Chapter XXI: Introduction (6)

_Treatment._—Isolate the patient and administer a good purgative. Give twenty drops of tincture of steel, with five grains of quinine in two ounces of water. Light diet. Stimulants will be necessary. Local treatment: flour, starch, or zinc oxide may be used to dust over the part, or zinc ointment applied on lint. The healthy skin just beyond the advancing edge may be painted with tincture of iodine.

_Cellulitis._—Occasionally the infection of the skin by the germs spreads to the tissue beneath, and is then called cellulitis, or phlegmonous erysipelas. In this condition there is more swelling than in simple erysipelas, and the skin is very boggy or doughy, and retains the imprint of a finger pressed upon it. The red blush is not so vivid, being darker and more purple, and there is no well-defined edge. If left untreated, the skin will break down and die, causing extensive destruction of the part.

_Treatment._—General treatment the same as for erysipelas. Locally, several incisions, each at least one inch in length, should be made into the swollen tissue where it is most boggy, and right through the skin, care being taken to avoid the larger blood-vessels; then hot fomentations of boric acid (five grains to the ounce) or other antiseptic should be applied, every two or three hours, till the swelling has subsided. The important point in the treatment of swollen and inflamed parts following wounds, when accompanied by continued or rising high temperature, is to relieve tension by making free incisions. Some knowledge of the anatomy of the parts is essential before using the knife. In any case, incisions in the arm or leg should be made parallel to and not across the limb.

_Blood-Poisoning._

If a poisoned wound is left without thorough local treatment, the poisons and germs contained in the tissues are taken up by the blood, and cause _blood-poisoning_. The symptoms of this condition are high temperature, delirium, headache, loss of appetite, vomiting, and occasionally bronchitis and pneumonia. Severe forms of blood-poisoning may lead to the formation of abscesses all over the body, with fatal result.

_Treatment._—The general treatment is the same as that described for erysipelas. The local treatment is to thoroughly open up and disinfect the poisoned part.

_Bruises._

A bruise should be treated by bathing with cold water, or the frequent application of wet cloths. The addition of Goulard water, gin, methylated spirits, eau de cologne, or vinegar, to the water, is beneficial.

_Sprains._

The affected joint should be raised on pillows, and treated in the manner advised for bruises, but if seen immediately after the injury, firm strapping with adhesive plaster and bandaging of the part is often equally serviceable. If inflammation develops, warm fomentations will be found soothing, leeching may be necessary, and free purgation always has a good effect.

The troublesome stiffness which often remains is relieved by friction and kneading with the hand. To regain the use of the joint, it should be gently moved each day; this movement is less painful if it is performed with the joint in hot water.

_Poisoned Wounds from Snakes, Animals, and Arrows, etc._

In cases of poisonous snake-bite, the marks of two fangs will usually be found.

_Treatment._—Tie a piece of tape, bandage, or cord a couple of inches above the wound, _i.e._, between the wound and the body; tie another piece still nearer the body, say three inches from the first. Cut across the wound or wounds to encourage free bleeding.

(If a medical man is present, he may think fit to inject anti-venomous serum as an antidote to snake poison.)

Dissolve as much permanganate of potash as possible in about a teaspoonful of water, stirring well to hasten its solution. Inject about five drops of this underneath the skin, on either side of the cut, by means of a hypodermic syringe. Some of the solution may be injected into the wound itself, or even a crystal of the drug may be pressed into the cut, or part of a crushed tablet of the drug.

It is best to keep a small bottle of the strong solution of permanganate always ready.

Give spirits strong, that is, one tablespoonful to one of water; at least four such doses in the first hour. Ammonia may also be given.

If the patient is heavy and stupid, give two tablets of strychnine (one-hundredth of a grain in each) in half a wine-glassful of water, by the mouth; or dissolve two in twenty drops of water, and inject well beneath the skin into the muscles of the back. If there is no improvement within an hour, give two more tablets; and if necessary, one or two more in another hour.

After tying up a limb for a poisonous bite, there will be great pain if the ligatures have been applied tightly; the parts will swell, become very dusky, and if the ligatures are left on too long, the blood supply will be cut off, and the parts will die. Therefore, when the ligatures begin to cause much pain, loosen the one next the injured part for ten seconds, then tie again at or near the same place, and loosen the other one for a similar period, and then re-tie; repeat this about every fifteen minutes. In the course of two hours, both tapes may be taken off. The object of tying up is to prevent much of the poison getting into the system at once.

_The first thing is to tie up tightly; next cut freely, and suck or squeeze out as much blood as possible, then treat with drugs._

(It is usually safe to suck a poisoned wound unless there are any abrasions or cracks in the mouth, tongue, gums, or lips, taking care to spit out the poison at once; but the mouth should be washed out immediately afterwards with a light purple solution of permanganate of potash.)

If the wounds are on the face, neck, or other spot which cannot be tied up, then it is best to cut out the part at once and wipe the wound well with the strong solution of permanganate.

In the treatment of snake-bite, pure carbolic acid, ordinary caustic, a red-hot wire, or even a burning stick may be applied to the wounds when permanganate of potash cannot be obtained. In some cases, where no other treatment is available, it is advisable to explode a pinch of gun-powder over the place of injury, or even to blow the parts away with one’s gun.

If a finger or toe is bitten by a snake which is certainly poisonous, and neither drugs nor fire are at hand, it would be best to amputate at once.

Wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows or other weapons, mad dogs, jackals, etc., should be treated in a similar manner to those caused by poisonous snakes.

_Drowning._

Death from drowning usually occurs in from two to three minutes after submersion, although people have been revived after a period of five or six minutes under water.

In treating cases of apparent death from drowning, the points to be aimed at are:—

First and immediately, the restoration of the breathing.

Secondly, and _after breathing is restored_, the promotion of warmth and circulation.

1. _To restore the breathing._

Roll the patient on to his face for a few seconds, placing one of his arms under the forehead; wipe away all weeds, mud, etc., from the mouth. (In this position water will more easily escape from the mouth, whilst at the same time the tongue will fall forward, and leave the entrance to the windpipe clear.)

Turn the patient on his back, on a flat surface, with the head a little higher than the feet.

Place a small hard pillow (or a rolled-up coat) _under the shoulder-blades_.

Draw the patient’s tongue forward, and keep it projecting beyond the lips.

Remove all tight clothing from about the patient’s neck and chest; also braces, belt, etc.

Kneel at the patient’s head, grasp his arms just above the elbows, draw them gently and steadily upwards above his head, and keep them stretched in that position for two seconds (Fig. 4). (By this means air is drawn into the lungs.)

Reverse the movement, and press the patient’s arms gently but firmly against the sides of the chest, keeping them in this position for two seconds (Fig. 5). (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs.)

Repeat these movements alternately and regularly, about fifteen times a minute, until natural breathing takes place, or as long as there is any hope of saving the patient. It may be necessary to continue the movements for as long as an hour.

While these movements are being carried out the wet clothing may be removed, the body gently dried, and the patient wrapped up in dry blankets.

2. _To promote warmth and circulation._

Rub the limbs and body vigorously with dry towels and flannels, always rubbing from the extremities towards the heart.

Apply hot-water bottles, hot flannels, or hot bricks to the feet, armpits, the pit of the stomach, and between the thighs.

Immediately the power of swallowing returns, administer hot coffee, spirits and warm water, etc.

Put the patient to bed between hot blankets as soon as possible.

_Fractures._

A _simple fracture_ is one in which, though the bone or bones are broken, the protecting skin is _not_ broken.

A _compound fracture_ is one in which the skin, etc., is broken or cut across, so that the fracture is more or less exposed to the air. The end of either fragment of the broken bone may protrude through the skin.

A _comminuted fracture_ is one in which the bone is broken into several pieces; such a fracture may be either simple or compound.

In a simple fracture great gentleness should be used in handling the parts, so as not to convert it into a compound fracture; therefore, do not undress the part; rather cut away the clothing.

A fracture which is compound is usually serious, for dirt and germs are liable to be carried into the wound and cause great mischief; in gunshot wounds, dirt or pieces of clothing may be carried into the wound.

The signs of a fracture are, firstly, the patient’s own feelings, _e.g._, the pain which is caused on handling the part, sudden loss of power, and the sensation of grating. Secondly, on examination, most if not all of the following signs will be observed: inability of patient to move the part below the injury, swelling, unnatural movement below the site of fracture, alteration in appearance of the limb.

In fractures of the upper or lower limb there is usually shortening, the spasmodic action of the muscles causing the broken ends to ride over each other, and the greater the obliquity of the line of fracture the greater will be the shortening and alteration in appearance.

A sensation of grating is usually conveyed to the operator when he attempts to move the parts; sometimes this grating can be heard, as well as felt. Comparison of the injured with the sound limb is of the greatest importance in detecting fractures.

_Treatment of Simple Fractures._

Directly a fracture of a limb is made out, a splint or splints of some kind should be applied to keep the parts fairly in position, and to prevent a broken end from being pushed through the skin. Cloths and bandages may be applied firmly round the injured part, and then extemporised splints, such as boards, straight sticks, umbrellas, or bayonets, should be applied and kept in position till the patient is in bed.

Splints suitable to the injury should be now made and well covered with wool, lint, or cloth, special care being taken to pad them well where they are likely to press upon bony prominences, such as the inner or outer ankle. The limb must next be straightened, and any deformity caused by overriding of the fragments must be remedied by steady pulling upon the parts above and below the fracture, in opposite directions, and the parts brought into good position by manipulating the bones at the seat of fracture. The prepared splints, extending well below and above the fracture, are then fitted to the limb with cotton-wool or lint, and secured by bandages.

If there is great swelling and tenderness of a limb, then it is advisable not to apply splints at once. Sand pillows should be made, or stockings nearly filled with sand and their mouths tied, and applied one on either side of the limb, to keep it absolutely still; the painful swelling may be reduced by applying ice or evaporating lotions. When the swelling is somewhat reduced, splints may be applied after proper manipulation.

Whilst the bandages should be firmly applied so as to keep the splints in position, they must not be bound too tightly, otherwise swelling and ulceration may be caused. If there is much pain and swelling after a fracture has been set, it will be necessary to loosen the bandages.

Union of the fractured bones is generally completed in about six weeks.

_Collar-bones._—Fracture of the collar-bone should be treated by placing a large wedge-shaped pad (about six inches long, by three in thickness at the upper end) in the armpit, and securing it with tapes tied over the opposite shoulder. The elbow should then be brought forward, and raised and well supported by a broad triangular bandage or handkerchief, used as a sling, and with the ends tied over the opposite shoulder. A flannel or other bandage should then be wound round the chest, so as to secure the arm from accidental movements.

_Ribs._—Fracture of the ribs may be treated by wrapping a flannel bandage round the chest pretty tightly, so as to limit the movements of breathing, which are very painful. The flannel should be secured by stitching, and the upper turns should be fixed by broad tapes passed over the shoulders and firmly stitched. Firm strapping of the side with adhesive plaster is still better. For this purpose about six strips of plaster one to two inches wide and eighteen inches long should be applied evenly round the side of the chest; each piece should be overlaid by the next piece above it for about half an inch. To secure rest for the affected side of the chest, the strapping should not only cover the broken bone, but should extend to about three inches above and below it, and should reach well beyond the middle line both in front and behind.

_Upper Arm._—Fracture of the upper arm may be treated by the application of several narrow splints reaching from the armpit to the elbow, well padded, and supported in position by a bandage carried from the fingers to the armpit. Care must be taken that the splints on the inner side do not chafe the folds of the armpit. The hand and wrist should then be supported in a sling, but the elbow must be allowed to hang free.

_Forearm._—Fractures of the forearm must be treated by two splints, each wider than the limb. The injured limb is allowed to hang down by the side, palm forwards. One splint reaching from the elbow to the finger-tips is applied to the back of the limb; the other is placed on the front, and only reaches from the bend of the elbow to the level of the ball of the thumb. The splints are secured temporarily by a couple of slip knots. Now bend the arm to a right angle, thumb uppermost, and bandage securely from the tips of the fingers up to the elbow.

_Thigh._—Fractures of the thigh are serious; they require the patient to be kept in bed till union has been effected, and they are more likely to lead to shortening and permanent lameness if not very carefully treated, and the assistance of a skilled surgeon is urgently needed. A long splint is applied to the outside of the limb, reaching from the armpit to beyond the foot, and secured above by a bandage passing round the body, whilst the foot and leg are firmly bandaged to it below.

_Leg._—Fractures of the leg should be treated by applying a splint on each side, long enough to reach from the knee to a little below the sole of the foot. They should be carefully applied with bandages, keeping the great toe in a line with the inner border of the knee-cap. When the accident occurs in the open air, the injured limb should be tied to the sound one, till the patient is brought to a place of security, the toes being prevented from pointing inwards.

_Lower Jaw._—Manipulate the parts into their normal position and mould a splint of gutta percha, or other material, as accurately as possible to the lower jaw. If a tooth is loose and prevents the two jaws meeting properly it should be taken out.

Apply the splint and keep it in position by a bandage, which should be split at the chin so as to encircle the point of the jaw; the ends of the bandage are also split as far forward as the angle of the jaw; two ends are tied behind the neck and two over the top of the head, as in the diagram, and these tied ends should be united by a bandage or tapes to keep them in position (Fig. 8).

In the absence of suitable material for making a splint, this bandage alone will have to suffice.

FIG. 8.]

The patient must be fed on slops through a tube passed behind the teeth, or through a passage resulting from the loss of a tooth.

_Compound Fractures._—Clean up thoroughly as described in the treatment of wounds. Wash out with an antiseptic solution, dust with iodoform, apply an antiseptic pad. Set the limb in such a manner that the wound can be dressed daily without interfering with the splints.

If the bone is protruding through the wound, it must, if possible, be got back into position. If this cannot be done it may be necessary to saw off the end of the bone to enable the wound to be closed.

If the wound is large, deep, or dirty, it should be stuffed with antiseptic gauze so that free drainage may be allowed, and the gauze should be changed each day.

_After-treatment of Fractures._—Gentle movements may be cautiously begun, in the joints above and below the injury, in about three weeks. While these are being carried out, the limb must be firmly supported to avoid interfering with the healing processes going on between the ends of the bones.

_Dislocations._

Dislocations nearly always require skilled aid to reduce them.

_Shoulder-joint._—Patient cannot raise the arm to his head or perform any other shoulder movements freely. The shoulder is flattened, the elbow sticks out, and the limb is usually lengthened.

_Treatment._—The patient should lie down. The operator removes his own boot on the same side as that of the patient’s dislocation, inserts his heel into the patient’s armpit and draws the arm steadily down, at the same time pressing the heel in an outward direction; the dislocated bone should slip back into its proper position. Put a pad in the armpit and bandage the arm to the side for a week; support arm in a sling for another week or two.

_Elbow-joint._—Dislocation of the bones of the forearm backwards at the elbow-joint is fairly common.

_Treatment._—This dislocation can usually be reduced by placing the knee in front of the patient’s elbow, and making firm traction on the forearm—which is at the same time bent a little around the operator’s knee. The patient can be kept sitting in a chair while this is done, and the operator can get his knee into the required position by placing his foot on the side of the chair.

_Hip-joint._—Is the most common form of dislocation. The limb is shortened, bent at the knee and twisted inwards, the great toe of the injured limb resting on the instep of foot of the opposite limb. The outer side of the hip is swollen and distorted.

_Treatment._—Grasp the ankle with one hand and the knee with the other. Lift up the leg and bend it at the hip, then carry it as a whole away from the other limb as far as possible, rotate the toes and foot firmly outwards, and in that position bring the limb back parallel to the sound one.

_After-treatment of Dislocations._—After dislocations, gentle movement of the joints should be begun in two weeks, so as to prevent them becoming fixed.

POISONS.

It is impossible, in the small space available, to give anything like a detailed scheme of the treatment of the various poisons, but a few hints on the essential points must not be omitted.

I have therefore arranged a list of the commoner poisons, together with the special treatment appropriate to each. Following this are a few hints more especially adapted to the requirements of travellers.

Poison should be suspected (_a_) when severe and alarming symptoms of illness suddenly attack a person apparently in good health; (_b_) if the symptoms closely follow the taking of food, drink, or medicines; (_c_) if several people are attacked after having partaken of the same food or drink.

The points to be attended to in the treatment of cases of poisoning are:—

_a._ Remove as much of the poison as possible from the stomach. To do this, it is usual to give an emetic, such as mustard and water, or zinc sulphate, thirty grains; or to pass the soft rubber tube down the gullet, and wash out the stomach with water.

_b._ Counteract the effect of the poison by an antidote.

_c._ Keep up the patient’s strength till the poison is removed from the system.

_d._ Relieve pain.

Travellers may be poisoned in the following ways:—

1. By poisonous bites, arrow wounds, etc.

2. By eating food poisoned by natives.

3. By eating poisonous plants, etc.

4. By eating bad meat or fish.

The treatment of _snake-bites and arrow wounds_ has already been dealt with.

_Poisoned food and poisonous plants._—Food is occasionally poisoned by natives, either by adding strophanthus leaves or other poisons. The eating of such articles may be followed by severe pain, colic, vomiting, diarrhœa or other symptoms. The general line of treatment should consist in giving emetics promptly, washing out the stomach by means of the stomach tube, and administering large quantities of water, milk, or gruel. Distressing symptoms should be treated as they arise; thus, if convulsions occur, large doses of chloral or potassium bromide should be given; if stupor or drowsiness comes on, the patient should be forced to take hot coffee, stimulants, etc., and made to walk about. If collapse supervenes, stimulants should be freely given, the patient wrapped in blankets, and hot bottles applied to the feet.

_Poisoning by bad meat, fish, etc._—The symptoms of poisoning by bad meat, etc., are severe pains in the belly, cramps, and shivering fits, followed by vomiting and diarrhœa coming on soon after its consumption, occasionally within an hour or two. The vomiting and diarrhœa are usually alarming and very severe, causing great collapse, and unless urgent remedies are applied, death may occur. The bodies of patients may be covered all over with irritating blotches, red rashes or with nettle rash.

_Treatment._—Give an emetic at once. Administer a sharp purge to clear out the bowels. Use stimulants freely. Apply hot-water bottles and blankets. Give opium or chlorodyne, fifteen drops every four hours until the pain is relieved. Milk and gruel or arrowroot.

CANOEING AND BOATING.

_By J. COLES._

_Canoeing._

_Choice of a Canoe._—In making choice of a canoe the traveller must bear in mind that, in all probability, there will be rapids in the river, which will necessitate a portage being made, and that the canoe may have to be carried over rough ground for a considerable distance. For this reason, it is far better to take two canoes of moderate size than one large one, besides which, a small canoe is much more easily handled in bad water, and even should it become necessary to carry a large load, this can easily be done by lashing two small canoes together, at about one yard apart, and laying a platform across them, on which to place the stores, &c. This, however, should not be done in dangerous and rapid rivers. The following remarks do not, therefore, apply to large canoes, which, having nearly the stability of a boat, may be handled in the same manner.

_Paddles._—It will generally be found that the native paddles will be best suited for the work. The double-bladed paddle, such as is used with the Rob Roy canoe, is quite useless on a rapid and dangerous river.

_Sail._—The sail should be made of duck, or some such light material, fastened to a light yard at each end, and its hoist should be about twice its breadth; its size must be in proportion to the canoe, the hoist being about one-fourth of the canoe’s length. The mast should be as light as possible, with a hole at the top for the halliards to pass through freely. The end should be stepped in a chock in the bottom of the canoe (when in use), and it should be lashed to one of the stays, or cross-pieces of the canoe. The sail should never be used unless the wind is steady and abaft the beam, and the halliards should be taken to the after part of the canoe in order to stay the mast, and secured in such a manner that it can be instantly let go, when the sail will at once fall, and undue pressure on the canoe relieved.

_The Tow-line._—Too much attention cannot be paid to this important article. It should be light, but of the best material (such as the rope used by the Alpine Club), as its giving way at a critical moment in a rapid is sure to be attended with most serious results.

_Loading the Canoe._—The packages should not exceed 50 lbs. in weight, as they may have to be carried long distances over portages, and care must be taken not to overload the canoe. Natives, who are all good swimmers, and have nothing to lose by a capsize, are very apt to put more into a canoe than is safe, so that it is a matter in which the traveller should use his own discretion.

In ascending a rapid river, keep close to one of its banks, and endeavour to take advantage of eddies. It will often happen that, owing to the strength of the stream, no headway can be made with the paddles, in which case recourse must be had to poling or tracking. In the event of the former, the poles should be straight and tough, and as long as can be conveniently carried in the canoe. Natives generally stand up to pole, but this the traveller should not attempt to do, or he will in all probability either fall overboard, or capsize the canoe, or both. In tracking, as great a length of line as possible should be used, as a sheer of the canoe in a rapid, with a short line, will often end in a capsize. Only two men should remain in the canoe, one in the bow with a pole, and the other in the stern with a paddle to steer; this man should also have his pole handy. The line should be made fast to one of the stays in the bow of the canoe, and _never to a towing mast_, as in a boat; as in passing round bad corners, or places where there are snags, and where it is necessary to give the canoe a wide sheer, the leverage of the mast, if the line were fastened to the top of it, would pull the canoe over. The man in the bow, however, should always have his knife handy to cut the tow-line, should necessity arise for his doing so. In tracking, when a river passes through sandy soil, the men on the line should keep at some little distance from the edge of the bank, as it is likely to give way under their weight, and precipitate them into the river. Several men lost their lives in Fraser River, in the early days of the gold discovery, by neglecting this precaution.

In crossing from one bank of a river to the other above a rapid, be careful to ascend the river for a considerable distance before attempting to do so; and then make the crew paddle as hard as they can, keeping the head of the canoe, if anything, rather down the stream, as in the case of a rapid river you would only lose ground by trying to fight against it.

In descending a river, the traveller should keep a look-out ahead for snags and places where the river is narrowed in between hills, as in such places there is nearly sure to be a rapid which may be so bad as to render navigation impossible. In all cases before descending an unknown rapid, he should land and inspect it throughout _its entire length_ before attempting to run it in the canoe. When descending a rapid, care must be taken to keep steerage way on the canoe, as this will be needed to avoid rocks, or whirlpools. These latter are very serious dangers, as they generally do not remain fixed in one spot, but move about within a certain distance of a centre. There are, however, in most cases, short intervals when they break up, and that is the time to make a dash past them. To attempt this when they are in full swing could only end in the loss of the canoe and its occupants.

_Boating._

When a traveller has to proceed for some distance overland before reaching a river or lake he purposes to navigate, he must of necessity provide himself with a boat constructed in such a manner as to be easily transported, either by being built in sections, that can be put together and taken to pieces at pleasure, or by taking one of the collapsible boats, such as Berthon’s. If the former, he cannot do better than to have one built of Spanish cedar, on the same plan as that which was constructed for Sir H. M. Stanley, by Mr. James Messenger, of Teddington, with such modifications as may be necessary, when the means of transport, and the nature of his journey, have been duly considered. Collapsible boats, though very useful for ferrying across lakes or rivers, cannot, where a boat of other construction is available, be recommended for a continued exploration.

If the exploration is to be commenced at the mouth of the river, a whale-boat will be found to be the best form of boat for the following reasons. Being steered by an oar, it is more easily handled in surf or a rapid; it is generally faster than boats of the same size of ordinary build; it will carry a good cargo, sail well off the wind, and is the best boat built for crossing the bars of rivers, or landing through a surf. Such a boat can generally be purchased at foreign ports, with oars and sail, and should be well overhauled before starting.

Boat-sailing cannot be taught by any book, and certainly not by a few short notes of this description. The traveller, therefore, who intends using a boat for exploration, should gather some experience before starting, which can be done at any fishing village on the coast. This will be the more necessary if he intends to use his boat on a lake, or for sailing along the coast, from the mouth of one river to another, and the following hints may, it is hoped, be useful to those who have had but small experience in boat-sailing.

_When under sail_, never, _under any circumstances_, allow the sheet to be made fast; a turn should be taken round a cleat, and it should be held by one of the crew ready to let go at any moment. Do not let the crew stand up, or sit on the gunwale. When about to round-to, remember that you cannot carry the same canvas on a wind that you can before it. If caught in a squall, put down the helm at once, ease the sheet, and if the squall is a bad one, lower the sail while it is still shaking. When approaching a danger, such as a rock, do not stand on if you are in doubt about weathering it, but go about in time, and have an oar ready to help the boat round if she appears likely to miss stays. Never carry too much sail, as there is considerable danger in doing so, and a boat will often sail faster with a reef taken in, than she will when unduly pressed. If necessary to take in a reef when sailing _on a wind_, do not luff, but check the sheet, lower the sail sufficiently to shift the tack, gather the sheet aft so that the men may take in the reef without leaning over the gunwale, shift the sheet, hoist the sail, while the sheet is slack, and do not haul the sheet aft until the men are again in their places.

_Rowing._—This can only be acquired by practice, and though the traveller will seldom be called on to take an oar himself, circumstances may arise when he may have to do so, and we would, therefore, advise him to learn how to handle an oar before leaving England. Under ordinary circumstances, rowing on a river is sufficiently simple, and calls for no special instructions. The case, however, is very different when a river bar has to be crossed, or a landing made on a beach where a surf is breaking, and in either case it will be well to remember the following hints. On approaching the shore, a surf when seen from seaward never looks so bad as it really is. Where possible, a landing should not be attempted until opposite a village where the natives will be ready to assist the moment the boat touches the beach. When the surf is heavy, the boat should be backed in, pulling a few strokes to meet each heavy sea, and then backing in again until the shore is reached. The great thing to avoid is, letting the boat get broadside to the sea, as she will then capsize; a steer-oar should always be used, as a rudder is of little use in a surf, when backing in.

_In crossing a bar_, if there is a good, strong, fair wind, it will generally be best to cross under sail; but if the wind is light or variable, this should never be attempted. When rowing, the crew should be cautioned to keep their oars out of the water when the sea breaks round the boat, and to commence rowing again as quickly as possible afterwards. As even in the most experienced hands a boat will often be swamped on a bad bar, it will be well, before attempting to cross it, to prepare for a swim by removing all superfluous clothing, and see that everything that will float in the boat should be left free to float, while things that will sink, such as fire-arms, &c., should be securely fastened to the thwarts.

The remarks given on canoeing with regard to loading, to ascending and descending rapid rivers, are equally applicable to boating under similar circumstances, with the following exceptions. In towing, a short mast should be used to which the line is made fast; this is stepped in the same place as the mast, and should be stayed, so as to resist the strain of the tow-line. Paddles will often be found useful in reedy rivers where the oars get entangled. As a whale-boat empty will weigh about five hundredweight, more care must be taken at portages than in the case of a canoe, which can be lifted bodily over obstacles. The stems of small trees, or the oars should be laid down under the boat, and, where possible, sharp rocks must be avoided or moved out of the way. In a rapid, two men should be in the bow with poles ready to fend off from rocks, and the most experienced man of the crew should be in the stern with the steer-oar.

Although in the foregoing remarks special reference has been made to whale-boats, the hints given are equally applicable to boats of other construction, which should, however, for river work, crossing a bar, or landing through a surf, be fitted with a steer-oar in addition to the rudder. Awnings should be taken, but in rapid rivers, and when under sail, they cannot be used.

ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES.

_By MAJ.-GEN. LORD EDWARD GLEICHEN, K.C.V.O., C.B., C.M.G., D.S.O. Chairman of the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names._

In 1878 the Council of the R.G.S., impressed with the necessity of endeavouring to reduce the confusion existing in British maps with regard to the spelling of geographical names, in consequence of the variety of systems of orthography used by travellers and others to represent the sound of native place-names in different parts of the world, formally adopted the general principle which had been long used by many, and the recognition of which had been steadily gaining ground, viz., that in writing geographical native names vowels should have their Italian significance, and consonants that which they have in the English language.

This broad principle required elucidation in its details, and a system based upon it was consequently drawn up with the intention of representing the principal syllabic sounds: this has long been known as the R.G.S. system.

* * * * *

The system thus drawn up was largely adopted by the War Office, the Admiralty, and other Government Departments and private societies. But it was never officially sanctioned, for India, China,[19] Egypt, and many of our Colonies had already their own system (or want of system) for spelling foreign words; added to this, the private firms of map-makers had their own views on the subject, and still spelt their names in a bewildering variety of ways.

The matter came to a head in 1919, when the Admiralty approached the Royal Geographical Society with a request for the authoritative spelling of names. A committee was accordingly formed, with representatives from all Government Departments, each of which bound itself to adopt the spelling recommended.

This “Permanent Committee on Geographical Names,” under the chairmanship of a Member of Council, R.G.S., at once got to work and proceeded to draw up:

1. A revised system of Rules and Alphabet, termed the R.G.S. II system, amplifying and improving on the old R.G.S. system of 1878. (This is given in the succeeding pages.)

2. Lists of doubtful names, with their correct spelling and other details concerned. (These will be published periodically, in the form of leaflets, in the ‘Geographical Journal.’)

3. Tables of Foreign Alphabets transcribed into the R.G.S. II system. (These will be published shortly in the R.G.S. Technical Series.)

It is hoped that the above procedure will gradually result in the correct and uniform spelling of foreign Place-Names throughout the Empire.

It must also be noted that the Government of the United States of America, after an exhaustive enquiry, has adopted a system in close conformity with that of the R.G.S., and has directed that the spelling of all names in their vast territories should, in cases where the orthography is at present doubtful, be settled authoritatively by a Board appointed for the purpose. The two great English-speaking nations are thus working in harmony.

RULES FOR THE SPELLING OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES FOR BRITISH OFFICIAL USE.

(_Termed the R.G.S. II system._)

1. The spelling of every place-name in an independent country or self-governing dominion using the Latin alphabet[20] shall be that adopted by the country or dominion, except in the case in which certain important localities have also, in addition to the official name, another customary name, notably different, in which case the name customary in British use (_i.e._, “conventional”) may be adopted (_e.g._, Geneva, Warsaw, etc., for Genève, Warszawa, etc.).

2. The spelling of such place-names in colonial possessions as belong to languages coming under Rule (1) will be spelt in accordance with that rule.

3. The accents and diacritical marks in official use by the above countries will be retained. Wherever it appears desirable, the pronunciation will be shown by giving the name as transliterated on the system below.

4. All other place-names throughout the world will (with the exception of “Conventional” names and some others) be spelled in general accordance with the following system, which is based upon, and differs only slightly from, the system long used by the Royal Geographical Society, from which are derived the War Office system, 1906,[21] and the system of the Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, 1917.[22]

The broad features of this system are—

(_a_) That vowels are pronounced as in Italian and consonants
as in English;

(_b_) That every letter is pronounced, and no redundant letters
are used.

The system aims at giving a close approximation to the _local_ pronunciation; but it is recognised that in some languages, notably Russian, Greek, and Arabic, the necessity for letter-for-letter transliteration often renders this impossible.

TABLE OF SPELLING AND PRONUNCIATION R.G.S. II.

a Long and short, as in _lāvă_ Somāli, Bukhāră.[*]

ä As in _fat_; rare; chiefly in Teutonic
languages.

ai[‡] The sound of the two Italian vowels;
frequently slurred over, almost as in
Eng. _aisle_, _ice_ Wadai; Shanghai.

au The two Italian vowels; frequently slurred,
almost as _ou_ in _out_ Sakau; Bauchi.

aw When followed by a consonant, or when
terminal, as in _awl_, _law_ Dawna, Saginaw.

b As in English.

c Not to be used, but always replaced by Kandahar, Serang.
_k_ or _s_; except in the compound _ch_,
and in many conventionally spelt words, as Calcutta, Celébes.

ch As in _church_; never _tch_ or _tsch_ for this
sound Chad, Maroch.

d[†][‡] As in English.

dh Soft _th_ as in _they_: a slight _d_ sound
preceding it in Semitic languages Dhuvu, Riyadh.

e[‡] Long as in _eh_; short as in _bet_. (For the
_e_ sound in the French _je_, see note at
end on the “neutral vowel”) Gēlo; Mafĕking.[*]

(ee) Used for _i_ (q.v.) only in a few
conventional names Darjeeling, Keelung.

ei[‡] The two Italian vowels, frequently slurred Beirut, Raheita.

(eu) Not used as a single sound.

f As in English; _ph_ must not be used for
this sound (except in Greek; see _ph_) Mustafa, Maidan-i-Naftun.

g Hard, as in _get, gift_; never as in _gem, gin_ Gedáref, Gilgit.

gh Soft guttural, the Arabic _ghain_ غ Dagh, Baghdad.

h Used only when sounded; or in the compounds
_ch_, _dh_, _gh_, _kh_, _sh_, _th_, _zh_ Vrh, Ahmadabad.

i Long as in _marine_; short as in _piano_ (not
as in _pin_) Fiji; Kibonde.[*]

j As in English; except in transliteration
of Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese,
where it equals _zh_, or the French _j_[§] Japan, Ujiji (Eng.
_j_); but Jitómir,
Jelezna, Jao-ping
(Fr. _j_).

k As in English: hard _c_ should never be
used (except in conventionally-spelt
words)—thus, not Corea, Cabul, but Korea, Kabul.

kh Hard aspirated guttural, as in the Scottish
_loch_ (not as in _lock_) Khan, Sebkha.

l[†] }
m } As in English.
n[†] }

ng Has three separate sounds, as in _vanguard_,
_finger_, and _singer_. If necessary to
distinguish, a hyphen may be placed, as in
_van-guard_, _sing-er_ In-gássana; Bongo;
Ng-ami, Tong-a.

o Long as in _both_[¶]; short as in _rotund_ Angōla, Kigōma;
Angŏra, Hŏnŏlulu.[*]

ö As in German; equals the French _eu_ in
_peu_; or nearly the English sound in
_fur_ Gömle, Yeniköi.

(oo) Used for _u_ (q.v.) only in a few conventional
names, chiefly Chinese Poona, Foochow.

oi[‡] The Italian vowels: sometimes slurred as
in _oil_. If necessary for pronunciation,
a hyphen may be inserted as in Tro-itskoi.

ou[‡] Dissyllabic, and not as French or English _ou_ Zlatoust.

ow Represents, as a diphthong, nearly the _au_
sound (above) only in the romanisation of
Chinese. Conventional.

p As in English.

ph As in _loophole_; not to be used for the _f_-sound,
except in Greek or conventionally Chemulpho;
Paphos, Haiphong.

q Represents _only_ the Arabic Qaf (ق): i.e.
a guttural _k_ Qena, ʿIraq.

qu Should never be employed to represent the
sound of _kw_: thus, not Namaqua, Quorra, but Namakwa, Kworra.

r[†] As in English; should be distinctly pronounced.

s As English ss in _boss_, not as in _these_ or
_pleasure_ Rosario, Masikesi.

sh }
t[†] } As in English.

th Hard _th_ as in _thick_, not as in _this_ Tharmida.

u[‡] Long as in _rude_, or as _oo_ in _boot_; short
as in _pull_ Zūlū; Rŭanda.[*]

ü Represents the French _u_, as in _tu_ (Fr.) Üsküb.

v }
w } As in English.
x }

y Always a consonant, as in _yard_; it should Kikuyu, Maya.
not be used as a terminal vowel, _e_ or _i_
being substituted; _e.g._, not Kwaly or
Wady, but Kwale, Wadi.

z As in _gaze_, not as in _azure_.

zh As the _s_ in _treasure_, the _z_ in _azure_, or
the French _j_ in _je_; but for the sound in
Russian, Bulgarian, and Chinese use _j_
(_vide_ note above under _j_) Zhob, Azhdaha.

NOTES.

The doubling of a vowel or a consonant is
only necessary when there is a distinct
repetition of the single sound, and
should otherwise be avoided Nuulua, Loolmalasin,
Jidda, Muhammad.

Accents should not generally be employed;
but in order to indicate or emphasise the
stress, an acute accent may be used Saráwak, Qántara,
Tong-atábu, Paraná.

A long or short mark over a vowel (_e.g._
_ā_, _ŏ_) should only be used (and that
sparingly) when without it there would be
danger of mispronunciation Kūt, Hashīn, Angŏra.

Hyphens will not be used except to indicate
pronunciation, and with the Persian
_izafat_, _-i-_ Mus-hil; Pusht-i-Kuh.

[*] The long and short symbols given in this column are merely
for explanation, not for use.

[†] See note at end on _Liquid sounds_.

[‡] Pronounced differently in Greek: see ‘Alphabets of Foreign
Languages transcribed into English according to the R.G.S. II
system’ (to be published in the R.G.S. Technical Series).

[§] This decision has been arrived at chiefly owing to the
large number of English (and French) maps of these countries in
which the _zh_ sound appears as _j_.

[¶] The true Italian _ō_ is broader than this: almost as in
_broth_.

_Inverted Comma and Apostrophe._—The inverted comma ʿ is employed only to represent the Arabic _ʿain_, ع, and the Hebrew _ʿayin_, ע. The apostrophe ’ in foreign words indicates a liquid sound. (See below.)

_Liquid Sounds._—The occasional “liquid” or “palatalised” sound of _d_, _l_, _n_, _r_, _t_, etc. (as in _d’you_, _lure_, _new_, _clarion_, _tune_), is as a rule sufficiently represented by a following _y_; where, however, owing to a following consonant, or to the letter in question coming at the end of a word, the _y_ is inapplicable, the liquid sound will be represented by an apostrophe, thus: _d’_, _l’_, _n’_, _r’_, _t’_, etc.

_The “Neutral Vowel”._—The “indeterminate” or “neutral” vowel sound (_er_), i.e. the sound of _a_ in _marine_, _e_ in _often_, _i_ in _stir_, _io_ in _nation_, _o_ in _connect_, _ou_ in _curious_, _u_ in _difficult_, etc., _e_ in French _je_, or the often unwritten vowel (َ _Fat-ha_) in Arabic, etc., is represented as a rule by _a_: as in Basra, Hawiya; but sometimes by _e_, when the sound approximates more to _e_ than to _a_: as Meshed, El Gezira.

(In any guide to pronunciation issued by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names, the “neutral vowel” is represented generally by the italic _e_: occasionally also by italic _a_ or _u_.)

This sound must not be confused with _e-mute_, where the _e_ is not sounded at all: as in Abbeville.

ON THE GIVING OF NAMES TO NEWLY-DISCOVERED PLACES.

The Council of the Royal Geographical Society would urge upon all travellers that in giving names to any new discoveries which they may make they should be guided by the following restrictions, which, until comparatively recent years, were commonly observed:—

1. That before putting forward any personal or fanciful name
the traveller should do his best to ascertain that no local
name exists, and where none is forthcoming should further
consider whether one might not conveniently be derived from
the vicinity, _e.g._, from an adjacent stream, or pasture, or
glacier, or from some characteristic of the natural object
itself.

2. That no one should commemorate himself in this manner.

3. That any new nomenclature which a traveller may desire to
suggest should be put forward tentatively and subject to the
approval (1) of the Administration of the region or country, if
there is one; (2) of the Official Cartographer of the country,
if it possesses a Survey Department, or of the State to which
the region may belong; or (3) of the Council of the Royal
Geographical Society.

FOOTNOTES

[1] Equivalents obtained by Mr. R. H. Curtis using Köppen’s method. See ‘Symons’s Meteorological Magazine,’ 40 (1905), p. 157.

[2] For comparison of scales see Table XXVI., Vol. I., p. 333.

To convert Centigrade readings into Fahrenheit the rule is “Multiply by 1.8 and add 32.” This can be done mentally in a moment, thus: “Multiply by 2, subtract one-tenth of the product, and add 32.” _E.g._, to convert 10° C. to F.: 10 × 2 = 20; one-tenth of 20 = 2; 20 - 2 = 18; 18 + 32 = 50° F.

[3] Travellers in tropical countries will do wisely to poison all their labels before using them, to preserve them from attacks of insects and mites. Washing with a very weak solution of corrosive sublimate is an efficient plan. A large number of labels, with the collector’s name printed on them, may be taken, and if made of strong thin paper they will not occupy much space. Bank-note paper is well adapted for the purpose. Any writing should be, if possible, in ink; if not, a very hard black pencil should be used. Some tie labels should be added, as paper coverings soon run short.

[4] There are plenty of good works on the use of the blow-pipe. The best are by Plattner and Scheerer, of both of which English translations have been published. Of Von Kobell’s tables for the determination of minerals, several translations have appeared. Brush and Penfield 1906 edition is a practical work. A very portable outfit may be obtained from J. T. Letcher, Truro, Cornwall.

[5] In high latitudes care must be exercised in distinguishing between true raised beaches and ridges of beach material pushed up by the pressure of shore ice in winter.

[6] In some valleys the lateral tributaries enter at a higher level than the floor of the main valley, owing to the overdeepening of the latter; this overdeepening has been attributed to four different causes:—(1) Inequality in the hardness of the rocks, especially when the main valley runs along the strike; (2) the presence of joints, or other lines of weakness; (3) increased erosion of the main valley by river action owing to the elevation of the upper end of the district, while the lateral valleys were merely tilted sideways, or were protected by the presence of ice or lakes; (4) erosion of the main valley by ice more rapidly than its tributaries, owing to the ice being thicker in the former. The problem is complicated by the fact that the upper end of the main valley is frequently a ‘hanging’ valley. Any evidence bearing on the formation of these ‘hanging’ valleys should be carefully noted.

[7] Travellers who intend to make collections of zoological specimens are advised to call on the Secretary of the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W. He will be happy to supply any information required.

[8] General travelling outfit can be procured from Messrs. Silver & Co., 67 Cornhill, E.C.

[9] Ejector guns are apt to get out of order in sandy countries.

[10] The shafts of old golf-drivers, when shortened to about 2 feet 6 inches in length, make the most perfect handles for nets.

[11] All the above-mentioned articles for collecting insects may be procured from Mr. Janson, 44 Great Russell Street, W., or from Messrs. Watkins & Doncaster, 36 Strand, W.C., or from Miss E. M. Sharpe, 4 Barrowgate Road, Chiswick.

[12] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ p. 47.

[13] Cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-32.

[14] Much useful information may be found in the ‘Manual of the Mollusca,’ by S. P. Woodward, F.G.S., one of Weale’s series; an admirable book in a small form.

[15] More extended accounts of the departments of the Science of Man here noticed will be found in Tylor’s ‘Anthropology: an Introduction to the Study of Men and Civilisation’ (Macmillan and Co., New edition, 1895).

[16] Some useful training under this head can be obtained at the London School of Economics.

[17] In the case of sculptures, owing to their deep depressions, it is best to wet the paper _before_ laying on.—_Ed._

[18] A tourniquet is a special instrument devised for the purpose of applying pressure to the main vessels of the limbs; in its absence, one may be improvised by rolling a handkerchief into a narrow band, and inserting a stone or a cork between its folds to serve as a pad; the pad is adjusted over the spot where it is proposed to compress the vessel, and the ends of the handkerchief knotted loosely round the limb. A stick is now slipped between the knot and the limb, and twisted round until sufficient pressure is exerted to arrest the bleeding.

[19] As far as British officials were concerned.