Chapter XIV: Section VIII (7)

The following notes deal in the briefest possible manner with the more important observations to be made on human bones; and it is conceivable that some such records might be obtained under circumstances precluding the observer from securing or removing the actual specimens, and even in instances where only a very brief period is available for inspecting them. It is convenient to arrange the observations under the following separate headings:—

1. The circumstances attending the death of the individual should be first investigated, and observations concerning the mode and locality of interment should be recorded (cf. Professor Tylor’s Schedule, under ‘Funeral Rites’).

2. The general condition of the specimen next demands attention. This is to some extent dependent upon circumstances referred to in the preceding section. From the texture and preservation of the actual bony substance, a rough estimate may be formed as to the lapse of time since the death of the individual. The occurrence of the skull alone, or at a distance from the remainder of the skeleton, should be noted.

3. The greater weight and size, as well as the greater prominence of the brow-ridges and ridges at the back of the skull, serve to distinguish the male _sex_, but in many cases the determination of sex is almost impossible.

As regards _age_, skulls are conveniently described as immature, adult or senile. Immature skulls lack the full complement of teeth or of sockets for these, and a deep cleft is seen to cross the base of the skull about an inch in front of the large hole (foramen magnum) for the spinal cord. Upon the attainment of maturity this cleft is obliterated, by the fusion of its margins. In senile crania, the sutural lines on the surface are almost entirely obliterated, and the jaws are toothless and much reduced in size and prominence.

4. The skull may be deformed. It is important to attempt to distinguish _deformation_ produced during life (either artificially or otherwise) from that determined by the weight of superincumbent soil after interment. Artificial deformation is manifested in most cases by flattening of the forehead, or of the back of the skull, or of both. But posthumous deformation is quite irregular, the face is often involved as well as the brain-case, there is often extreme flattening from side to side, and the bones are usually fragile and tend to fall apart.

5. _Trephine-holes_, indicative of enterprise in operative surgery, should be noted. The regularity of contour and the size of the hole often gives the clue to its real nature. It must be remembered that, in the process of exhumation, injuries closely resembling the foregoing operative wounds may be received by skulls, and therefore the circumstances of exhumation demand enquiry in this connection. Some skulls are found to have been incised or engraved with decorative patterns after death.

6. _Craniological descriptions_ deal with the appearances presented by skulls in each of the five normal positions or aspects depicted in Fig. 1.

In the first view or aspect (Fig. 1, B) the general form of the skull is shewn, and in proportions the cranial case may be either elongated or rotund; or again, if elongated, it may be elliptical (with no great difference in form between front and back), ovoid (when the hinder end is the broader), or rhomboid (lozenge or diamond-shaped).

In Fig. 1, C, the profile line, and its modification by prominent brow-ridges or jaws, claims attention. In Fig. 1, D, the general form of the eye (orbital aperture) and nose (nasal aperture), as well as the relative breadth of the face, are considered. Fig. 1, E, shows the palate, and the number and forms of the teeth are studied from this point of view. In Fig. 1, A, the form of the transverse cranial arc, and any irregularities, such as flattening or the production of a keeled (scaphoid) appearance, should be noted.

The five normæ, or aspects of the human skull, viz.:—(B) Norma verticalis, the vertex view; (C) Norma lateralis; (D) Norma facialis; (E) Norma basilaris; (A) Norma occipitalis.]

7. The _lower jaw_ is studied independently. The prominence of the chin, the squareness of the angle, the stoutness of the whole bone, and the number and characters of the teeth are the chief points to which attention is directed.

FIG. 3.—Measurement of the length of the skull with another form of callipers.]

8. _Cranial measurements_ are made with callipers and a flexible steel or tape measure. These objects, as well as a graduated two-meter rod used for measuring stature or long bones, are supplied in a travelling case by Messrs. Hermann of Zürich, who have made them to Professor Martin’s designs. The whole outfit costs about £4, but the instruments can be obtained separately. Messrs. Hermann also make a modified form of the callipers, known as Flower’s Craniometer (cf. Fig. 2). Measurements are recorded in millimeters, in which the various callipers, etc., are graduated. The latter instruments may have the forms represented in Fig. 2 (Flower’s Craniometer) or Fig. 3, in which are shown the exact positions of the instruments in measuring the length of the skull.

The chief measurements may be now enumerated in order of importance:—

i. The _extreme length_ of the brain-case, measured as shown in
Figs. 2 and 3.

ii. The _maximum breadth_ of the skull is measured on the
brain-case.

iii. The _circumference_ of the brain-case (as distinct from
the face) is measured with the flexible tape passed round the
brow-ridges and the back of the skull. The measurement is that
of the greatest circumference of the brain-case obtainable in
this way.

iv. Measurements illustrative of the degree of prominence
of the upper jaw are two in number, and are made with the
callipers. The two measurements start from the same point
behind; this point is the middle of the front edge, or margin,
of the hole for the spinal cord (foramen magnum), shown in
Fig. 1, E. From this common point, the upper or _basi-nasal
measurement_ passes to the upper border of the nasal bones in
the middle line of the face, and the lower or _basi-alveolar
measurement_ passes to the extreme front edge of the upper jaw
in the middle line, just above and between the upper incisor
teeth.

9. _Measurements of the long bones_ of the limbs. These are best made by means of a graduated rod with fixed and movable limbs, resembling a large pair of callipers. Such a rod is supplied (as indicated above) by Messrs. Hermann. The bones to be measured are six in number for each side of the body, viz.:—those of the upper arm and thigh (humerus and femur); then two for the forearm (called radius and ulna, the former being the shorter); and two for the leg (called tibia and fibula, the former, or shin-bone, being the larger). The extreme or maximum length is measured in each case, excepting those of the femur and tibia.

i. The femur is measured obliquely, that is, from its ball-like
head to a line touching _both_ prominences at the lower end, as
shown at B in Fig. 4. This represents the position of the bone
in a person standing erect.

ii. The spiny processes on the upper end of the tibia are not
included in the measurement of its length.

Immature limb-bones are recognised by the line which demarcates the extreme ends, or epiphyses, from the shaft (or diaphysis). Sexual differences are chiefly indicated by greater length, stoutness, and also by the development of osseous ridges in male bones.

10. The measurements of the long bones are used in estimating the _stature_. Special notice is to be paid to individuals of giant or of dwarf stature. In this connection particular mention should be made in the following instances:—

(_a_) Where the thigh bone measures more than 52 cm., or less
than 36 cm.

(_b_) Where the shin bone measures more than 42 cm., or less
than 28 cm.

(_c_) Where the fibula measures more than 41 cm., or less than
28 cm.

(_d_) Where the upper arm bone measures more than 37 cm., or
less than 26 cm.

(_e_) Where the ulna measures more than 29 cm., or less than 20
cm.

(_f_) Where the radius measures more than 27 cm., or less than
19 cm. (only adult bones being considered, and the sex, where
known, recorded).

11. Adult skulls will also excite attention when the horizontal circumference (measured in accordance with the directions provided above) is greater than 56 cm., or less than 47 cm.

VI.

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE.[16]

_By SIR JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., formerly Secretary, R.G.S._

The kind of information desired under this heading may be summed up in the three following questions, so far as uncivilised or semi-civilised countries are concerned:—

(1.) What are the available resources of the country that may
be turned to industrial or commercial account?

(2.) What commercial products can find an available market in
the country?

(3.) What are the facilities for or hindrances to intercourse
between the country and the rest of the world?

Or, briefly, (1) Resources; (2) Wants; (3) Accessibility.

These include the questions of suitability for immigration and colonisation.

What is known as commercial geography is one of several special applications of geographical knowledge. From this practical point of view, therefore, the observations collected under other heads in this book will be of service, especially if the requirements of commerce are kept in view at the same time as the _desiderata_ of science. From this standpoint, the sections on Meteorology, Geology, Natural History, and Anthropology should be consulted. Even general geographical and topographical observations will be of practical service—the general lie of the country, its altitudes, and its character at certain altitudes, its mountains, hills, valleys, plains, rivers—if regarded from the special standpoint of habitability and possibilities of development.

The suggestions contained in this, as in the other sections of this manual, are meant both for the ordinary explorer or traveller who may have to pass rapidly through a country and for those who may have more opportunity for making leisurely observations. To the former the following brief hints may prove serviceable:—

Observe and note—

1. As regards RESOURCES:—

The extent or quantity, quality, facilities for raising or
collecting, for transport and shipment, etc., of

(_a_) The natural products, such as minerals and metals,
especially gold, silver, coal, iron, copper, tin, nitre,
guano, phosphates, etc.; timber useful for various purposes;
vegetable products, useful for food, fibres, dye-stuffs, or
medicine—gums, resins, etc.; animal products useful for food,
skins, fur, feathers; riverine or lacustrine products, useful
for food, oil, or other purposes.

(_b_) Substances cultivated for food or for manufacturing
purposes.

(_c_) Articles manufactured for clothing, for domestic,
warlike, or other purposes.

(_d_) Native methods of developing resources, of carrying on
manufactures, and of transport.

(_e_) Practicability of developing the resources of the country
by European methods.

2. As to WANTS:—

(_a_) What particular things used by the natives could be
profitably supplied from the outside?

(_b_) What do the natives lack that might be introduced and
supplied from the outside?

(_c_) In all cases be particular to note favourite materials,
shapes, colours, or other peculiarities, as of cloths,
implements, ornaments, such as beads, anklets, etc.

3. As to ACCESSIBILITY:—

Note the nearest ports and railways; the character and
connections of native roads, if any; the navigability of
rivers, inlets and lakes for various kinds of craft at various
seasons of the year; heights of passes, whether suitable for
animals or only for porters, whether blocked at any season of
year; routes likely to be suitable for railways.

In all cases where practicable, specimens of products should be obtained, in order that specialists at home may judge of their industrial or commercial value.

For those who may have more leisure for observation, some or all of the following detailed hints may be useful:—

MINERALS AND METALS.—It is not necessary to add much here to what has been said under Geology. If the traveller is not himself competent, or has no opportunity to test the value of these products, he should bring home specimens; this, if possible, should be done in any case. Under this section a look-out should be kept for any indication of naphtha, asphalt, or mineral oils. From the commercial point of view the important points are—

_Quality._—To what extent are minerals or metals, as gold, copper, iron, phosphates, mixed up with other matter? What is the yield per ton of ore? In the case of coal, how does it burn, and what is the percentage of ash? Next—

_Quantity._—Does the substance occur in sufficient quantity to make it worth expenditure of capital and labour? The information must be obtained by personal inspection. Finally—

_Locality._—Is the situation of the deposits easily accessible? How are they situated with reference to routes, existing or practicable? and how with reference to ports of embarkation? Could they be worked with the resources available in the country, or would labour and machinery require to be introduced? If worked in the country, is there any neighbouring market for the manufactured products? What are the native processes (if any) of obtaining and working minerals?

We must again refer to the section on Geology for further details, and the intending traveller would do well to take a few lessons before he leaves, so as to be able to recognise the most common and useful minerals and the conditions under which they usually occur; he will thus save much time and trouble.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTS.—The directions for observation and collection given under the Botanical section should be attended to; and it is important that the traveller should be able to recognise the chief classes of plants, so that specialists may be able to pronounce generally on their utility.

_Character of Surface._—The general character of the surface of a country, so far as its vegetation is concerned, should be clearly grasped. What proportion, or, if possible, what area is under forest? what under grass? what desert, or mountain, or marsh, or uncultivable? what under cultivation?

_Forests._—If of a generally forest or thickly-wooded character, are the forests extensive and dense, with much undergrowth, as in tropical South America? or easily penetrable, as the forests of Europe and North America? Or are the trees scattered, either in clumps, or singly, as in a great part of Central Africa? Do they prevail over the country generally, or are the river-banks only lined with dense tree vegetation? Are the forests only found in the low country, or do they cover the hills and extend up the mountains?

_Timber._—Ascertain the leading characteristics of the trees of the forests. What are the prevailing families, and, if possible, genera and species? What uses, if any, do the natives make of the woods? Which do they use for their houses, their furniture, their canoes, their weapons, their ornaments? How do the woods seem to stand tear and wear, the climate, the attack of destructive insects, immersion in water? Are there any woods that would do for such purposes as railway-sleepers or telegraph-poles in the conditions which prevail in the country? Any ornamental woods suitable for cabinet purposes?

_Fibres, Fruits, Chemicals, etc._—Are there any plants the fibres of which could be turned to account? Any fruits adapted to human consumption, and are they found in any quantity, or could they be cultivated?

Are there any trees or other plants suitable for drugs or chemicals—bark, leaves, juices, roots? What medicines, narcotics, or stimulants are used by the natives? how are they obtained and how prepared?

Are there any species of useful plants growing wild—coffee, sugar, cotton, vanilla, spices, etc.? Any trees producing gums that might be of commercial value, like gum arabic, gutta-percha, or caoutchouc? Or any whose fruits yield oil, like the cocoa-nut and the olive? Do the natives make use of these juices? What are the processes of extraction and preparation?

_Other Vegetation._—When there is an undergrowth, its character should be noticed, and the diseases, if any, to which trees are subject.

Note what other vegetation exists besides that of trees. Are there any plants like the turnip, the potato, the batata, which are useful as foods, or for other purposes? Specimens of any herbs likely to be useful should be obtained, especially if they are used by the natives for medicine, for dyeing, for poison, or other useful purposes.

Sometimes, as in Central and Western Australia, what arboraceous vegetation exists consists mainly of shrubs, the character of which should be noted. Do they hinder locomotion? Are their shoots useful for forage? Are they injurious to horses and cattle?

When there is herbaceous vegetation of any extent, what is its character? Is it tall and coarse and reedy, like much of the African grass? Or such as is found on the prairies and pampas? Or of a troublesome spinifex character, as in Australia? Or of a turf-like character, like the grasses of Europe? What are the components of this kind of vegetation, and how far is it likely to prove useful as fodder? What uses do the natives put it to, either for their animals or for manufactures? Do they use it for making mats or cloth? Are there any plants mixed with it injurious to animals? What is the condition of the grass at different seasons of the year? When is it at its best, its strongest, its densest? Is it liable to be parched up at any season? To what extent is its condition affected by the climate, by rainfall, by irrigation, natural or artificial? Is it easily removed, in order to make way for other cultures? Does it spread into the forest region, and has it any special characteristics there? How does it, as well as other useful vegetation, vary with altitude or other local conditions? Do the products change under different agricultural conditions? e.g., some are poisonous under certain conditions, not others?

_Marshes, Deserts, Irrigation._—Note if marshes or peat-bogs, or other special features of the surface exist to any extent, and whether the drainage of marshes is practicable.

Where deserts exist, note their character. Are they sandy, gravelly, rocky, salt? What is the prevailing rock? If the desert character of the land (as is generally the case) seems due to want of water, is there any artificial means likely to be available for supplying that want? Is there any storage of water and irrigation among the natives? and, if so, how is it accomplished? and what are the results? Are there any sources within reach, either above or underground, from whence a supply of water for irrigation purposes could be obtained? Indicate any exceptional defects of quality in the supply of water.

Note if any part of the country is liable to periodical inundations. At what periods of the year do they occur? Are these inundations destructive, or are they utilised for agricultural purposes? Would it be possible to regulate these inundations?

AGRICULTURE.—The general outcome of all these observations is the suitability of a country for agricultural development. What articles do the natives cultivate, if any? Has the cultivated land any special character, or is it simply the ordinary land cleared of trees or grass, or other wild growth? Note the methods and implements of culture used by the natives; the seasons of sowing and reaping, and preparing the crops for use. Do they depend for water on rainfall or irrigation? To what altitudes is cultivation carried, and what are the crops that prosper at these altitudes?

From the point of view of colonisation and agriculture, precise information as to the nature of the soil is desirable. The proportion or extent of a country suitable for agriculture might be noted. Observe, as precisely as practicable, the nature and depth of the upper layer of soil. The depth—it may be a few inches, or it may be two or three feet—can easily be ascertained. A general idea may also be given of its nature. Is it mostly vegetable mould, as it is likely to be in old forest or grass countries? or peaty? or marshy? If possible, also, ascertain the depth of the subsoil down to the rock or clay, or other permanent basis on which it rests. In a general way it might be observed whether the soil is sandy, gravelly, stony, calcareous, marly, clayey. Also is it compact, tenacious, or loose, and, above all, is it permeable or impermeable to water? Is the soil very dry or very moist? or what is its intermediate stage?

If the natives carry on cultivation, ascertain, if possible, the yield per acre of what they cultivate. Do they cultivate only for their own wants? If not, where and what is the nature of the market to which they send the surplus?

Does the country seem suitable for other cultures besides those carried on by the natives?

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.—If there are wild animals in the country, observe whether the natives hunt them for what they yield in the way of food or other useful products. Are there any ivory-yielding animals, or animals whose skins can be turned to profitable account? Could a sufficient supply for mercantile purposes be obtained by means of native hunters, if properly encouraged; or how would it be best to work such resources? Are there any laws or customs enforced by the natives in hunting wild animals? Are there any noxious wild animals, and to what extent do they affect human comfort and human life?

_Domestic Animals._—It is important to know what domestic animals the natives possess, how they are reared and fed, and what uses they are put to. Also whether the country is good for horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry, and approximately what is the extent, situation, and accessibility of the grazing-lands. Are the pastures perennial? To what extent do they depend on rainfall, or irrigation, or on intermittent streams? During what months of the year are they available? Are there any plants among the pastures injurious to animals? Are there any insects (like the _tsetse_) or other animals injurious to cattle or horses? Do horses or asses exist among the natives, and what uses are they put to? If not, would they be likely to flourish, if introduced?

_Fisheries._—Information concerning fish and fisheries is desirable; and among fish, from the practical standpoint, are included shell-fish (especially pearl shells), sponges, corals, and animals of the whale and seal kind. If the natives practise fishing, either in lakes, rivers, or the sea, ascertain the kinds of fish they capture, their methods and implements, and the particular seasons at which fishing is practised. Are the fisheries, whether worked by the natives or not, likely to be of commercial value?

TRADE.—Much of the information suggested above will be of service from the special commercial point of view, especially with reference to export. Information should be obtained concerning any manufactures carried on by the natives besides what has been suggested above—manufactures in metal, in wood, in clay, or stone; in materials derived from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, what they are, what uses they are put to, what processes are used, and to what extent, if any, they form articles of trade. With regard to the import market, what generally are the wants of the natives and what new wants might be created. If possible, some approximate estimate of the value of the leading classes of imports, if there are any, should be obtained.

Ascertain if any goods are brought into the country from the outside; if so, what they are, where they come from, and as accurate an estimate as possible of quantity, or value, or both. In the case of imports from civilised countries, are those of any particular country preferred, and, if so, why? Is it owing to anything special in quality, or pattern, or cost, means of communication, or in quantity available? Is there any special tribe of middlemen who prevent the inland people from coming into direct relation with traders? Probably a market could be created for outside manufactures which have not as yet been introduced into the country; or such manufactures might easily obtain a market in preference to those of native make. Note especially the patterns of articles of native make, as these are probably adapted to the conditions of the country, and should therefore be imitated or improved upon in the case of imported goods, the quality of the latter being better, and the cost, if possible, lower. British traders, especially, often incur serious losses by not ascertaining in advance what particular articles and what special patterns are in demand among natives. Note also whether European methods might not be introduced with advantage for the manufacture of native goods. Native usages as to credit ought to be ascertained, what safeguards are binding, what is the medium of exchange, etc. It would be useful to discover beforehand whether the importation of machinery and explosives is likely to be unimpeded.

CLIMATE.—This is an essential item, so far as the exploitation of tropical and semi-tropical countries by Europeans is concerned. Its main elements are determined by temperature, latitude, altitude, and rainfall; the character of the surface should also be taken into account. Under Meteorology, the main directions on the subject are given. The temperature at different seasons and at different times of the day (say 9 A.M., 3 P.M., and 9 P.M.) should be ascertained, and that at various altitudes. Rainfall observations are not of much service unless they can be obtained over a continuous series of years. Ascertain the distribution of rainfall over the year, and the limits of the rainy period of the year, when such period exists, and, if possible, the quantity which falls in the different months of the period; how does the rainfall differ with altitude and other topographical variations? If a country is subject to droughts, it is important to ascertain if there is any periodicity in these droughts, and how they affect the resources and prospects of the country, and the condition of the rivers. Would it be possible, by storage of water or other means, to counteract to any extent the bad effects of drought?

What effect has the rainy period and the drought period on the native inhabitants, and especially on Europeans? As far as possible, ascertain the birth and death rate per annum.

FACILITIES AND HINDRANCES TO COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT.—Under this head the first consideration is Accessibility or Means of Communication. Generally, the quickest, cheapest, and safest routes to a satisfactory market should be ascertained.

_Water Communication._—Observe what natural means of communication exist, what is the nature of communication between the country and the outside world. If communication by sea is of importance, how is the interior to be reached from the sea? Are there any deep inlets? Is there practicable river communication? For what sort of vessels is it adapted? Are there any obstructions in the river, and, if so, what is their nature, and how could they be surmounted? What is the width of the river, the depth of the water, and the force of the current, at various distances from the mouth, and at the periods of the year when the river is at its lowest and highest? Are there any lakes that could be utilised for communication?

_Roads._—If there are native roads, state precisely what is their nature under various conditions of weather; their width; what sort of vehicles, if any, they are suited for, and where they lead to. If the country is mountainous, ascertain the principal passes, what places they connect, their exact heights at the highest point (not the heights of the mountains), for what animals or vehicles they are practicable, or if only for porters, and what is their condition at various seasons of the year. If the natives have any vehicles, or vessels, or other means of transport, describe them.

_Railway Routes._—Observe, as far as possible, suitable routes for railway or canal communication, as well as for good roads, and whether any materials for railway construction are obtainable in the country. Possibly the country, if an inland one, could be connected by road or rail with some existing railway system. What are the nearest telegraph stations?

_Labour._—Another important consideration under this head is that of labour—labour for the varied enterprises connected with the development of a country’s resources. Is labour obtainable within the country itself? If so, to what extent, and on what terms? Are the natives industrious, and are they likely to labour under foreign superintendence? Does slavery or forced labour in any form exist? If not obtainable in the country, how may labour be most easily and cheaply obtained? Is the country suited to manual labour by whites? If there are only certain kinds of labour in which whites may engage, state what they are.

To what extent could machinery be used with advantage? Is there any water power available? or any animal power?

_Currency, Tariffs, etc._—Under this head also questions relating to currency should be included, or whatever other medium of exchange exists.

Another important consideration here is the question of tariffs, which, in one shape or another, exist in nearly all uncivilised and semi-civilised countries, from the hongo of Central Africa to the Customs duties of Eastern countries. Precise information concerning these, both as to exports and imports, is important.

Note, also, as precisely as practicable, the cost of living for Europeans settling down for a time, and the expenses involved in travelling through a country.

_Inhabitants._—Is there anything in the character of the natives—physical, mental, or moral—likely to affect commercial intercourse or the industrial development of the country? Any prejudices or superstitions that should be attended to? Anything in the attitude of natives to traders and settlers deserving consideration? Is the population nomadic or settled? What material, if any, do they use for smoking, and what is the nature of their intoxicating drinks, if they have any? Estimate, as nearly as possible, the population, the density per square mile, both for the country as a whole and for the chief centres of population. Ascertain the nature of any political or social organisation which exists. What are the terms on which land can be acquired? What are the prevalent crimes? Under the Anthropological section directions are given for ascertaining the leading racial characteristics of the people.

VII.

ARCHÆOLOGY.

_By D. G. HOGARTH, C.M.G., M.A., D.LITT._

This section is intended, not for experts, but for those travellers without special interest or experience in archæological work, who, finding themselves in districts where unpublished antiquities exist, feel it incumbent to record or rescue them. General hints, therefore, are subjoined on methods of recording, cleaning, temporarily conserving, and conveying monuments and objects of antiquity.

A.—RECORDING.

There are three ways of obtaining a record of a monument, all of which should be used if possible in cases of importance:—

1. Mechanical reproduction by photography, moulding, or rubbing.

2. Reproduction by planning, drawing, or otherwise copying.

3. Literary memoranda of characteristics, _e.g._, dimensions, subject, etc.

1. _Mechanical Reproduction._

_(a) Photography._—This subject has already been dealt with in Part II., and it is only necessary here to add a few hints, peculiarly applicable to the photography of objects of antiquity.

_Of inscriptions_ photography does not, as a rule, supply a useful reproduction, and unless time or other opportunity be wanting, it should not be the only mechanical process applied. If an inscription is at all worn, or the material on which it is engraved contains superficial faults, do not rely on a photograph; but if one is taken, try to dispose the object so that light falls on it from one side, with a slight obliquity from above. In the case of rock inscriptions or others still in their place on walls, etc., a photograph should be secured to show relative position and surroundings. An inscription on dark material will often need preparation with white chalk before being photographed to any good purpose; but the traveller who has opportunity to do that, will probably have equal opportunity to employ the better process of moulding.

For _sculpture_, photography will often be the only method of reproduction possible to the traveller. When that is the case he may be advised (1) to take his photographs on the largest possible scale; (2) to take the object from all possible points of view; (3) to do what he can to improve the light and relief of the subject. Small objects gain enormously by reflected lights carefully arranged to bring out their contours; if sufficient mirrors are not obtainable, strips of tin or even white paper will serve as reflectors. Backgrounds may be chalked or blacked as the case may be, but in the case of a relief this should only be done when the outlines are very clear. If a sculpture on rock or other material is much broken or worn, a good mechanical method of improving relief, which Professor Petrie recommends, can be used; this consists in dusting the face with powdery sand and then fanning it. The result, if carefully done, is to leave hollows and background in strong contrast to the surface of the relief. Highly polished or lucent surfaces should be dulled before photographing. Metal objects do not, as a rule, photograph very satisfactorily; and of coins it is much better to take a cast and photograph that. Perhaps it is not superfluous to remind the photographer to make notes of all colouring before leaving his subject. On preparing sculpture, etc., for photography there are valuable practical hints in Professor Petrie’s ‘_Methods and Aims in Archæology_,’ Chapter VII.

For _small objects of antiquity_, photography is not of much service unless a camera with very long extension can be used. If it be possible, the best way is to lay the objects on a sheet of glass raised about a foot from the ground on a frame, and arrange the camera above, so as to photograph downwards. This process obviates all ground shadows, and all pins or other supports for the objects, which appear sharply on the negative as if suspended in air.

For _buildings_ photography is, of course, the only method of mechanical reproduction possible.

(_b_) _Moulding._—This in almost all cases will have to be done by impressing _paper_. Only in the case of small objects will a traveller ordinarily be able to use either _plaster of Paris_ (if he can procure it) or _sealing wax_. As to the latter he may be reminded never to heat his wax by putting it in direct contact with a flame, or the impression will come out so parti-coloured or black as to be of little use; a card should be held over a candle or lamp, or, better, a spirit burner, and the wax rubbed upon the gradually heating upper surface till enough has melted on to the card without boiling. A useful impression may be obtained of coins, gems, etc., by pressing ordinary tin foil upon the surface; but great care must be taken afterwards that the impression does not get flattened out in transport. Mr. Petrie recommends floating impressed foil on water face downwards, and dropping hot wax upon it, as a solidifying agent.

As to the use of plaster of Paris it may be remembered that (1) the proper mixture is just as much plaster as will absorb the water, leaving none standing on the top; (2) the object must be well cleaned and soaped before being moulded; (3) the plaster must be applied _very rapidly_, in a thin coating all over the object at once: it can be backed with more plaster afterwards; (4) a surface of any size should either be moulded in sections, or, if done all at once, the plaster will probably have to be cut into sections afterwards for transport. To cut it, it is best to lay strings upon the object before moulding, which, later, can be pulled up through the plaster while still viscous.

_Paper moulding_ or ‘_squeezing_’ is, however, the ordinary process employed. Any fairly strong _unsized_ paper will serve more or less well, but a special ‘squeeze’ paper is procurable in most large cities where there are archæological museums (_e.g._, in London, from Nutt’s, 57 to 59, Long Acre, W.C.; in Paris, from Moreau’s, 11, Passage du Pont Neuf; in Berlin, from Ebers Brothers. It can also be got direct from the maker, Papierhändler Dorr, Spiesgasse, Strassburg.) Mr. Maudslay recommended in a previous edition a hand-made paper, used for packing oranges in Spain, and to be obtained of Messrs. Batalla, of Cacagente, near Valencia, through the agency of Messrs. H. King & Co., Cornhill. Failing these, the paper on which the commoner news-sheets are printed will do. The other implements needed are a sponge, and close-bristled, not very hard, brushes of two or three sizes, _e.g._, an ordinary clothes-brush, a nail-brush, and a tooth-brush, if no others are at hand, but special brushes with hand-straps on the back, or curved handles to keep the knuckles of the beater away from the stone, are preferable. In the case of an ordinary inscription, of not specially rough or uneven surface, brush and clean the stone thoroughly, and pick all accumulation out of the letters; then wet it thoroughly all over; lay the dry paper, cut to size, as flat on the surface as possible, and dab it down with a very wet sponge till thoroughly soaked; take the largest brush and pound the paper rather gently all over, till it partially adheres; then take smaller brushes and work the paper into all depressions with the maximum pressure you can exert; finally, hammer it with the large brush again, working systematically from top to bottom or side to side, not minding the surface becoming mashed, and driving the air-bubbles, which collect under the paper, before you and out at the farthest point. If the stone was thoroughly wetted before the paper was laid on, these ought not to be numerous or troublesome. Then, if the surface of the stone has penetrated through the paper at any point, lay a second sheet and, if necessary, a third, or more, and treat as the first was treated. Leave the sheets, if possible, to dry on the stone, and all will come off as one with a perfect reverse impression of the stone’s surface. Some soak the paper before laying on the stone, but if that is done and there be any wind, the paper, become very tender, will be apt to tear with its own weight while being laid on, and will be difficult to lay flat. If for any reason, _e.g._, overhanging of the stone’s face, it is difficult to make the paper adhere, the task will prove easier with small pieces. But whenever a surface is squeezed by sections, the operator must be careful to make the edges of his sheets overlap, so that later all can be gummed together as one sheet; to number the sheets according to a key-plan, recorded in his note-book, and to mark on the sheets themselves the lines of junction. All superfluous edges should be peeled off, as they are apt to lift in the wind and cause all or a part of the impression to become detached before it is well set, and weights should, if possible, be laid on the drying paper. If for any reason the paper cannot be left to dry in position, peel off carefully and lay out to dry reverse side uppermost. The impression, so taken, will be hardly less good. When dry, roll the squeeze inside a tin cylinder, and only very rough usage will harm it.

Squeezing sculptures is a more difficult matter. Mr. A. P. Maudslay gave very full directions in an earlier edition of these “Hints” which may be repeated here. After stating that all moulds of sculpture have to be made of many thicknesses of paper, with a good coating of paste between every few sheets (not only because of the great inequalities of surface, which break through the paper, but also in order that the mould, when dry, may be stout enough to keep its shape), he said:—

‘Paper can only properly be applied for the purpose of moulding when the carving is free from large contours and deep undercutting; but it is wonderful what accurate results can be obtained even when large curves and some undercutting have to be contended against. Where worn or splintered parts of a wood-carving, or fissures in a stone, or deep undercutting which is not essential to the design, occur, it is often of advantage to fill them up with clay or paper, to which a smooth surface can be given, so that the mould will come away free from them when it is dry; and careful notes and measurements will often enable one to restore the contour to a mould which has suffered some pressure in transport. In a properly-made mould the detail of carving is never lost, unless the paper itself is destroyed.

‘A shallow tin bath (or two made to fit inside one another), large enough to hold an open sheet of paper, is useful for soaking the paper in.[17] Twenty sheets or more may be placed in the water at once, and left there without harm for an hour or more; but a few minutes’ soaking is quite enough.

‘I have several times had to mould, in America, the whole of a monolithic monument—one as much as 25 feet in height—covered with carving and hieroglyphic inscription, and have been perfectly successful in reproducing it in plaster in England. Each face would be marked out into three or more sections, and each section would be moulded separately, great care being taken that each mould should considerably overlap the margin of the other, so that when each section is cast in plaster the edges of the cast can be cut away until the joint is perfect. And each section should also overlap at the top and sides in No. 1, and at the sides in No. 2, &c., for the same reason; and it is necessary to pay careful attention to the beating in of the paper near the sides and edges, as it is there that the layers are most likely to come apart when dry. These edges can be trimmed down afterwards, if found too bulky in packing.

‘The first sheets of paper should always be put on singly, and well beaten in. If the carving presents many sharp angles, the paper will again and again be broken away over them, and small scraps of paper may be used for covering them up, until the whole section is covered at least three papers deep in the thinnest place. The coat of paste should then be given. If the paste is laid on when the mould is too thin, it will penetrate to the stone, and prevent the mould coming off when dry. The paste may be put on warm, but if too hot it draws the paper from the stone (if it is a stone sculpture); air gets underneath the paper, and it is very difficult to get rid of it again. Avoid, in putting on the first papers, doubled edges or creases, and beat in well, so that the paper may work into the grain of the stone or wood. It is easy to spoil a mould by scamping the work in it, but not easy to spoil it by overbeating. After giving a coat of paste with a brush, it is advisable to work in the paste with the fingers, so as to be sure, from the smooth feeling, that it penetrates the paper over the whole surface.

‘After the first coat of paste has been applied, a good deal of time may be saved by employing an assistant to beat out the paper for the further thickening of the mould, for when thus beaten out, two or three thicknesses of paper can be laid on at the same time. Take about six sheets together from the water, fold them, and then double them twice, and slightly tear the wet doubled edges, so that when the sheets are laid open again there are a number of small slits in the paper; then lay them out together on any flat surface, and beat them out with a brush for a few minutes. It is easy to separate them again into the required number of sheets in thickness.

‘Another method which is equally good, if not better than the last, is, after making the tears in the doubled sheets as before, to unfold them, and then to roll them together and twist them up like a rope, and rub them well between the hands; then unroll them and beat them out for a moment, separating as many sheets as are required. Either of these processes loosens the fibre of the paper, whilst the slits prevent it stretching unevenly. After this treatment it feels to the touch more like wet leather than paper.

‘As the mould grows thicker the pulpy paper will, from the continual beating, find its way into, and fill up, the deeper cutting; but it should be most carefully watched that the mould is not left too thin over the more prominent parts of the surface, and, with a little practice, the thickness is easily judged by the touch. It is always well to use the fingers frequently both in pressing the paper into its place and working in the paste.

‘It is difficult to lay down any rule as to the thickness of a mould and the number of coatings of paste necessary. If the mould is of large size, and the carving presents prominent angles or large curves, it may need an average of thirty sheets in thickness to preserve its shape, and three or four coatings of paste; but if the carving is in low-relief on a flat surface, less than half the thickness will suffice.

‘In hot weather, out of doors, a mould will take about twenty-four hours to dry; but it should be covered up at night from the dew. In damp forests or in bad weather I have dried most of my moulds by building up large wood fires at the distance of a few feet from the sculpture.

‘It is best to take off a mould when it is cool—in the morning or evening. _Don’t be in a hurry about it._

‘If the mould is torn or broken in taking it off the carving, mend it with paste _at once_.

‘When a mould is taken off, lay it to dry in the sun on a flat surface, as there is usually some moisture left in it. If the mould is not flat in shape, support it carefully, so as to preserve the contours.

‘When the mould is quite dry, it is advisable, but not necessary, to give it, both back and front, one or more coats of boiled linseed oil. Heat this oil before applying it, and it will then soak in well, and use either a soft brush, and be careful, in oiling the surface of the mould, not to rub too hard. As the paper easily absorbs moisture, the moulds need to be carefully packed.’ Plaster casts can be taken very successfully from paper moulds. See directions for casting above.

(_c_) _Rubbing_ can only be practised on a fairly smooth surface, and has nothing to recommend it except the ease and celerity with which it can be done. The traveller may as well carry a little heel-ball in his kit. Any thin, tough paper will do.

2. _Other Reproductions._

_Planning_ and _drawing_ are dealt with in Vol. I. of these ‘Hints.’ _Copying_, as distinct from either, applies to inscriptions. A hand-copy of an inscription as well as a mechanical reproduction should always be made, partly because it has the better chance of surviving the accidents of travel, partly because, if a stone surface is at all perished, anyone with a keen eye and power of concentration ought to see more lettering on its worn parts than will appear on a photograph or ‘squeeze.’ The copy should be as near a facsimile on a reduced scale as time and other considerations will allow. It should be made on ruled paper, if possible on paper ruled in squares (_en quadrille_), and the relative position of the letters to one another must be kept as far as possible. All broken parts of letters are to be scrupulously copied (they can often be distinguished from stone-flaws by feeling along the bottom of the groove with a knife-blade; if that finds an even line, the groove is probably part of a letter), and all intervals where letters have perished beyond the copyist’s power to recover them should be measured, and by comparison of equal intervals containing decipherable letters in other parts of the inscription, the number of lost letters can be estimated. These should be indicated by dots in a shaded patch. Letters, about which the copyist is not quite certain, must be dotted or drawn in faint line. If a stone be imperfect at the sides, and there be any means of estimating its original breadth, the line of its true centre should be marked on the copy. Such an observation will be invaluable to the restorer of the text. All letters that have peculiar forms should be carefully drawn at least once, as specimens. If the text is grouped about, among, or in any relation to, sculptures, such relation should be indicated, even if the whole sculpture be not drawn. Marks of punctuation or division, ligatures of one letter with another, and ornate initials and finials, should be looked out for and noted. On beginning a copy it is well to transcribe first the most obviously easy parts of the inscription: they will give an inkling of the character of the text, teach the forms of lettering used, and accustom the eye to the inscribed surface. On finishing a copy, if there be time, read it over, try to translate it, and in the light of the probable translation, attack again the harder parts of the inscription. In the case of stones with two or more texts inscribed one over the other (as frequently happens on Roman milestones, which may be geographical documents of great importance), a ‘squeeze’ must be got at all costs, for an untrained copyist will make little or nothing of them, and find it very difficult to draw an accurate hand facsimile.

3. _Literary Memoranda._

It is impossible to make too many notes of a monument, and quite easy to make too few. The nature of the great majority of such notes must be left to the discretion of the traveller; but concerning all antiquities, from buildings to beads, it may be said that, at any rate, material, colour, dimensions, condition of preservation, arrangement of parts and character of ornament must be jotted down in the ever ready note-book. In the case of buildings, notes giving all dimensions are especially important, since the camera can seldom be brought to bear on all parts and details, and there is often not opportunity to draw out a plan on the spot. Of inscriptions certain facts must be recorded, viz., form of the stone; condition of its surface; the material and colour; on what sides complete, and on what not; actual dimensions; height of lettering; general character of lettering; whether well or ill cut, plain or ornate. Epigraphists’ notebooks are procurable in Germany and Austria containing divisions for the notes on all these points, together with a ruled space for the actual inscription. In the case of coins, the material, the ancient value, the weight (if possible), the state of preservation, and the images and superscriptions should be noted; of sculpture, the material, the dimensions, the degree of finish, and a minute analysis of the subject, the dress of the figure or figures, their gestures, attributes, and so forth.

B.—CLEANING AND CONSERVATION.

The traveller will not have occasion to render more than ‘First Aid’ to objects of antiquity, _i.e._ to clean them so that their true character may appear, and to consolidate them with a view to safe transport. He should do the least that is absolutely necessary, leaving all elaborate treatment to experts at home. The hints here given are therefore elementary, and concerned mainly with portable objects. In this connection these are best classified by the materials of which they are made.

(_a_) _Gold._—Gold requires no immediate treatment, unless it be laid over a core of other metal, _e.g._ copper or bronze, which has oxidised out through cracks. This oxide can usually be removed by picking or by sharp scaling blows with a small hammer and chisel. If it is obstinate, use dilute hydrochloric acid laid on with a brush. The proportion of pure acid should not be more than one part to ten of water.

(_b_) _Silver._—If in very much corroded condition, technically known as ‘dead,’ silver should be left alone. If there is only slight superficial corrosion, soak in a solution of common salt or lemon juice, or strong ammonia, and polish after a few hours. If there is a good deal of chloride on the surface, but the body of the metal seems sound, put zinc or iron in the solvent and the chlorine will pass over, leaving a powdery surface which can be brushed clean. Silver should never be packed in a tin box, even if wrapped up, or it will be found on arrival at home to be stained with a brown rust, very difficult to remove. Pack in wood or cardboard.