill its former bed, and bare stony tracts, often interspersed with pools or lakelets, lie between the end of the glacier and the mounds of recent terminal moraines.

Where a glacier has retreated to any considerable extent, careful observations of the form of its bed are of value. What is the nature of the rock surfaces exposed—convex or concave; are they rubbed smooth on their leesides; how far have the contours of the cliffs or slopes, or the sides of any gorge, been modified where they have been subjected to ice-friction? Is there any evidence that the ice has flowed over large boulders, or loose soils, such as gravel, without disturbing them? How has it affected rocks of different hardness, for instance, veins of quartz in a less hard rock? Generally, do the appearances indicate that the glacier has excavated, or only abraded and polished its bed; that it has scooped out new rock-basins, or only cleaned out, scratched, and preserved from filling-up by alluvial deposits or earthslips, existing basins? What is the general character of the valley bottom and the slopes above and below the most conspicuous ancient moraines?

With a view to ascertaining the oscillations in length of a glacier, the traveller or surveyor should, if possible, mark on the ground the position of the end of the glacier at the time of his visit, so that the next visitor will be able to measure the movement that has taken place since his predecessor’s visit. Leaving out of question elaborate trigonometrical methods, such, for instance, as have been carried out on the Rhone Glacier in Switzerland, the following means may be adopted for recording the position of the glacier front with considerable accuracy. Paint some signs on large boulders, not too far from the end of the glacier, and measure their distance from it by a tape (Richter’s system), or build a low wall of stones of a few yards in length, and, say 15 to 20 inches in height, some distance from the ice-end, and measure this distance (Gosset’s system). It is to be recommended that the stones of these walls should also be painted. In either case the date and distance should be painted on the stones. If the traveller himself returns after some interval—even after only two or three weeks—he will be able to judge of the movement of the glacier, and he will have laid down a basis for further observations by future travellers. A plane-table sketch on a fairly large scale with contours or form lines of the ice front and its immediate vicinity is of the greatest value, as it records not only the position but also the form of the glacier. The sketch should, of course, show the position of the painted boulders or other fixed points near the ice. To ascertain the recent retreat of a glacier, measure the distance from the ice front to the most advanced terminal moraine, where vegetation first shows itself. The bare ground recently left by glaciers is easily recognisable. The diminution of volume is best measured by ascertaining the height of bare soil left on the sides of the lateral moraines in the portion of the glacier within the zone of vegetation. All photographic representations of the glacier end, and of the ground which has been freed from the glacier ice, are of great value. Those will be of most service that show the position of the glacier-snout with relation to some conspicuous rock or other feature in the local scenery. Each photograph should be dated, and the bearings and distance of the camera with reference to any such feature accurately noted.

Neighbouring glaciers often furnish very different results as regards advance or retreat, owing to the fact that steep glaciers anticipate in their oscillations those the beds of which are less inclined.

One of the results most to be desired is an exact knowledge of the dates:

I. Of the maximum extension of the ice.
II. Of the commencement of retreat.
III. Of the minimum.
IV. Of the commencement of fresh increase.

and even information giving approximate dates—say, to within a decade, may prove to be of value.

In dealing with a mountain group, therefore, the traveller should note where he can get the information as to the past, the date of the commencement of the actual movement of _each glacier_, and in all cases whether the ice is in advance, or retreat, or stationary. Of course the rate of forward movement, or velocity of the ice, and the oscillations in the extension of the ice must be kept carefully distinct. Observations should also be made on the presence of blue bands, and their relation to the lines of stratification in the névé noted.

Should time and circumstances permit, a series of observations of the velocity of the ice is of value. These may be made after Tyndall’s method, by planting a line of sticks across the glacier, or by painting marks on boulders, the position of which relatively to ascertained points on the mountain-side has been accurately fixed. The size of the glacier that is, the area of its basin and its length, also the slope of its bed above, as well as at the point measured, should be noted. The rate of movement of the ice appears to be connected both with the volume of the glacier and the inclination of its bed, and is considerably affected by temperature. Thus a rise in temperature may even be accompanied by a temporary advance, but in this case a sagging will take place higher in the névé, producing a concave cross-section, showing that the advance is not due to increased snowfall, but to a decrease in the viscosity of the ice.

The advance or retreat of a glacier are not the only factors to take into account in estimating the decrease or diminution of the volume of ice. The highest level of the transverse convexity of the glacier at various points in its course should also be noted. If the glacier is bounded laterally by rocky walls, marks may conveniently be painted on these, opposite one another. The vertical height of the marks above the ice at the sides should be noted, and the date of the observation recorded.

A society, entitled the Commission Internationale des Glaciers, has been formed to promote the study of glacial movements and other points of interest and importance. Their reports from their inception to 1905 were published in the ‘Archives des Sciences,’ Geneva, the journal of the Swiss Alpine Club, and from 1906 to 1913 in the ‘Zeitschrift für Gletscherkunde,’ Berlin. A summary of the reports in English appeared throughout these years in the ‘Journal of Geology,’ Washington. The European War has disorganised this international society, but steps are being taken to establish some organisation to replace it.

IV.

NATURAL HISTORY.[7]

_By the late H. W. BATES, F.R.S._

Revised by W. R. OGILVIE-GRANT, _British Museum (Natural History)_.

In the present state of Biological Science, travellers who intend to devote themselves specially to the zoological or botanical investigation of new or little-known countries, require to be trained for the work beforehand, and are consequently well-informed as to methods and appliances. It is not for them that these ‘Hints’ are drawn up, but for general travellers and explorers, who, whilst engaged chiefly in survey, wish to know how best to profit by their opportunities of benefiting science by collecting examples of new or rare species, and how to preserve and safely transmit their specimens. The observations refer only to explorations by land.

_Outfit_[8]—

A magazine sporting rifle, either Mannlicher ·256, or
Lee-Enfield ·303, and ammunition (solid and soft-nosed, split
or hollow-point bullets).

Double-barrel 12-bore gun—for choice a Keeper’s hammerless
non-ejector gun and ammunition (Nos. 3 and 5 shot).[9]

Double-barrel ·410 hammer-gun and ammunition (Nos. 8, 10 and 12
shot).

Cartridges with a full charge of powder and No. 8 shot will
kill larger birds at a considerable distance; those with Nos.
10 and 12 shot are specially loaded for collecting smaller
birds at closer quarters, and may be used at distances of from
fifteen to twenty-five yards without damaging the specimens.
The loads are: ⅜ oz. No. 12 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
grains Schultz; ½ oz. No. 10 shot, ¾ dr. black powder, or 9
grains Schultz. In damp climates black powder will be found
more reliable. If shot larger than No. 8 is used with this
gun, the pattern is erratic and the result uncertain. Messrs.
Cogswell and Harrison, 226 Strand, W.C., have had considerable
experience in loading cartridges for these guns, and their Nos.
10 and 12 shot is even and carefully screened.

No. 1 saloon pistol and ammunition (turned-over caps with dust
shot). This pistol will be found of great value for collecting
small birds at very close quarters in thick cover, or the more
active lizards. It can be easily carried in a holster on a
belt, to which is also attached a small pouch for ammunition.
Small brass turned-over caps, loaded with a pinch of dust-shot,
can be had of Messrs. Cogswell and Harrison.

Telescope.

Binocular field-glasses.

Traps can be procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road,
Highgate, N. (apply, in the first place, by letter). For
catching hyænas, etc., large traps are supplied; for smaller
mammals, Brailsford live-traps and Cyclone and Schuyler
break-back traps are the best, and should be procured in
several sizes. Pitfall-traps made by sinking earthenware jars
flush with the ground are also useful.

Several air-tight zinc-lined collecting boxes, fitted with
light wooden trays. These are made by Messrs. Lovelace and
Co., 20 Gloucester Road, S.W., and will be found extremely
serviceable for packing, storing, and transmitting skins of
smaller mammals and birds. When starting they can be packed
full of stores. Uniform cases may be substituted, but, unless
protected by wooden travelling-covers, are liable to get
damaged and to admit insects.

A set of carpenter’s tools; screws and French nails of various
sizes.

A set of soldering irons and soft solder, etc.

_For skinning large Mammals_*—

2 shoemakers’ knives.†

3 large scalpels.

1 small saw.†

1 pair cutting-pincers.†

1 pair pliers.†

_For skinning small Mammals and Birds_*—

Taxidermist’s box containing:

6 scalpels.†

1 oil-stone.†

2 pairs of scissors (one short-bladed, one dissecting).†

2 pairs of tow-pliers (like curling-irons, for inserting tow or
cotton-wool into the necks of bird-skins).†

1 pair of forceps.†

1 pair of tweezers.†

1 pair cutting-pliers.†

1 pair compasses.†

1 2-foot rule marked in tenths of an inch.†

1 millimetre rule.

3 darning needles.†

Needles and thread.

1 tin of mixed pins.

Bundles of galvanized wire (for inserting in tails of small
mammals and in necks of bird-skins).

3 hog-hair brushes for applying arsenical soap.

2 egg-drills (two sizes).†

2 blow-pipes (two sizes).†

2 pencils.

1 small biscuit tin of fine boxwood sawdust.

1 2-lb. tin of candle naphthaline.

1 2-lb. tin crystal.

1 2-lb. tin plaster of Paris.

3 1-lb. tins of arsenical soap (in treacle tins), or the same
weight of powdered arsenic.

1 2-lb. tin burnt alum.

1000 labels for bird-skins.

500 labels for small mammals.

2 bundles of wool.

Tow (which can be used as packing).

6 pieces of fine mesh wire-netting (for making cages, etc.).

* All the articles mentioned in this list can be best procured from Mr. S. J. Beckett, 39 Dresden Road, Highgate, N. Apply, in first place, by letter.

† Those marked with a cross (†) can be obtained from Messrs. Buck, 242 Tottenham Court Road, W.C.

_For preserving Reptiles, Batrachians, and Fish_—

These should be preserved in spirits whenever practicable.

_For larger specimens_—

2 or 4 four-sided copper tanks with a round opening of six
inches diameter, closed with a screw cover. Each tank is fitted
into a strong wooden case with a lid secured by hinges and
lock, and furnished on two opposite sides with a rope handle.

_For smaller specimens liable to be damaged_—

2 or 4 wooden cases divided into four or six compartments,
each containing a pickle jar, with glass rubber-edged stopper
secured by an adjustable iron fastening.

3 dozen or more corked glass tubes of various sizes.

A supply of sheets of zinc, soldering irons and soft solder (to
make extra tanks).

1000 parchment labels bearing numbers.

If the above specially constructed zinc tanks cannot be
procured, wide-mouthed earthenware jars, tightly closed with
cork or rubber, may be used.

The glass tubes will be found specially useful for collecting
Arachnida, Myriopoda, small Mollusca, etc.

_For collecting Insects_—

Store boxes lined with cork-carpet.

Triangular envelopes of smooth foolscap paper for butterflies
and thin-bodied moths.

Card fly-discs.

Entomological pins (boxes of various sizes).

2 zinc oval pocket boxes lined with cork-carpet (two sizes).

6 or more sets (four each) of glass-bottomed pill-boxes covered
with jaconet.

2 pairs of entomological forceps.

4 insect killing-bottles (two sizes) in leather cases. (Hinton
& Co., 38 Bedford Street, Strand, W.C.)

A small bottle of oxalic acid, with stabbing quill fixed in
cork, for killing large insects.

2 flat killing-bottles for beetles, with glass tube passing
through the cork and fitted with a cork plug.

2 small entomological lamps.

6 tins of bicycle oil.

1 dozen 1-lb. tins of golden syrup or treacle.

2 sugar brushes.

1 3-oz. bottle of acetate of amyl (“Essence of Pear Drops,” for
mixing with treacle) (Hinton & Co.).

3 butterfly-nets (two round, one kite-shaped) with extra
bags.[10]

1 water-net (for aquatic insects).

Several pieces of cork-carpet about a foot square (for making
extra store boxes).

1 pocket lens.

2 large pickle-jars of carbolized sawdust to be used as packing
for beetles after they have been killed.

3 dozen corked glass tubes (three sizes).[11]

_For instructions regarding the collecting and preservation of specimens in all branches of natural history, travellers and others are recommended to provide themselves with a ‘Handbook of Instructions for Collectors,’ issued by the British Museum (Natural History). With illustrations. Second edition, 1904. Price 1s. 6d._

In humid tropical countries, where the ubiquitous ants are likely to destroy specimens before they are ready to be packed away, drying-cages, suspended from the roof of a hut or tent, are absolutely necessary. These can be readily made from old packing-cases, but a few square feet of wire gauze must be provided for the back and front of the cages, and the cord by which they are suspended must be threaded through a small calibash containing oil, or, better still, naphthaline, to prevent ants from descending from the roof. The cages may be so arranged as to be taken to pieces and put together again readily; one, for birds, should be about 2 feet 6 inches long by 1 foot 6 inches high and 1 foot broad; the other, for insects and other small specimens, may be about one-third less. They should have folding doors in front, with panels of wire gauze, and the backs wholly of the latter material; the sides fitted with racks to hold six or eight plain shelves, which in the smaller cage should be covered with cork, or any soft wood that can be obtained in tropical countries. A strong ring fixed in the top of the cage, with a cord having a hook attached at the end by which to hang it in an airy place, will keep the contained specimens out of harm’s way until they are quite dry, when they may be stowed away in suitable close-fitting boxes. An even simpler and perfectly effective plan is to take a number of pieces of stout wire each about 18 inches long, bend each end into a loop, and round the middle solder a funnel-shaped piece of tin to contain powdered candle-naphthaline. The upper loop of each wire can be secured with string to a rafter, and between the lower loops flat boards, or a series of boards, can be suspended on which skins may be placed to dry. This method has been proved to be safe, no ants ever venturing to cross the naphthaline.

A few yards of india-rubber waterproof sheeting may be found useful as a temporary covering to collections in wet weather or in crossing rivers.

To those who have had little or no experience in field-collecting it may be useful to give some idea of the impedimenta considered absolutely essential for an ordinary day’s work when it is desired to collect, as far as possible, in all branches of zoology, and the most convenient means of disposing of such. The collector should be accompanied, if possible, by two intelligent natives to act as bearers, who may, with patience, be developed into useful assistant-collectors.

A 12-bore gun or rifle, according to circumstances, with ammunition, to be carried by the first bearer.