Chapter XII: Section VIII (5)

A ·410 collecting gun and twenty-five cartridges, including a few cartridges with full loads of 8 shot: the cartridges to be carried by self, the gun, when not in use, to be carried by the second bearer. The 10 shot and 12 shot ·410 cartridges should be carried in the two lower waistcoat pockets, where they are easily accessible, and the few 8 shot cartridges in some other pocket.

Saloon pistol in holster with pouch for carrying ammunition on belt, strapped round the waist, so that it can be easily and quickly made use of.

A butterfly-net carried by self, or by the second bearer if not in use.

Large oval zinc pocket-box lined with cork carpet, containing a stock of pins, both large and small, stuck in one side of the cork carpet ready for use; to be carried in the right-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Entomological forceps, pointed forceps, and larger forceps for picking up scorpions, large spiders, etc., and entomological killing-bottle; to be carried in the left-hand side-pocket of the coat.

Two larger-sized corked glass tubes half-full of spirits and a camel’s-hair brush to be carried in the right and left top waistcoat-pockets, for collecting small spiders, etc. It is difficult to pick up the swift-running ground-haunting species without injury, but, by dipping the brush in spirits and placing it on them, they are at once stupefied, and may then be easily transferred to the tube.

The spirit is also required for saturating the small plug of cotton-wool to be pushed down the throat of each bird as soon as it has been killed; the gape should then be plugged with dry cotton. Specimens thus prepared may be carried, even in a hot climate, for several hours without deteriorating.

A game bag carried by the second bearer, with a large supply of paper for wrapping up birds when shot.

Several sets of glass-top pill-boxes carried in the ‘hare’-pocket, or in one of the pockets of the game-bag, to which they can be transferred when filled.

A pickle pot in Willesden canvas or basket-work cover with handle, half filled with spirits, for collecting small snakes, lizards, frogs, scorpions, etc.; to be carried by the first bearer, who should be instructed how to hunt for reptiles, etc.

If possible, a beetle-killing bottle should be added to the above impedimenta, and may be carried in the left-hand breast-pocket of the coat.

A Norfolk coat is a most useful article of clothing, and should be provided with a deep ‘hare’ pocket running round the skirt and divided in the middle.

After a very short time the collector will be able to find any article he may require by instinct, and without loss of time. To have a pocket for each article, and to know where it is, saves an infinity of trouble.

At daylight the traps should be visited, and any specimens to be preserved should at once be sent back into camp.

Collecting should always, if possible, be vigorously prosecuted during the early morning hours, when birds, etc., are feeding, and are much more easily procured.

When butterflies and thick-bodied moths are placed in the killing-bottle, care should be taken to see that they die with their wings turned the ‘right way,’ _i.e._, with the underside outermost. Those which die with the upper side outermost should be at once reversed with the aid of a pin or the sharp-pointed forceps, and then replaced in the bottle. If not attended to at once they become rigid, and the wings get rubbed and spoilt before they are quite dead.

_Where and what to collect._—The countries which are now the least known with regard to their natural history are New Guinea and some of the large islands to the east of it, East Sumatra, the highlands of Mindanao and other Philippine Islands, Formosa, Tibet, Indo-China, and other parts of Central Asia, Equatorial Africa, and Central South America. A special interest attaches to the indigenous products of oceanic islands, _i.e._, islands separated by a deep sea from any large tract of land. Those who have opportunities could not fail to make interesting discoveries by collecting specimens of the smaller animals (insects, molluscs, etc.,) and plants in these isolated localities. Both in continental countries and on islands the truly indigenous species will have to be sought for on hills and in the remote parts, where they are more likely to have escaped extermination by settlers and the domestic animals introduced by them. In most of the better-known countries the botany has been better investigated than the zoology, and in all these there still remains much to be done in ascertaining the exact station, and the range, both vertical and horizontal, of known species of animals and plants. This leads us to one point which cannot be too strongly insisted on, namely, that some effective means should be adopted by the traveller to record the _exact locality_ and _date_ of every specimen he collects.[12]

A traveller may be puzzled, in the midst of the profusion of animal and vegetable forms which he sees around him, to know what to collect and what to leave. Books can be of little service to him on a journey, and he had better at once abandon all idea of encumbering himself with them. A few days study at the principal museums before he starts on his voyage may teach him a great deal, and the cultivation of a habit of close observation and minute comparison of the specimens he obtains will teach him a great deal more. As a general rule all specimens which he may meet with for the first time far in the interior should be preferred to those common near the civilised parts, and he should bear in mind that the few handsome kinds which attract the attention of the natives, and are offered for sale to strangers, are almost sure to be of species well known in European museums. He should strive to obtain as much variety as possible, and not fill his boxes and jars with quantities of specimens of one or a few species, but as some of the rarest and most interesting species closely resemble others which may be more common, he should avail himself of every opportunity of comparing the objects side by side. In most countries, as already remarked, the truly indigenous, and often the rarest, species are to be found only in the mountains at considerable elevations and in the primitive forests, the products of cultivated districts being nearly all widely distributed and well known. In Botany a traveller, if obliged to restrict his collecting, might confine himself to those plants which are remarkable for their economic uses; always taking care to identify the flowers of the tree or shrub whose root, bark, leaves, wood, etc., are used by the natives, and to preserve a few specimens of them. But if he has the good fortune to ascend any high mountain not previously explored, he should make as complete a collection of the flowering plants as possible, at the higher elevations. The same may be said of insects found on mountains, where they occur in great diversity—on the shady and cold sides rather than on the sunny slopes—under stones, and about the roots of herbage, especially near springs, on shrubs and low trees, and so forth; for upon a knowledge of the plants and insects of mountain ranges depend the solution of many curious questions regarding the geographical distribution of forms over the earth. In Reptiles, the smaller Batrachians (Frogs, Salamanders, etc.) should not be neglected, especially the extremely numerous family of tree-frogs; the arboreal, or rock-haunting species of Lizards seen out of reach, and the swift-running forms that inhabit sandy plains may be secured with a charge of dust-shot, the saloon pistol being especially handy for this purpose. Snakes should be taken without injuring the head, which is the most important part of the body: a cleft stick may be used in securing them by the neck, or they may be shot, and on reaching camp placed in the jars of spirits. As large a collection as possible should be made of the smaller Fishes and Tortoises of lakes and rivers.

_Mammals and Birds._[13]—An ordinary geographical expedition will hardly have the means at its disposal for bringing home many specimens of the larger animals, but many species in regions visited only by adventurous explorers are still desiderata in the large museums of Europe; and additional specimens of all genera of which there are numerous closely allied species (_e.g._, Rodents, Antelope, Deer, etc.), and of all the small nocturnal mammals would be welcome to zoologists. If only portions can be obtained, skulls with horns attached are to be preferred. The smaller birds shot on an excursion should be carried to camp in the game bag, folded in paper, the mouth, anus and any wounds being first plugged with cotton-wool. In a hot climate when the birds have to be carried for some distance before they are skinned, a plug of cotton-wool dipped in a weak solution of formaline or in spirits should be pushed down the gullet into the stomach, before the mouth is plugged with dry cotton-wool. This precaution will insure specimens remaining fresh for many hours.

Small dull-coloured birds are most likely to be new or interesting. Immediately after killing a small mammal or bird, make a note of the colour of its eyes and soft parts, and, if time admits, of the dimensions of its trunk and limbs. Full directions for skinning will be found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 15-29. It should however be mentioned that in large-headed Parrots, Woodpeckers, Ducks, and some other birds, in which the skin of the head cannot be turned back, an incision has to be made in the nape, through which the skull can be pushed and cleansed, the incision being afterwards closed by two or three stitches. In finishing the skin of a bird the feet should be placed side by side, with the claws folded and fastened together by means of a pin run transversely through the soles. The protruding ends of the pin can afterwards be cut off close to the feet. This is Mr. W. Foster’s plan, and is by far the best and neatest method. When the skin is dry, it should be laid on its back in one of the trays fitted into the zinc-lined collecting boxes, and secured by means of a couple of stout pins passed through the head at the base of the lower mandible and through the root of the tail. By dovetailing the specimens into one another, they can thus be packed with the least loss of space, and need not again be moved. They require no wrapping or paper, and are much more easily looked over to see that no insects have attacked them.

_Preserving Mammals, etc., in Alcohol._—When Mammals cannot be prepared as skins with skulls, according to the British Museum directions, they may prove of service if preserved in spirits. Indeed, when a series of skins has been made, additional specimens may well be placed in spirits, while in the case of Bats half the individuals taken of any species should be skinned and half put in spirits.

On the subject of the preservation of such spirit specimens, the late Dr. G. E. Dobson has published the following ‘Hints’:—

The general collecting case should be made of strong block tin, or, better still, of copper, rectangular in form, about 2 feet × 1 foot × 1 foot 8 inches in height, having in the top a circular aperture from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, closed by a well-fitting brass screw-cap, the flange of which is made air-tight by a well-greased leather collar. This should fit accurately into a similarly shaped box of inch boards, having a simple flat lid (not projecting beyond the sides), secured by eight long screws, and provided with a strong iron handle. This case should be filled with the strongest methylated spirits procurable (in foreign countries over-proof rum, brandy, or arrack will suit equally well). If circumstances admit, two or more such cases should be taken, or four wide-mouthed earthenware jars placed in a square wooden case, separated by light wooden partitions, and having their mouths closed by well-fitting bungs tied down with bladder and string. On arrival at the collecting station one of the jars should be half filled with spirits from the tin case. Into this each specimen, as it is obtained, having been slit along the side of the abdomen, should be put, and allowed to remain 24 hours before being transferred to the general collecting case. When the latter can hold no more the specimens should be removed one by one and packed in the moist state in the other wide-mouthed jars, one above the other, like herrings in a cask, each rolled in a piece of thin cotton cloth, in which a label, having the locality and date written in pencil, should be placed. When the jar has been thus filled to the mouth a glass or two of the strong spirits (kept in reserve) should be poured in so as to fill up the interstices, but not to appear on the surface, which should be covered with a thick layer of cotton-wool. A few drops of carbolic acid, if the spirit be weak, will greatly aid its preserving powers. The bung should then be replaced, secured round the margin outside with a mixture of tallow and wax, and tied down securely with bladder or skin, and the name of the collector and district written legibly outside. The jar is now ready for transmission to any distance, for specimens thus treated will keep good in the vapour alone of strong spirits for months. Other jars may be filled in like manner, and finally, the general collecting case. Incisions should invariably be made in the _sides_ (not in the centre line) of all animals, so as to allow the spirits to enter, and no part of the intestines should be removed. In the case of _Tortoises_ the opening may be made in the soft parts round the thighs; if this be not done, the body soon becomes distended with gases. _Frogs_ should always be first placed in weak spirits, and after being soaked for one or two days, be removed to strong alcohol. _Crabs_ should be rolled up alive in thin cotton-cloths, secured by thread tied round, and may then be readily killed by immersion in alcohol; if this be not done they lose many of their limbs in their dying struggles.

_Preparation of Skeletons of Animals._—In many cases it will be found impossible to preserve the whole animal, especially if of large size, but it may advantageously be converted into a skeleton by attention to the following directions of the late Sir W. H. Flower, F.R.S.

If the animal is of small size—say not larger than a Fox—take off the skin except from the feet below the wrist and ankle joints. If it is intended to preserve the skin as a zoological specimen as well as the skeleton, the bones of the feet should all be left in the skin; they can be easily extracted afterwards, and will be preserved much more safely in their natural covering. Remove all the contents of the abdominal and thoracic cavities; also the larynx, gullet, and tongue. In doing this be careful to leave attached to the base of the skull the chain of bones which supports the root of the tongue. These may either be left in connection with the skull, or cleaned separately and tied to the skeleton. Then clear away, with the aid of a knife, as much as possible of the flesh from the head, body, and limbs, without cutting or scraping the bones, or separating them from each other. At any intervals that may be necessary during this process it will be desirable, if practicable, to leave the body in water, so as to wash away as much of the blood as possible from the bones, and a few days’ soaking in water frequently changed will be an advantage.

The body, with all the bones held in connection by their ligaments, should then be hung up to dry in a place where there is a free current of air, and out of the way of attacks from animals of prey. Before they get hard the limbs may be folded by the side of the body in the most convenient position, or they may be detached and placed inside the trunk.

When thoroughly dry the skeletons may be packed in boxes with any convenient light packing material between them. Each should be well wrapped in a separate piece of paper or canvas, as sometimes insects will attack the ligamentary structures and allow the bones to come apart.

If it can be avoided, skeletons should never be packed up so long as any moisture remains in them, as otherwise decomposition will go on in the still adhering soft parts, and cause an unpleasant smell.

If the animal is of larger size it will be most convenient to take it partially to pieces before or during the cleaning. The head may be separated from the neck, the vertebral column divided into two or more pieces, and the limbs detached from the trunk; but in no case should the small bones of the feet be separated from one another. The parts should then be treated as above described, and all packed together in a canvas bag.

In the cetacea (porpoises, etc.), look for two small bones suspended in the flesh, just below the vertebral column, at the junction of the lumbar and caudal regions (marked externally by the anal aperture). They are the only rudiments of the pelvis, and should always be preserved with the skeleton.

If there is no opportunity of preserving and transporting entire skeletons, the skulls alone may be kept. They should be treated as above described, picked nearly clean, the brain being scooped out through the _foramen magnum_, soaked for a few days in water, and dried.

Every specimen should be carefully labelled with the popular name of the animal, if known, and at all events, with the sex, the _exact locality_ at which it was procured, and the _date_.

For the purpose of making entire skeletons, select, if possible, adult animals; but the skulls of animals of all ages may be advantageously collected.

Collectors of skins should always leave the skull intact. It should be taken out, labelled with a corresponding number to that on the skin, and dried with as much flesh on it as possible.

_Reptiles and Fishes._—Full directions for preserving these will be found in the British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 33-47. The following ‘hints’ were prepared by the late Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., who collected these animals most successfully in Guatemala:—

Almost any spirit will answer for this purpose, its fitness consisting in the amount of alcohol contained in it. In all cases it is best to procure the strongest possible, as it is less bulky, and water can always be obtained to reduce the strength to the requisite amount. When the spirit sold retail by the natives is not sufficiently strong, by visiting the distillery the traveller can often obtain the first runnings (the strongest) of the still, which will be stronger than he requires undiluted. The spirit used should be reduced to about 20° over proof, and the traveller should always be provided with an alcoholometer. If this is not at hand, a little practice will enable him to ascertain the strength of the spirit from the rapidity with which the bubbles break when rising to the surface of a small quantity shaken in a bottle. When the spirit has been used this test is of no value. When reptiles or fish are first immersed, it will be found that the spirit becomes rapidly weaker. Large specimens absorb the alcohol very speedily. The rapidity with which this absorption takes place should be carefully watched, and in warm climates the liquid tested at least every twelve hours, and fresh spirit added to restore it to its original strength. In colder climates it is not requisite to watch so closely, but practice will show what attention is necessary. It will be found that absorption of alcohol will be about proportionate to the rate of decomposition. Spirit should not be used too strong, as its effect is to contract the outer surface, and close the pores, thus preventing the alcohol from penetrating through to the inner parts of the specimen. _The principal point, then, is to watch that the strength of the spirit does not get below a certain point while the specimen is absorbing alcohol when first put in._ It will be found that after a few days the spirit retains its strength: when this is the case, the specimen will be perfectly preserved. Spirit should not be thrown away, no matter how often used, so long as the traveller has a reserve of sufficient strength to bring it back to its requisite strength.

In selecting specimens for immersion, regard must be paid to the means at the traveller’s disposal. Fishes up to 9 inches long may be placed in spirit, after a slit has been cut in the side of the belly to allow the spirit to enter to the entrails. With larger specimens, it is better to pass a long knife outside the ribs, so as to separate the muscles on each side of the vertebræ. It is also as well to remove as much food from the entrails as possible, taking care to leave all these in. The larger specimens can be skinned, leaving, however, the intestines in, and simply removing the flesh. Very large specimens preserved in this way absorb very little spirit. All half-digested food should be removed from snakes and animals. In spite of these precautions, specimens will often appear to be decomposing; but, by more constant attention to restrengthening the spirit, they can, in most cases, be preserved.

A case (copper is the best), with a top that can be unscrewed and refixed easily, should always be carried as a receptacle. The opening should be large enough to allow the hand to be inserted; this is to hold freshly-caught specimens. When they have become preserved, they can all be removed and soldered up in tin or zinc boxes. Zinc is best, as it does not corrode so easily. The traveller will find it very convenient to take lessons in soldering, and to be able to make his own boxes. If he takes them ready-made, they had best be arranged so as to fit one into another before they are filled. When moving about, all specimens should be wrapped in calico or linen or other rags to prevent their rubbing one against the other. This should also be done to the specimens in the copper case when a move is necessary, as well as to those finally packed for transmission to Europe. These last should have all the interstices between the specimens filled in with cotton-wool or rags. If a leak should occur in a case, specimens thus packed will still be maintained moist, and will keep some time without much injury. Proof spirit should be used when the specimens are finally packed, but it is not necessary that it should be fresh.

_Land and Freshwater Mollusca._[14] Full instructions for collecting these will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 113-115. Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., has contributed the following notes on collecting these animals: Mollusca are always most abundant on limestone rocks, and should be searched for under the larger stones lying about the ground, and under fallen trees and logs in the woods and forests. They may generally be found adhering to the surface of the stone or wood. Many species are often only 0.05 inch in length, so that very close examination is necessary. In damp spots, generally in ravines with a northerly aspect, the dead leaves when damp with dew in the early morning may be turned over one by one, and the under surface examined for minute species; larger species will be found very frequently on the surface of the ground below the layer of decaying vegetable matter. Many may also be secured by tearing off the bark of decaying trees. In the drier parts of the country some species are only to be found among the roots of shrubs, at considerable depth; by digging these up and shaking the earth on to paper, small shells may be found on close examination. At a dry place like Aden, I should expect to find most of the living land-shells in such a habitat. Look well in limestone caves on the damp surface of the rock; some forms hide themselves under a coating of earthy matter. Search also on damp moss and rocks near waterfalls.

Some species will be found high up on the bushes and trees. This is the habit of certain African forms especially; not so in India. A very good idea of the land-shells of a country may at first be obtained by the examination of the beds of the streams, either along the highest flood-line, or in the fine sand and mud collected in the bed. Land-shells found in such situations are usually old and bleached, but the living specimens will not be far off.

The leaves and stems of water plants should be examined, and Confervæ taken out of the water and well washed in a basin; in these, and in the mud of ponds and still rivers, many minute shells may be found.

The best way of preserving minute shells is to put them into glass tubes plugged with wool; it is better than cork. Capital collecting tubes can be made out of the smaller sorts of bamboo and the large grasses. A certain number of every species (at least a dozen) should be preserved in spirits for the sake of the anatomy. It is best to kill them first in water and then put them into spirits; if this is not done they contract, so that it is impossible to form any idea of the form of the mantle and other parts, and they become so hard they are difficult to cut up.

A good method of keeping the small shells and slugs, especially in spirits, is to put them with labels into small tubes plugged with wool, and then place the tubes in a large jar, capable of holding three or four dozen.

Other small shells, ½ to ¾ of an inch in diameter, may be put into pill-boxes at once, for in a dry climate they very soon dry up. The very large animals may be removed by boiling them in water, but when time does not admit of attending to the cleaning of the shells, species, such as Unios, may be put into empty soup-tins and then filled up with dry sand.

It is very important to make a few notes on the colour of the animal, attaching a number for reference on the box or in the tube, and the operculum, when present, should always be preserved.

With respect to slugs, note the surface of the mantle, and always the form of the extremity of the foot, whether pointed or provided with a mucous pore; and again the lobes of the mantle. Preserve them in spirits as above. Drawings from the living animal are invaluable, and should be made if possible. Very little is known of the Asiatic forms; they are of much interest, and have been very little collected.

_Insects._—For the best means of preserving the various orders of insects the traveller should consult the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 48-89.

_Botanical Collecting._—Full instructions will be found in the ‘British Museum Handbook,’ pp. 116-125.

The following instructions have been prepared by the late Mr. J. Ball, F.R.S.:—

To obtain good specimens of dried plants in a condition serviceable to scientific men, the following are the chief points to be observed:—

1. _Selection of Specimens._—The object is to give as much information as possible respecting the plant which it is intended to collect. Small plants not exceeding 16 inches in height should be collected _entire with the roots_. Slender plants of greater dimensions may be folded to the same length, and may often be collected entire. Of larger plants, shrubs and trees, the object is to show as much as possible of the plant within the limit of the size of your drying paper. As an universal rule, both the flower and fruit (seed-vessel) should, if possible, be preserved. Of those plants whereon the male and female flowers grow separately, specimens of both should, if possible, be collected.

2. _Conveyance of Specimens to Camp or Station._—Tin boxes made for the purpose are generally used in Europe for carrying botanical specimens until they can be placed in the drying press. They answer sufficiently well in cool weather, but in hot countries specimens are often partly withered before they can be laid out; and a rough portfolio, into which the plants can be put when (or soon after) they are gathered, is much to be preferred.

Such a portfolio is easily prepared with two sheets of millboard connected by an endless tape, so as to be easily slung over the shoulder; between these about thirty or forty sheets (60 to 80 folds) of thin soft (more or less bibulous) paper may be carried and kept in place by a strap or piece of twine. With two such portfolios a traveller can carry as many plants as it is possible to collect with advantage in a day. As soon as possible after being gathered, the specimens should be laid roughly between the sheets of paper: except in the case of delicate flowers, no special care is needed, and no harm comes of two or three being put together.

3. _The Drying Press._—The great object, both to secure good specimens and to save labour and weight of paper, is to get the plants dried quickly, and for this one of the first conditions is to lose as little time as possible. When practicable, the specimens should always be put in the press on the same day on which they are gathered. The press should be made with two outer gratings of iron wire; the outer frame of strong wire, about a quarter of an inch in diameter—the size being that of the paper used. Between these the paper is laid. As to the choice of drying paper, the general rule is, that the coarser it is the better, provided it be quite or nearly quite free from size.

To enable the plants to dry quickly, the traveller should be provided with light wooden gratings of the same size as the drying paper. I think the size 18 inches × 12 inches is quite large enough. The iron wire outer gratings may with advantage be a quarter of an inch longer and broader to save the edges of the wooden gratings.

These should be made of light laths fastened with a few nails (all the better if these are of copper), the interstices should be rather less than three-quarters of an inch, at all events not more. Their use is to allow the air to circulate through the pile of plants that are being dried. One should be inserted at each interval of about two inches (counting the drying paper and the plants laid out for drying), and when this is done the parcel may with advantage be exposed to the sun or placed near a fire, as the case may be. In dry warm climates, the majority of plants may be dried in the course of a few days, and will be fit to pack up, without any need of changing the drying paper in which they were originally placed; but in damp weather, and in regard to plants of thick fleshy foliage, it is usually necessary to change the paper more than once before the specimens are thoroughly dry.

The pile of paper, with plants between each five or six thicknesses of paper, and gratings at intervals of about two inches, should be squeezed between the outer (iron) gratings by means of two strong straps. Too much pressure is not desirable. For a pile ten or twelve inches thick, the parcel may be pulled nearly as tight as a moderate man can do it; but in proportion as the thickness is less, the pressure should be moderated.

Plants with fleshy leaves are very difficult to dry well. The best way is to dip them in quite boiling water for a minute or less, then to lay them between a few sheets of drying paper with slight pressure, merely to remove the exterior moisture, and then place them (when externally dry) in the drying press. Plants collected in rain should be treated in a similar way to remove outer moisture before it is attempted to dry them.

4. When once dry, plants may be packed away between paper of almost any kind. Old newspapers answer very well. The only precaution needed is to preserve them from insects.

The chief trouble in collecting plants is to get the paper already used thoroughly dry before it is again employed. The best resource in dry climates is to stretch cords and hang these papers exposed to sun and air. Artificial heat must be resorted to in wet seasons, but the process is then slow and troublesome.

For a traveller wishing to make large collections, the time consumed in changing the paper in which the plants are dried becomes an important consideration. I have adopted with advantage a suggestion of the late Professor A. Gray to use, instead of ordinary drying paper, sheets cut to the proper size, of the paper-felt which is used for laying under carpets. The specimens when originally laid out for drying are placed within sheets of thin paper without size, such as filtering paper, and as a rule these do not need to be changed. One sheet of felt-paper is generally sufficient between each layer of plants, and the operation of changing the paper is very quickly effected.

It is an important rule to note _the locality_ where the specimens have been collected, _with the date_. If proper care be taken to keep together all the specimens collected at the same time, it is not necessary to place a separate scrap of paper within each sheet; but it is advisable to do this when the dried specimens are packed for transmission home.

5. _Seeds._—Travellers may easily make valuable contributions to our knowledge of the vegetation of distant countries by preserving seeds of remarkable and unusual plants. The only precautions necessary are, to select seeds that are fully ripe; if enclosed in a seed vessel, or covering of a succulent character, to take care that this is thoroughly dried before they are packed; and that they are preserved from moisture during the homeward voyage. Small seeds may be enclosed in paper, the larger kinds in canvas bags, and the whole wrapped in a piece of oiled cloth. It is very desirable to keep each description of seed separate, and to note the place where it was gathered, with indications of altitude, soil, and climate.

6. _Bulbs._—These are easily obtained, but as a rule, they should be taken only at the end of the growing season, and kept until the leaves are quite withered. They should be packed dry in a small box with shavings, or other elastic stuffing. The same treatment will suit the pseudo-bulbs of some orchids.

7. _Fleshy Tubers._—Fleshy and thick tubers are best sent in boxes, wrapped in slightly moist materials, such as cocoa-nut fibre, peat, or leaf mould.

8. _Living Plants._—As a general rule, these require to be established in pots or boxes for some time before being packed for transmission. They travel best in what are called Wardian cases; but an ordinary wooden box covered with a glass top, and with sufficient moisture in the soil and air to prevent excessive evaporation, is found to answer the purpose. The cases should be kept on deck under some protection from the direct heat of the sun. Tropical plants should be despatched so as to reach England during the summer months. At other seasons they are liable to perish from cold.

9. _Succulent Plants_, such as cacti, aloe, houseleeks, &c., survive for a long time if packed without earth in a perfectly dry box, with sufficient openings for ventilation.

10. Small plants with woody roots and cuttings of larger species of plants from the north or south temperate zones often travel successfully when merely packed with a little soil, slightly moist, about the roots, and a wrapping of damp moss, or similar substance, tied up in thick paper or canvas. There is, however, much risk of failure in these cases where, on the homeward voyage, it is necessary to pass through the tropics.

As a general rule, plants are more often injured by excess of moisture than by being sent too dry.

It is desirable to make use of every favourable opportunity for sending botanical collections of all kinds to England, as in hot countries they are always exposed to risk of injury.

It is scarcely necessary to mention that living plants, as well as seeds, and bulbs, should be placed in the hands of skilful gardeners after reaching this country. The chance of preserving interesting specimens is commonly much greater when they are sent to botanic gardens than when entrusted to private cultivators. In all cases information as to the soil and climate of the native home of the plant is a necessary guide to proper treatment.

_Fossils._—The collection of fossils and minerals (except in the case of the discovery of new localities for valuable metals) is not to be recommended to the traveller, if he is not a geologist. Fossils from an unexplored country are of little use unless the nature and order of superposition of the strata in which they are found can be at the same time investigated. In the cases, however, of recent alluvial strata or the supposed beds of ancient lakes, or deposits in caves, or raised sea-beaches containing shells or bones of vertebrate animals, the traveller will do well to bring away specimens if a good opportunity offers. If the plan of the expedition includes the collection of fossil remains, the traveller will, of course, provide himself with a proper geological outfit, and obtain the necessary instructions before leaving Europe. (_See_ Section III.) For suggestions as to the collecting and preserving fossils and minerals, cf. British Museum ‘Handbook,’ pp. 126-135.

_General Remarks._—All collections made in tropical countries should be sent to Europe with the least possible delay, as they soon become deteriorated and spoilt unless great care be bestowed upon them.

_Observations of Habits, etc._—Travellers have excellent opportunities of observing the habits of animals in a state of nature, and these ‘Hints’ would be very deficient were not a few remarks made upon this subject. To know what to observe in the economy of animals is in itself an accomplishment which it would be unreasonable to expect the general traveller to possess, and without this he may bring home only insignificant details, contributing but little to our stock of real knowledge. One general rule, however, may be kept always present to the mind, and this is, that anything concerning animals which bears upon the relations of species to their conditions of life is well worth observing and recording. Thus, it is important to note the various enemies which each species has to contend with, not only at one epoch in its life, but at every stage from birth to death, and at different seasons and in different localities. The way in which the existence of enemies limits the range of a species should also be noticed. The inorganic influences which inimically affect species, especially intermittently (such as the occurrence of disastrous seasons), and which are likely to operate in limiting their ranges, are also important subjects of inquiry. The migrations of animals, and especially any facts about the irruption of species into districts previously uninhabited by them, are well worth recording. The food of each species should be noticed, and if any change of customary food is observed, owing to the failure of the supply, it should be carefully recorded. The use in nature of any peculiar physical conformation of animals, the object of ornamentation, and so forth, should also be investigated whenever opportunity occurs. Any facts relating to the interbreeding in a state of nature of allied varieties, or the converse—that is, the antipathy to intercrossing of allied varieties—would be extremely interesting. In short, the traveller should bear in mind that facts having a philosophical bearing are much more important than mere anecdotes about animals.

To observe the actions of the larger animals, a telescope or field-glass will be necessary. The traveller should bear in mind, if a microscope is needed in his journey, that by unscrewing the tubes of the telescope in which all the small glasses are contained, a compound microscope of considerable power may be produced.

V.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

_By the late SIR E. B. TYLOR, D.C.L., F.R.S._

The characters of men’s bodies and minds being matters of common observation, Europeans not specially trained in anthropology, who have happened to be thrown among little-known tribes, often bring home valuable anthropological information. Though explorers, traders, and colonists have made their way into almost every corner of the earth, it is surprising to find how many new facts may still be noted down by any careful observer. If familiar with anthropological methods, he will, of course, observe more and better. The hints here given will serve to draw attention to interesting points which might otherwise be overlooked. Directions for such investigation, drawn up in much greater detail, will be found in the small British Association manual entitled: ‘Notes and Queries on Anthropology’ (Royal Anthropological Institute, 50, Great Russell Street, W., 4th edition (1912), price 5_s._) For fuller details see the international agreement for the Unification of Anthropometric Measurements to be made on the living subject. English translation of the official version, W. L. H. Duckworth.

_Physical Characters._—On first coming among an unfamiliar race, such as the Negroes, the traveller is apt to think them almost alike, till after a few days he learns to distinguish individuals more sharply. This first impression, however, has a value of its own, for what he vaguely perceived was the general type of the race, which he may afterwards gain a more perfect idea of by careful comparison. Among tribes who for many generations have led a simple uniform life and mixed little with strangers, the general likeness of build and feature is very close, as may be seen in a photograph of a party of Caribs or Andamaners, whose uniformity contrasts instructively with the individualised faces of a party of Europeans. The consequence is that a traveller among a rude people, if he has something of the artist’s faculty of judging form, may select groups for photography which will fairly represent the type of a whole tribe or nation. While such portrait-groups are admirable for giving the general idea of a race, characteristic features belonging to it should be treated separately. For instance, to do justice to the Tartar eye or the Australian forehead, the individual feature must be carefully sketched or photographed large.

How deceptive mere unmeasured impressions of size may be is shown by the well-known example of the Patagonians, who, though really only tall men (averaging 5 feet 11 inches), long had the reputation of a race of giants. Such measurements as any traveller can take with a measuring-tape and a three-foot rule with sliding square are good if taken with proper precautions. As the object of the anthropologist is to get a general idea of a race, it may be in some respects misleading to measure at random one or two individuals who are perhaps not fair specimens. If only a few can be measured, they should be selected of ordinary average build, full-grown but not aged. What is much better is to measure a large number (never less than thirty) of persons taken indiscriminately as they come, and to record the measurements of each with sex, age, name, locality, etc. Such a table can afterwards be so classified as to show not only the average or mean size, but the proportion of persons who vary more or less from that mean size; in fact, it represents on a small scale the distribution of stature, etc., in the whole people. Gigantic or dwarfish individuals, if not deformed, are interesting, as showing to what extremes the race may run. The most ordinary measurements are height, girth round chest, fathom or length of outstretched arms, length of arm from shoulder and leg from hip, length of hand and foot. The traveller may find that such measuring of another race shows very different stature and girth from that of his own companions, who, if they are well-grown Europeans, may stand 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet, and measure 34 to 36 inches round the chest. Beyond this, he will find that the relative proportions of parts of the body differ from those he is accustomed to. An example of this is seen by placing Europeans and negroes side by side, and noticing how much nearer the knee the negro’s finger-tips will reach. It will be found that body measurement needs skill in taking the corresponding points, and in fact all but the simplest measures require some knowledge of anatomy. This is especially the case with skull measurements. There are instruments for taking the dimensions of the living head, and with care and practice the untrained observer may get at some of the more conspicuous, such as the relative length and width of the skull as taken by hatters. This roughly indicates the marked difference between dolichocephalic or long-headed peoples, like the African negro, and brachycephalic or short-headed peoples, like the Kalmuks and other Tartars. Attention should be paid also to the degree of prognathism or projection of jaw, which in some races, as the Australian, gives a “muzzle” unlike the English type. Where practicable, native skeletons, and especially skulls, should be sent home for accurate examination. How far this can be done depends much on the feeling of the people; for while some tribes do not object to the removal of bones, especially if not of their own kinsfolk, in other districts it is hardly safe to risk the displeasure of the natives at the removal of the dead—a feeling which is not only due to affection or respect, but even more to terror of the vengeance of the ghosts whose relics have been disturbed.

In describing complexion, such terms as “brown” or “olive,” so often used without further definition in books of travel, are too inexact to be of use. Broca’s scale of colours (_see_ Final Report of British Association Committee on Anthropometric Method. R. Anthrop. Institute, 1909) gives means of matching the tints of skin, hair and eyes; if this is not forthcoming, the paint-box should be used to record them. Among rude tribes, the colour of the skin is often so masked by paint and dirt that the subject must be washed to see the real complexion. Hair is also an important race-mark, varying as it does in colour from flaxen to black, and also in form and size of the hairs; for instance the American Indian’s coarse straight hair seems almost like a horse’s tail in comparison with the Bushman’s hair with its natural frizz of tiny spirals. Locks of hair should therefore be collected. The traveller, however, will often find some difficulty in getting such specimens, from the objection prevalent in the uncivilised world of letting any part of the body, such as hair and nail-clippings, pass into strangers’ hands lest they should be used to bewitch their former owner. Even in such countries as Italy, to ask for a lock of a peasant-girl’s hair may lead to the anthropologist being suspected of wishing to practise love-charms on her.

Differences of temperament between nations are commonly to be noticed; for instance, in comparing the shy and grave Malays with the boisterous Africans. It is an interesting but difficult problem how far such differences are due to inherited race-character, and how far to such social influences as education and custom, and to the conditions of life being cheerful or depressing. Nor has it yet been determined how far emotions are differently expressed by different races, so that it is worth while to notice particularly if their smiling, laughing, frowning, weeping, blushing, etc., differ perceptibly from ours. The acuteness of the senses of sight, hearing and smell, among wild peoples is often remarkable, but this subject is one on which many accounts have been given which require sifting. The skill of savages in path-finding and tracking depends in great measure on this being one of their most necessary arts of life to which they are trained from childhood, as, in an inferior degree, gipsies are with us. The native hunter or guide’s methods of following the track of an animal, or finding his own way home by slight signs, such as bent twigs, and keeping general direction through the forest by the sky and the sheltered sides of the trees, are very interesting, though when learnt they lose much of their marvellous appearance. The testing of the mental powers of various races is an interesting research, for which good opportunities now and then occur. It is established that some races are inferior to others in volume and complexity of brain, Australians and Africans being in this respect below Europeans, and the question is to determine what differences of mind may correspond. Setting aside the contemptuous notions of uneducated Europeans as to the minds of “black-fellows” or “niggers,” what is required is, to compare the capacity of two races under similar circumstances. This is made difficult by the fact of different training. For instance, it would not be fair to compare the European sportsman’s skill in woodcraft and hunting with that of the native hunter, who has done nothing else since childhood; while, on the other hand, the European, who has always lived among civilised people, owes to his education so much of his superior reasoning powers, that it is mostly impossible to get his mind into comparison with a savage’s. One of the best tests is the progress made by native and European children in colonial or missionary schools, as to which it is commonly stated that children of African or American tribes learn as fast as or faster than European children up to about twelve, but then fall behind. Even here it is evident that other causes besides mental power may be at work, among them the discouragement of the native children when they become aware of their social inferiority. The subject is one of great importance, both scientifically and as bearing on practical government.

Both as a matter of anthropology and of practical politics the suitability of particular races to particular climates is of great interest; sometimes this depends on one race being free from a disease from which another suffers, as in the well-known immunity of negroes from yellow fever. Or it may be evident that tribes have become acclimatised, so as to resist influences which are deadly to strangers; for instance, the Khonds flourish in the hills of Orissa, where not only Europeans but the Hindus of the plains sicken of the malaria in the unhealthy season. That such peculiarities of constitution are inherited and pass into the nature of the race, is one of the keys to the obscure problem of the origins of the various races of man as connected with their spread over the globe. As yet this problem has not passed much beyond the stage of collecting information, and no pains should be spared to get at facts thus bearing on the history and development of the human species. European medical men in districts inhabited by uncivilised races have often made important observations of this kind, which they are glad to communicate, though being occupied with professional work they do not follow them up. In all races there occur abnormal varieties, which should be observed with reference to their being hereditary, such as Albinos, whose dead-whiteness is due to absence of pigment from the skin. Even such tendencies as that to the occurrence of red hair where the ordinary hue is black, or to melanism or diseased darkening of the skin, are worth remark. It is essential to discover how far these descend from parents to children, which is not the case with such alterations as that of the Chinese feet, which, in spite of generations of cramping, continue of the natural shape in the children.