Chapter XIII: Dionysos and Miscellaneous Deities (1)

Dionysos and his associates—Ariadne, Maenads, and Satyrs—Names of
Satyrs and Maenads—The Nether World—General representations and
isolated subjects—Charon, Erinnyes, Hekate, and
Thanatos—Cosmogonic deities—Gaia and Pandora—Prometheus and
Atlas—Iris and Hebe—Personifications—Sun, Moon, Stars, and
Dawn—Winds—Cities and countries—The Muses—Victory—Abstract
ideas—Descriptive names.

§ 1. DIONYSOS AND HIS ASSOCIATES

The most important deity in Greek mythology outside the Olympian circle is undoubtedly =Dionysos=; but the part that is played by him and his attendant train in Greek art is out of all proportion even to this, at least in the vase-paintings. Apart from what we may regard as strictly mythological subjects, such as the Birth of Dionysos and scenes in which other gods or heroes are introduced, the number and variety of the themes are so great that an exhaustive enumeration is quite impossible; nor indeed would it repay the trouble to give a complete list of what may for convenience be termed Dionysiac scenes. Suffice it to say that they occur with equal frequency on the vases of all periods from the middle of the sixth century onwards.

The personages with whom we have to deal in this section are, besides Dionysos himself, his spouse Ariadne, Pan, with his “double” Aegipan, and the motley rout of Satyrs, Seileni, and Maenads, who appear either in the wine-god’s company or by themselves. Dionysos is generally accompanied by one or more Maenads or Seileni, whether engaged in some definite action, such as pouring wine or playing flutes, or no; but he is also not infrequently seen as a single figure.[621] On the earlier vases he is elderly and bearded, but on the later youthful and beardless. He is occasionally represented with horns,[622] or in the form of a man-headed bull.[623] He is depicted sacrificing at an altar,[624] pouring a libation,[625] or slaying a fawn[626] or goat χιμαιροφόνος[627]; banqueting,[628] or playing on the lyre.[629] He rides on a bull,[630] goat,[631] mule,[632] or panther,[633] or in a winged chariot[634]—in one case drawn by Gryphons, in another by a Gryphon, bull, and panther[635]—or in a chariot shaped like a ship[636]; or is carried by a Seilenos.[637] On a beautiful cup by Exekias[638] he sails over the ocean in a boat, the mast of which grows into a vine. We are reminded in this scene of the Homeric hymn (xix.) and the story of the Tyrrhenian pirates, a subject which, according to one interpretation, is represented on a vase at Athens.[639]

His birth is not often represented, and chiefly on R.F. vases[640]; it has been referred to already in detail, in reference to Zeus. When handed over to Hermes,[641] the newly born infant is conveyed by that god to Nysa, where he is finally delivered to a Seilenos, to be nursed by the Nymphs of that place.[642] Or he is handed directly to a Nymph by Zeus,[643] or, by a curious error or confusion on the artist’s part, to Ariadne, his future bride.[644] There is a possible representation of the Indian Dionysos or Bassareus,[645] India being the land whence he was fabled to come; and other vases represent various events connected with his first manifestation of himself in Greece: such as the madness he brought on Lykourgos, who refused to receive him,[646] and his subsequent sacrifice after his triumph[647]; the death of the similarly contumelious Pentheus (the story on which the plot of the _Bacchae_ turns)[648]; or his supposed visit to the Athenian Ikarios.[649] He sometimes appears with his mother Semele, whom he brings back from Hades[650]; in one or two instances their heads are seen rising from the ground to indicate their return from the nether world.[651] They are then solemnly introduced into Olympos.[652]

Dionysos is frequently grouped with various deities, such as Apollo, Athena, and Hermes[653]; or they are seen in his company at a banquet.[654] He sometimes appears at the birth of Athena,[655] the apotheosis of Herakles,[656] and his marriage with Hebe[657]; or in heroic scenes, such as the Judgment of Paris,[658] or the combat of Herakles and Kyknos.[659] He appears with the Seileni who attack Hera and Iris,[660] and brings back Hephaistos to Olympos.[661] He frequently takes part in the Gigantomachia, usually in single combat,[662] being aided by his panther, and sometimes by Seileni and Maenads.[663] Sometimes he is seen preparing for this event, wearing a cuirass, while Satyrs or Maenads hold the rest of his armour.[664] He is also grouped with Gaia Κουροτρόφος,[665] and with Poseidon and Nike[666]; or accompanies the chariot of Athena[667]; and is seen in more than one assembly of the Olympian deities.[668]

His wooing and consoling of the deserted Ariadne[669] is an attractive and popular subject, and several vases seem to represent the nuptial ceremonies between the pair,[670] or the preparations for the same, with Eros assisting at the bride’s toilet.[671] Numerous are the instances in which he is seen grouped with Ariadne, often in loving embrace,[672] and generally surrounded by his cortège,[673] but also alone. Or, again, he and Ariadne drive in a chariot drawn by lions,[674] panthers,[675] stags,[676] or goats[677]; in two cases Ariadne drives her own chariot alone,[678] in another Dionysos is seen alone in a four-horse chariot.[679] They are also seen reclining together at a banquet,[680] sometimes accompanied by Herakles and other deities.[681] On a vase of quasi-Etruscan style[682] we see the sleeping Ariadne surrounded by Dionysos, Satyrs, and Maenads. This presumably refers to the scene in Naxos.

The numerous vases on which Dionysos appears, with or without Ariadne, accompanied by a throng of Satyrs and Maenads, sometimes in high revelry, sometimes in more peaceful circumstances, may next be mentioned, though it is not necessary to cite more than a few typical examples[683]; equally numerous are smaller groups, where only one or two followers appear, but only a few of these need be particularised.[684] Thus we see him in peaceful converse with Maenads or Nymphs[685]; seizing them with amorous intent[686]; listening to a Satyr playing the lyre or flute[687]; or going to a banquet, accompanied by Satyrs with torches[688]; or feeding a bird.[689] In banquet scenes he receives drink from a Satyr,[690] or plays at the kottabos (see p. 182)[691]; or Seileni steal his food and drink.[692] He watches a Lydian woman dancing in armour,[693] or dances himself to the flutes played by an actor.[694] In one instance he is seen leaving his chariot to join in the revels of his followers[695]; in another he takes part in the orgies of the Scythian Agathyrsi,[696] and he is seen in a drunken condition, supported by one of his followers.[697] He is not infrequently grouped with Eros, from whom he receives drink or a wreath[698]; also with Pan,[699] or with semi-personified figures such as Komos (Revelry)[700] or Oinopion (Wine-drinker).[701]

=Pan= only makes his appearance on late vases, usually in Dionysiac groups,[702] or as a single figure on the smaller Apulian wares; when he is depicted with goat’s legs and squat proportions, he is usually called Aegipan[703]; or, again, Paniskos, when he has the form of a beardless youth.[704] He surprises a Nymph asleep,[705] and is sometimes associated with the Nymph Echo.[706]

Dionysos’ connection with the Attic drama is more specially indicated by scenes in which he appears as the inventor or patron of tragedy, presenting a tragic mask to a young actor[707]; he also appears in an elaborate scene representing the preparations for a Satyric drama.[708] As the object of worship he is sometimes seen in a form which implies a reference to some primitive cult, as an aniconic pillar-image (ξόανον or βαίτυλος)[709]; or, again, in the form of a tree (Dionysos Dendrites), and homage is paid to him by Maenads.[710] Besides sacrifices to his image, we see sacrificial dances performed,[711] or choragic tripods consecrated to him.[712] His statue is once seen at a fountain.[713]

* * * * *

We must now treat of the scenes in which Seileni and Satyrs, Maenads and Nymphs, appear independently of Dionysos, or in particular actions without relation to him. They are, indeed, often, if not invariably, present in all scenes in which he takes part, whether mythological or of a less definite character; as, for instance, the return of Hephaistos to Olympos,[714] in which the gods are usually accompanied by a more or less riotous escort of Satyrs, and others as already mentioned. The attack of the Satyrs on Iris and Hera has been alluded to in connection with the latter[715]; and they seldom elsewhere appear in relation to the Olympian deities or other myths, except in those scenes which depict the rising of Persephone or Ge-Pandora from the earth.[716] But Satyrs and Maenads are sometimes represented as performing sacrifices, not only to Dionysos,[717] but also to Herakles,[718] or to a terminal figure of Hermes.[719] We turn next to scenes of more general character.

There are numerous vases, especially of the R.F. period, on which groups of Satyrs and Maenads are represented in revels of a more or less wild and unrestrained character, or else in more peaceful association. Those in which Dionysos himself is present have already been enumerated, but the general types may be now considered. It may, perhaps, be possible to distinguish two, or even three, classes of this subject: the inactive groups of Satyrs and Maenads[720]; those in which they rush along in frenzy and unrestrained licence, brandishing their thyrsi, or with tambourines (_tympana_) and other musical instruments[721]; and, lastly, scenes of convivial revelry (κῶμοι), in which they are engaged in drinking from all sorts of vessels.[722] Sometimes these revels are strictly confined to Satyrs, and then they become absolutely licentious in character[723]; or, again, a group of Maenads unattended tear along with torches, thyrsi, and musical instruments[724]; or, lastly, both join in dances hand-in-hand, a subject which on early vases is often adopted for a long frieze encircling a vase.[725]

As a pendant to these, many subjects and single figures must here be mentioned which seem to be excerpts from the larger compositions, as well as independent motives presenting special features found in the more elaborate scenes. We begin with subjects in which both Satyrs and Maenads take part, among which we find a favourite subject to be the gathering of fruit,[726] especially grapes, and the processes of the vintage.[727] Satyrs offer drink to Maenads,[728] or play the flutes for them to dance to[729]; and there is a favourite series of subjects of an amorous character, in which the Satyrs pursue the objects of their passion,[730] or surprise them asleep,[731] seize them and overcome their struggles to escape,[732] and finally enfold them in embraces,[733] or carry them on their shoulders.[734] Satyrs are also seen surprising women while bathing[735]; and a group of them appear astonished at the sunrise.[736]

* * * * *

We may next dismiss briefly the scenes which depict =Maenads= alone, usually as single figures. They sometimes appear in a state of frenzy (Fig. 121),[737] dancing with snakes twisted round their arms,[738] or playing castanets,[739] or tearing a kid to pieces (χιμαιροφόνος).[740] In quieter fashion they ride on a mule[741] or bull,[742] or are seen accompanied by hinds, goats, and panthers,[743] or playing with a cat and bird.[744]

* * * * *

From _Baumeister_.

FIG. 121. MAENAD IN FRENZY (CUP AT MUNICH).
]

=Satyrs= in independent scenes often appear in burlesque guise, attired and acting as athletes,[745] or as warriors,[746] with the Amazonian _pelta_,[747] or even enacting the part of Herakles in the Garden of the Hesperides[748]; and are present in other scenes of a burlesque nature, which may often be derived from the Satyric drama, such as one in which they carry ghosts (εἴδωλα) with torches.[749] There is also a long list of scenes of miscellaneous character: a Seilenos washing,[750] or piling up bedding(?)[751]; fishing[752]; as potter, poking a furnace[753]; acting as footman to a girl and carrying a parasol[754]; flogging a youth,[755] or holding a boy Satyr on his hand[756]; caressing a hare[757]; and so on. Satyrs fight with torches[758]; sport with deer and other animals[759]; ride on goats, asses, and mules,[760] or lead them along[761]; and in one instance a Satyr has fallen off his mule, and a companion runs to help him[762]; in another, two Satyrs draw a third in a cart.[763] They are seen carrying chairs[764] and vessels of various kinds, such as amphorae, situlae, kraters, rhyta,[765] or wine-skins[766]; also seated on wine-skins or wine-jars,[767] playing games with jugs and wine-jars,[768] balancing drinking-cups on their backs,[769] pouring wine into a jar[770] or drawing it out from the mixing-bowl,[771] or playing games, such as see-saw or ball.[772] Many of these scenes are from the interiors of R.F. cups, to which they were well adapted, the varied attitudes giving so much scope for the ingenuity of the daring artists of the period. Scenes in which Satyrs play the lyre or flute are, very numerous.[773]

A feature of the numerous Dionysiac subjects on vases is the tendency to individualise Satyrs and Maenads by means of names, sometimes meaningless, sometimes names otherwise known in mythology, and frequently personifications of abstract conceptions, such as we shall see later to be very common on vases of all periods; in these cases they usually have some relation to the character or occupation of the personages to whom they are attached. The Satyrs Marsyas and Olympos sometimes appear in the larger compositions[774]; the former has been already mentioned in another connection. There is also a curious representation of Akratos,[775] the deity of unmixed wine (a liquid which to the Greeks implied an extravagance of revelry, owing to the intoxicating nature of the undiluted beverage). A type of Seilenos covered from head to foot with shaggy skin, and known as Papposeilenos, is often found on the later vases.[776] It is difficult to distinguish in all cases between Seileni and Satyrs on the vases, and the exact differences between the various types have not yet been properly elucidated, so that the terms are of necessity somewhat conventional.[777] The equine type of Satyr, with horse’s hoofs as well as tail, which is so frequently found on the sixth-century Ionic vases, has been noted elsewhere.[778] The young beardless Satyr is mostly found in the later period.

The number of vases on which Satyrs and Maenads are distinguished by name is very large, but only a few of the more important need be mentioned, along with some of the more curious names from the isolated instances.[779] On a vase in Berlin[780] no less than ten Maenads are named—Anthe (Flower), Choro (Dance), Chrysis (Gold), Kale (Beauty), Kisso (Ivy), Makaria (Blessed), Naia, Nymphe, Phanope, and Periklymene (Renowned); on one at Leyden[781] six—Dorkis, Io, Klyto, Molpe (Song), Myro, and Xantho (Fair-hair). On the former vase a Seilenos is expressly so named, and on the latter are four Satyrs with names; on a kylix by Brygos in the British Museum[782] the Seileni attacking Iris are styled Babacchos, Dromis, Echon, Terpon, etc.[783]

Other Satyr-names are Briacchos,[784] Dithyrambos,[785] Demon,[786] Hedyoinos (Sweet Wine),[787] Hybris (Insolence),[788] Hedymeles (Sweet Song),[789] Komos (Revelry),[790] Kissos (Ivy),[791] Molkos,[792] Oinos,[793] Oreimachos,[794] Simos (Snub-nose),[795] Tyrbas (Rout).[796]

The Maenads’ names are if anything more numerous: Bacche,[797] Choiros (Pig!),[798] Doro,[799] Eudia (Calm),[800] Eudaimonia (Happiness),[801] Euthymia (Good Cheer),[802] Erophyllis,[803] Galene (Calm),[804] Hebe (Youth),[805] Komodia (Comedy) and Tragoedia (Tragedy),[806] Kalyke (Bud),[807] Lilaia,[808] Mainas,[809] Nymphaia,[810] Opora (Harvest) and Oreias (Mountain-Nymph),[811] Oinanthe,[812] Pannychis (All-night Revel),[813] Polyerate (Well-beloved),[814] Philomela,[815] Sime (Snub-nose),[816] Terpsikome,[817] Thaleia,[818] Rodo (Rose),[819] Paidia,[820] and Kraipale,[821] a name which is not easy to render in classical English, but which denotes the results following on a night’s debauch.

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PLATE LII

From _Furtwaengler and Reichhold_.

THE UNDER-WORLD, FROM AN APULIAN VASE AT MUNICH.
]

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§ 2. THE NETHER WORLD

The Chthonian character of Dionysos brings us by a natural transition to the =deities of the under-world=, and in connection therewith it will be convenient to treat of Death-deities of all kinds, as well as scenes representing the life of the nether regions.

Of Demeter and Persephone, the Chthonian goddesses _par excellence_, we have already spoken (p. 27), and of the myths connected with them, such as the rape of the latter by =Hades= or Pluto, the king of the realms named after him. It is owing to this connection with Persephone that Hades is found in such scenes as the sending forth of Triptolemos,[822] or at her return to the upper world,[823] as well as at the rape of his consort. He is frequently seen in company with her, as the rulers of the nether world,[824] especially on the large Italian “under-world vases” referred to below, and sometimes they are represented banqueting together.[825] As king of the nether world he is appropriately grouped with his brothers Zeus and Poseidon, the rulers of the air and ocean.[826] He is occasionally carried by Herakles on his shoulders,[827] but the meaning of this subject is uncertain. He also appears as a single figure, with sceptre and cornucopia.[828]

The only general representations of the under-world are to be found on the large Apulian vases made for sepulchral purposes (Vol. I. p. 476), of which some half-dozen are conspicuous for the number of subjects and figures they contain. All these are collected together in the _Wiener Vorlegeblätter_, Series E., the list being as follows:—

(1) Munich 849 = _Wiener Vorl._ E. pl. 1 = Reinach, i. 258
(2) Naples 3222 = ” pl. 2 = ” i. 167
(3) Karlsruhe 388 = ” pl. 3, 1 = ” i. 108
(4) Naples S.A. 709 = ” pl. 3, 2 = ” i. 455
(5) Petersburg 424 = ” pls. 4 and
5, 1 = ” i. 355
(6) Petersburg 426 = ” pl. 6, 2 = ” i. 479

No. (1) is reproduced in Plate LII. On a smaller scale, or fragmentary, are the following:—

(7) Petersburg 498 = _Wiener Vorl._ E. pl. 5, 2
(8) B.M. F 270 = ” pl. 6, 1 = Reinach, i. 356
(9) Karlsruhe 256 = ” pl. 6, 3 = ” i. 455
(10) Jatta Coll. 1094 = ” pl. 6, 4 = ” i. 356
(11) Naples S.A. 11 = ” pl. 6, 5 = ” i. 401

There are also three B.F. vases having reference to the under-world, though in the first two cases it is probable that the scene relates to the return of Persephone (see p. 28), the accompanying figure of Sisyphos only being introduced to mark the locality:—

(12) B.M. B 261 (Hades, Persephone, Hermes, Sisyphos).

(13) Munich 728 = _Wiener Vorl._ E. pl. 6, 6 = Reinach, ii. 48 (similar
scene).

(14) Berlin 1844 (Persephone and Sisyphos only).

On the Apulian vases there is usually in the centre a pillared building representing the palace of Hades, in which he and his spouse stand or sit; round this are grouped various figures and episodes connected with the nether regions: Herakles carrying off Kerberos[829]; Orpheus with his lyre, sometimes accompanied by Eurydike[830]; persons undergoing punishment, such as Sisyphos with his rock[831]; Tantalos threatened with a rock, not as in the usual legend suffering from thirst[832]; the Danaids with their hydriae[833]; and Theseus and Peirithoös sitting with their hands bound behind them.[834] In one instance a Fury, at the instance of Hades and Hekate, is binding one, the other having already entered on his punishment[835]; in another we see Theseus liberated and about to depart from his friend (see below, p. 111).[836]

Among the administrators of these penalties are Aiakos, Minos, and Rhadamanthos, the judges of the souls[837]; the Erinnyes or Furies[838]; and allegorical personages, such as Dike (Justice),[839] Ananke (Necessity),[840] or Poinae (Punishments).[841] Of the Chthonian deities, Hermes,[842] Hekate,[843] Triptolemos,[844] and Iacchos[845] are present. Olympian deities are also sometimes introduced as spectators.[846] Other figures introduced are Megara with the two children of Herakles[847]; Pelops with Myrtilos and Hippodameia[848]; a group of the Blessed Shades[849]; and (but not on this class of vase) Oknos with his ass, a subject depicted by Polygnotos in his great fresco at Delphi.[850] The subject of Ixion on the wheel is usually found by itself, but occurs on the neck of one of the Apulian vases.[851]

Another subject which may be associated with the above scenes is that of _Charon_ and his bark; on the vases, however, its significance is purely sepulchral, as it is confined to the Attic white lekythi (Vol. I. p. 459), on some of which the dead man is represented entering the ferry-boat.[852] Some vases of Etruscan fabric also represent groups of Chthonian deities, especially Charon, who in the mythology of that people is no longer “the grim ferryman that poets write of,” but _Charun_, a hideous demon wielding a huge hammer.[853] In one instance he separates Alkestis from Admetos[854]; in another he watches Ajax stabbing a captive Trojan.[855]

From _Baumeister_.

FIG. 122. CHARON’S BARK (LEKYTHOS AT MUNICH).
]

The _Erinnyes_ or Furies play an important part in the nether-world scenes,[856] and one is also represented at the punishment of Ixion.[857] They pursue Orestes after the slaughter of his mother and Aigisthos to Delphi and Tauris,[858] and even when with Pylades he comes to make himself known to Electra.[859] Among other mythological scenes they are found at the combat of Herakles and Kyknos[860]; with Pelops,[861] and with Medeia and Jason[862]; and threatening with punishment the hero Agrios, who is seized and bound upon an altar by Oineus and Diomedes.[863] _Kerberos_ is once seen without Herakles in the under-world vases[864]; and there is a very curious representation of his being chained up by Hermes.[865]

_Hekate_ as a Chthonian deity frequently appears on the under-world vases[866]; she is also connected with Eleusinian scenes and legends,[867] such as the sending of Triptolemos,[868] the birth of Dionysos or Iacchos,[869] or with the rape and return of Persephone.[870] She appears also as a single figure.[871] Allusion has already been made to the Chthonian associations of Hermes, Triptolemos, and Iacchos (pp. 27, 52).

_Thanatos_, the personification of Death, appears on vases[872] almost exclusively in one aspect, as the bearer of souls in conjunction with Hypnos (Sleep); they convey the body of Memnon from Troy to his home in Egypt,[873] and this type is borrowed for other scenes (_e.g._ on the funeral lekythi) in which an ordinary warrior is borne “to his long home.”[874] In one instance Thanatos is seen urging Ajax on to commit suicide[875]; he also appears on another vase where the subject may relate to the story of Ixion.[876] Representations of Death-demons or Harpies,[877] and of Κῆρες θανάτοιο, or small winged figures boding or signifying death,[878] are by no means uncommon. It has been held by some writers that the personifications of Thanatos above referred to are more properly to be regarded as Κῆρες θανάτοιο.[879] These small winged figures are also employed to represent a soul escaping from a deceased person[880]; or, again, to indicate the souls of Achilles and Hector (or Memnon) when weighed by Zeus (see below, pp. 130, 132).[881] We also find actual representations on B.F. vases of the ghost of a hero, especially in Trojan scenes; he floats through the air fully armed, with large wings.[882]

§ 3. COSMOGONIC AND OTHER DEITIES

In the next instance it will be found appropriate to discuss sundry representations which are connected with the earlier or Titanic cosmogony, although, with the exception of the Gigantomachia, already discussed, allusions thereto are comparatively rare on vases.

Chief among these personages is =Ge= or =Gaia=, the Earth-mother, half Titanic, half Chthonian, who is usually represented as a figure rising half out of the ground, with flowing hair. She thus appears in several Gigantomachia scenes (as the mother of the giants, who were Γηγενεῖς, earth-born),[883] and at the birth of Dionysos and Erichthonios, where she hands the child to Athena.[884] As a full-length figure she appears protecting her sons Tityos and Antaios against Apollo and Herakles respectively[885]; also in certain doubtful scenes on B.F. vases as the Nursing-mother (Κουροτρόφος), with two children in her arms,[886] though we have already seen (p. 30) that these are susceptible of another interpretation. Finally, the series of scenes in which men are represented hammering on the head of a female figure rising from the earth[887] may be regarded as referring to Gaia, with allusion to the custom of smiting on the earth to raise spirits. In this connection Gaia is undoubtedly to be identified with Pandora (see below).[888] A cognate subject is that of a similar female head or bust in company with Eros, sometimes found on late Italian vases.[889] If Gaia is here intended, her connection with Eros finds some support in the poetic cosmogonies[890]; otherwise it may be Aphrodite.

The story of _Kronos_, who swallowed the stone given to him by his wife Rhea in place of his children, is possibly depicted on one vase,[891] though the genuineness thereof is open to doubt. The stone is enveloped in drapery to prevent discovery. A bust of Kronos has also been identified on a vase.[892] The story of Zagreus and his destruction by the Titans, which belongs to the same cycle, also finds one or two representations. One vase appears to represent them devouring him piecemeal.[893]

Another personage who may perhaps be regarded as of pre-Olympian origin is _Themis_, who comes between Gaia and Apollo in the occupation of the prophetic stool at Delphi (Aesch. _Eum._ 2). Aigeus, the father of Theseus, is represented as consulting her seated on her tripod,[894] and one vase has been supposed to depict her conversing with Zeus before the birth of Dionysos.[895] She also appears at the Judgment of Paris.[896]

_Kybele_, the mother of the gods, only occurs in one or two doubtful instances, with the lion which is usually associated with her.[897]

Among the primitive and recondite Greek cults which go back to a remote origin, that of =the Kabeiri= may perhaps be mentioned here. Previous to the discovery, in 1887–88, of their sanctuary near Thebes, little was known, either from literary or monumental sources, of these mysterious deities; but the excavations on this site yielded large quantities of pottery with scenes relating to their cult, mostly of a burlesque character.[898] Among these was one very interesting fragment representing (with names inscribed) the Kabeiros and his son (Pais) banqueting, and attended by two deities known as Mitos and Pratoleia.[899] Lenormant noticed that the spectator-deities on an under-world vase in the British Museum correspond exactly to the four Cabeiric deities as described by certain ancient authorities.[900]

Turning next to myths which treat of the semi-divine personages of the earliest cosmogony, we have the legends given by Hesiod of Prometheus and the creation of =Pandora=; and we may include with them the Titan Atlas. Pandora, it has been already noted, is only a variation of Gaia,[901] and this is borne out by the name given to her on a beautiful polychrome cup in the British Museum representing her creation, completed by Hephaistos and Athena.[902] She is there named Ἀνεσιδώρα, “She who sends up gifts,” _E.g._ from the earth. The subject is not so popular as might have been expected, but appears on two other vases in the Museum, in each case with Olympian deities as spectators of the event, and on a beautiful vase now at Oxford.[903] The story of the opening of the πίθος has not found its way into art, but its connection with the Athenian feast of the πιθοίγια is curiously illustrated in one instance.[904]

=Prometheus= too is seldom seen, and chiefly on B.F. vases. In one case he receives a libation from Hera,[905] and there are two or three representations of his liberation by Herakles.[906] On a Cyrenaic cup he is grouped with Atlas, the vulture pecking at his breast, while the other groans under the burthen of the heavens.[907] =Atlas= is found almost exclusively with Herakles in connection with his visit to the Garden of the Hesperides. Either he is actually present in the Garden[908] or is confronted with the hero, who in some cases bears his burden for him while he obtains the apples.[909] He is also seen in company with a Sphinx.[910]

* * * * *

We now come to discuss a few subordinate deities or semi-divine personages who do not fall into any of the preceding categories.

=Asklepios=, chiefly a figure of later art, is exceedingly rare on vases. There is, in fact, only one on which he can certainly be identified. This is a late R.F. vase at Athens, on which he is seen reclining on a couch feeding a serpent and accompanied by Hygieia.[911] Nor does the latter occur elsewhere, though her name, as already noted (p. 43), is sometimes given to one of the personified figures attending on Aphrodite.[912] =Eileithyia=, the goddess of childbirth, generally appears, in duplicated form, assisting Zeus at the birth of Athena,[913] or Leto at that of Apollo and Artemis.[914] She is closely related to Artemis, and a representation of a goddess who has been identified as Artemis-Eileithyia may be seen on an early Boeotian vase with reliefs at Athens.[915]

=Iris=, the messenger of the gods, is usually distinguished from Nike by her caduceus or herald’s staff, and from Hebe by her wings. She is often depicted as a single figure,[916] or pouring a libation to Hera, Athena, or other deities.[917] She is associated more especially with Hera, as Hermes is with Zeus, and attends on the former in several scenes of assemblages of the gods.[918] In company with Hera she is attacked by a troop of Seileni and defended by Herakles,[919] and on another vase she is similarly surprised by a troop of Centaurs.[920] She assists at the creation of Pandora,[921] at the Judgment of Paris,[922] and at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis,[923] and also appears in the Garden of the Hesperides.[924] She is also seen with Paris carrying off Helen[925]; and with Menelaos fetching her back[926]; and in another scene, apparently drawn from a Homeric source (_Il._ viii. 397 ff.), where she dissuades Athena and Hera from taking sides in the war, at the behest of Zeus.[927] She conveys the infant Herakles to the Centaur Cheiron,[928] and is also seen in company with a warrior.[929]

=Hebe= in Olympos performs somewhat similar functions to Iris, more particularly that of pouring out wine for the gods.[930] She is also specially associated with Herakles at and after his apotheosis,[931] appearing as his bride in several instances.[932] Besides these, she frequently appears in assemblies of the gods,[933] or at the punishment of Marsyas,[934] or the Judgment of Paris.[935]

§ 4. PERSONIFICATIONS

The next group of deities with which we have to deal is that of the various personifications which are to be found in great numbers on vases of all periods, especially the later. These naturally fall under several headings, which, following the lines of the classification adopted by M. Pottier in a valuable article on the subject,[936] we may distribute as follows:—

1. Physical (Sun, Moon, Dawn, Winds, etc.). 2. Geographical
(Cities, Rivers, Mountains, etc.). 3. Products of earth
(Wine, Harvest, etc.). 4. Groups of various kinds (Muses,
Nymphs, etc.). 5. Physical conditions (Health, Old Age,
etc.). 6. Social advantages (Wealth, Peace, Victory, etc.).
7. Ethical ideas (Justice, Envy, Strife, etc.). 8.
Metaphysical ideas (Necessity, Law, etc.). 9. Social
enjoyments (Comedy, Tragedy, Revelry, etc.). 10. Descriptive
names.

Of some of these, indeed, we have already treated—such as the beings included in the following of Aphrodite and Dionysos, Ge-Pandora, Hebe (Youth), and the deities of the nether world. The rest we now proceed to consider in order, beginning with natural phenomena, and firstly those of an astronomical character.

I. =Helios=, the Sun, who in some senses, especially in the mythology of the Roman poets, is identical with Phoebus Apollo, is only once so identified on vases.[937] He is usually depicted in his four-horse chariot rising out of the sea (as on the eastern pediment of the Parthenon), either as a single figure or in connection with some myth, indicating that the action takes place at sunrise. As a single figure he appears both on early and late vases, on the latter, usually, as an upper decoration on the large Apulian kraters.[938] He is also accompanied by Eos (Dawn) and Selene (Moon), by Hemera (Day), or by Eros[939]; but in most cases he and Selene appear together, the latter descending as he rises (as on the Parthenon pediment). Thus on R.F. vases they denote the time of the action, as when Theseus descends below the sea to visit Poseidon,[940] or as on the Blacas krater in the British Museum, when Eos pursues Kephalos.[941] On the latter vase four stars are also depicted diving into the sea, to indicate their setting. On Apulian vases he is present at the seizure of Persephone,[942] at the flight of Pelops from Oinomaos,[943] at the madness of Lykourgos,[944] at the Judgment of Paris,[945] and in the Garden of the Hesperides.[946] In one instance a group of Satyrs start back affrighted at his appearance.[947] There are two instances of his encounter with Herakles, who endeavoured to stay his progress with his bow.[948]

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PLATE LIII

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=Selene=, the Moon, appears in many of the scenes already described under Helios, as on the Blacas krater. She is depicted under two types, either on horseback[949] or driving a chariot like Helios,[950] both as a single figure and in other scenes; and she is sometimes characterised by the lunar disc or crescent. Besides the scenes already referred to, she appears on horseback at the birth of Dionysos[951] and at the pursuit of Medeia by Jason.[952] The magic arts used by Thessalian witches to draw down the moon from heaven are also the subject of a vase-painting,[953] where two women essay to perform this feat by means of a rope, addressing her, “O Lady Moon!”

=Stars= are occasionally represented with an astronomical reference, as on the Blacas krater, where they appear in the form of youths, or grouped with Helios, Selene, and Eos.[954] Phosphoros, the Morning Star, may be identified in this connection, represented as a youth running[955]; but in other cases they are not personified, as on a vase which represents the moon and stars with the constellation Pegasos.[956]

=Hemera=, the Day, we have already once noted; but in art she is hardly to be distinguished from Eos (Dawn). Nor can Nyx (Night) be identified with certainty on vases.[957] =Eos= is not an uncommon figure, especially on R.F. vases, and she also plays a part in certain myths. As a single figure she appears rising from the sea in, or driving, a four-horse chariot like Helios,[958] her steeds in one case being named Phlegethon and Lampon. She is also represented flying with two hydriae, from which she pours out dew upon the earth.[959] She is frequently seen pursuing or carrying Kephalos[960] or Tithonos,[961] and is present at the apotheosis of Alkmena.[962] At the combat of her son Memnon with Achilles she and the other mother, Thetis, are generally present.[963] She also pleads with Zeus for her son’s safety,[964] and bears away his body after the fatal issue of the fight.[965]

Next we have to deal with =the Winds=, as personified by the figures of Boreas, Zephyros, etc. As single figures they seldom appear, though we have possible instances of _Boreas_, with the unusual type of a serpent’s tail,[966] or simply as a winged male figure.[967] A wind-god is seen in an episode from the Gigantomachia opposing the chariot of Zeus,[968] and another in an assemblage of deities round Apollo Kitharoidos.[969] _Zephyros_ is seen pursuing Hyakinthos,[970] and he and Boreas together bear the body of a warrior to the tomb in the same manner as Hypnos and Thanatos.[971] But the most important subject connected with Boreas is his pursuit of the Athenian maiden Oreithyia, a frequent scene on the later R.F. vases,[972] some being very fine examples. Erechtheus, Kekrops, and the Nymphs Aglauros, Herse, and Pandrosos, are usually present, and the latter in one case announce the news to Kekrops or Erechtheus.[973] Boreas is also depicted in the act of punishing Phineus by blinding him, and attacked by the latter’s friend Parebios.[974]

On some early B.F. vases we find winged beings which may be styled _Boreades_, in conjunction with Harpies, apparently representing the influences of good and evil winds respectively.[975] Zetes and Kalais, the sons of Boreas, will be treated of in the story of the Argonautika.[976] The _Aurae_ or breezes have been identified on a well-known vase in the British Museum,[977] and on an Apulian vase in the same collection is a head undoubtedly intended for Aura.[978] The _Hyades_ or rain-goddesses in two instances extinguish the flames of a funeral pyre at the bidding of Zeus, at the apotheosis of Alkmena[979] and of Herakles[980]; in one of the latter instances they are named Arethusa and Premnusia. They also receive the infant Dionysos.[981] _Echo_ belongs perhaps rather to the Dionysiac cycle, appearing as the beloved of Pan.[982]

* * * * *

II. We may next consider the personifications of =cities and countries=, which are, indeed, in some cases more than merely symbolical figures, being actual goddesses with a definite cult, such as the Nymph Kyrene, who often appears on works of art.[983] On the great Naples vase representing Dareios in a council of war, personifications of _Hellas_ and _Asia_ are placed among the spectator-deities,[984] and the former seems also to be indicated on a similar vase with a battle of Greeks and Persians.[985] On one of the late vases with the subject of Pelops and Oinomaos, a personification of the locality _Olympia_ appears to be similarly present,[986] just as on the Hieron kotyle the personification of Eleusis is included among the Eleusinian and other deities at the sending forth of Triptolemos.[987] The city of _Thebes_ is personified in several instances, especially as a spectator of Kadmos slaying the dragon[988]; also on a “Megarian” bowl with reliefs in the British Museum, the subjects on which are taken from the _Phoenissae_ of Euripides.[989] _Nemea_, the scene of Herakles’ victory over the lion, and of the death of Archermos, is similarly personified as a Nymph in the representations of both subjects,[990] and the town of _Krommyon_ as a Nymph protests against the slaying of the sow by Theseus.[991] The Nymph _Sparta_ occurs once, dismounting from her horse.[992] Two cups of the early B.F. class usually known (from their subjects) as Cyrenaic, bear representations of the Nymph _Kyrene_ (see above)—in one case with Apollo, in the other holding a branch of silphium (the local product) and surrounded by Boreads and Harpies (see above).[993]

Among the Greek islands, _Aegina_ and _Salamis_ were supposed to have derived their names from Nymphs beloved of Zeus and Poseidon, who are represented pursuing these quasi-personified figures[994]; we may also regard Europa as coming under that category.[995] Zeus also pursues _Taygeta_, who is connected with the mountain in Laconia.[996] On one vase we find the names of the islands _Delos_, _Euboea_, and _Lemnos_,[997] given, presumably in pure fancy, to two Maenads and a Satyr in a Dionysiac scene where all the figures are named. A more genuine instance is that of the Nymph _Krete_ on the Talos vase, indicating the locality.[998]

Turning to other geographical features, we have Mount _Olympos_ transformed into a lyre-playing companion of Satyrs[999]; or, again, river-gods such as _Acheloös_, who as a combination of man and bull, or with a fish-body like Triton, wrestles with Herakles.[1000] The river _Nile_ appears once, but not personified—only as an indication of landscape.[1001] In connection with the city of Thebes we find personifications of the local river _Ismenos_ and the local fountain-Nymphs _Dirke_ and _Krenaia_.[1002]

* * * * *

III. Natural products, such as Oinos (Wine) and Opora (Harvest), are only found personified among the Dionysiac conceptions with which we have already dealt (p. 65); to these two names we may add those of Hedyoinos (Sweet Wine), Kissos (Ivy), Kalyke (Bud), and Rodo (Rose), the three latter coming more under the heading of pet-names than of strict personifications.

* * * * *

IV. Our next class includes certain groups of personages (all feminine) which for the most part hold their own throughout all periods of art and literature, and are, so to speak, more crystallised into definite mythological personages, associated with the gods and human beings of the legendary ages. These are the Muses, the Charites or Graces, the Horae or Seasons, the Moirae or Fates, and the Erinnyes or Furies.

=The Muses= do not appear so frequently in vase-paintings as in sculpture, and mostly on later vases. Two fine R.F. examples of the whole nine (with their appropriate attributes) call for mention[1003]; other vases give a more limited number, or even single figures[1004]; but it must be remembered that in such cases identification is difficult, as characterisation by means of a lyre or scenic mask does not necessarily connote the presence of a Muse. On one vase Terpsichore is seen with two figures inscribed as Mousaios and Melousa[1005]; but these may be no more than fancy names for an ordinary group of musicians. Five of them are seen in a group with Apollo, Thamyris, and Sappho,[1006] and elsewhere they accompany Apollo.[1007]

The _Graces_ can nowhere be identified on Greek vases, though they form a well-known type in sculpture; but there is an Etruscan kylix in the British Museum (probably copied from a Greek original), which appears to represent them as an interior group.[1008] The _Horae_ or Seasons appear (without distinctive names) on the François vase at the nuptials of Peleus and Thetis, and on the Sosias cup[1009] in an Olympian assemblage (three in each case); also two of them at the sending forth of Triptolemos.[1010] The three _Moirae_ (Fates) appear on the François vase (as above), and once also at the birth of Athena[1011]; the Furies have already been discussed.[1012]

* * * * *

V. The personifications having reference to physical conditions (as distinguished from ethical ideas) are comparatively few in number. They include _Hebe_ (Youth), who by virtue of her divine attributes has already been discussed in another section (p. 77); _Hygieia_ (Health), who is also a fully developed goddess, but only once occurs on a vase, except among the somewhat vague personifications surrounding Aphrodite (see pp. 43, 76]); and three others, regarded as of masculine sex. These are Geras (Old Age), Hypnos (Sleep), and Thanatos (Death). _Geras_ is seen in combat with Herakles[1013]; Thanatos has already been discussed (p. 71). _Hypnos_ as a winged youth hovers over Alkyoneus, whom Herakles overcame while asleep[1014]; causes Ariadne to sleep while Theseus escapes[1015]; and with Thanatos carries the body of Memnon,[1016] or an ordinary mortal,[1017] to the tomb.

* * * * *

VI. Social advantages as apart from ethical qualities are perhaps difficult to determine exactly; but we may fairly rank under this heading such ideas as are suggested by Chrysos (Gold) and Ploutos (Wealth); Eirene (Peace); Nike (Victory); and the numerous attendants of Aphrodite and Dionysos, such as Eunomia, Eudaimonia, and others already named (pp. 43, 65). _Chrysos_ and _Ploutos_ as boys accompany Nike in her chariot[1018]; _Eirene’s_ appearance on vases is doubtful, but she may appear in one instance carrying the infant Ploutos.[1019] The birth of Ploutos seems to be represented in one instance.[1020]

But by far the most important personage in this class is =Nike (Victory)=, whose appearance as a winged female figure is so often attested by inscriptions on R.F. vases that she can generally be identified with certainty. She is especially popular as a single figure on the Nolan amphorae and lekythi of the “severe” and “strong” periods, some of which are conspicuously beautiful examples.[1021] Altogether her appearances rival those of Eros in number, though on the Italian vases they are far fewer. Whether Nike ever occurs on B.F. vases is a very doubtful point, and has been denied by many scholars, but some figures are not easy to explain in any other way.[1022] On other works of art she does not appear before 480 B.C., unless the “Nike” of Archermos is to be so identified; it seems probable that she was an offshoot from Athena, whom we know to have been worshipped under the name of Nike, as in her temple on the Athenian Acropolis.

She is frequently associated with the gods, either in scenes from mythology or in groups apart from action[1023]; usually she pours libations to them, or crowns them in reference to some achievement. Thus we find her with Zeus,[1024] with Hera,[1025] with Athena,[1026] with Poseidon and Dionysos,[1027] with Apollo (especially at his victory over Marsyas),[1028] with Artemis Elaphebolos,[1029] and with Aphrodite.[1030] She frequently crowns or pours libations to Herakles, or attends him at his apotheosis[1031]; on the later vases she takes Athena’s place in conveying him in a chariot to Olympos.[1032]

Among the numerous mythological events in which Nike plays a more or less symbolical part may be mentioned the Gigantomachia, in which she drives Zeus’ chariot,[1033] the birth of Athena,[1034] the sending of Triptolemos,[1035] the Judgment of Paris,[1036] the birth of Dionysos[1037] and that of Erichthonios,[1038] and the punishment of Ixion.[1039] Among Trojan scenes she appears with Achilles arming,[1040] at his (supposed) fight with Telephos and possibly also at that with Memnon,[1041] and at the carrying off of the Palladion.[1042] She is also seen with Herakles in the Garden of the Hesperides,[1043] with the Dioskuri,[1044] with Perseus and Bellerophon,[1045] with Orestes at Delphi[1046]; crowning Hellas as the victor over the Persians[1047]; and in many scenes with Dionysos.[1048]

More numerous and characteristic, however, are the scenes in which she appears as a single figure, or associated with mortals, usually victorious warriors or athletes. As a single figure she most commonly pours a libation over an altar,[1049] or flies towards the altar bearing a torch, incense-burner, lyre, tripod, sash, or other attribute[1050]; in one case (unless Iris is intended) a jug and caduceus.[1051] Especially characterised as the goddess of Victory, she often holds a palm-branch.[1052] She frequently takes part in religious and sacrificial ceremonies, such as the decoration or dedication of a choragic tripod,[1053] or burns incense,[1054] or herself sacrifices a ram or bull.[1055] The last-named subject is, however, commoner on gems and a certain class of terracotta reliefs.[1056] On one vase she gives drink to a bull[1057]; or, again, she rides on a sacrificial bull[1058]; or places a hydria on a fountain or altar.[1059] She pursues a hare, doe, or bird,[1060] or offers a bird to a youth.[1061] On the later Panathenaic amphorae and elsewhere she holds the ἀκροστόλιον or stern-ornament of a ship[1062]; and sometimes she erects a trophy.[1063]

She appears in a chariot drawn by female Centaurs,[1064] or accompanied by Chrysos and Ploutos (see above),[1065] and she also conducts a victorious warrior in this manner.[1066] In other instances she pours a libation to a warrior,[1067] who is sometimes inscribed with a fanciful name[1068]; or, again, as anticipating his victory, she brings him his helmet.[1069] She is, however, more frequently seen in athletic scenes, crowning a victorious athlete,[1070] rider,[1071] or charioteer,[1072] or superintending the games in the palaestra,[1073] torch-races,[1074] or the taking of an oath by an athlete.[1075] In musical contests she performs the same functions, crowning or pouring libations to a successful performer.[1076] She crowns a successful potter in his workshop,[1077] and also a poet (?).[1078] A being of similar character, who may perhaps be recognised in the figure of a winged youth on some B.F. and early R.F. vases, is Agon, the personification of athletic contests.[1079]

On the later R.F. vases the figure of Nike is often duplicated, probably more to produce a balanced composition than for any other reason.[1080]

* * * * *

VII. The next class of personifications is that of abstract ethical ideas. Even on the earlier vases there are found a considerable number of these, such as Eris (Strife); but on the later, unlimited play is given to the tendency of the age (seen also in sculpture and painting) to invest every abstract idea with a personality, apart from any idea of deification or mythological import.

Among these, by far the most numerous examples are, of course, those relating to the passion of Love. We have already traced the development of the type and conception of Eros in vase-paintings, and in the same place we have had occasion to speak of the associated ideas which became personified as subsidiary conceptions to that of Love, such as Peitho (Persuasion), Pothos (Yearning), and Himeros (Charm), Phthonos (Envy or _Amor invidiosus_), and Talas (Unfortunate or Unrequited Love).[1081] Of a similar type are the feminine conceptions associated with Aphrodite-Eudaimonia (Happiness), Euthymia (Cheerfulness), and the like.[1082]

Among other abstract ideas are those of _Arete_ (Virtue) and _Hedone_ (Pleasure), which have been suggested as represented on one vase.[1083] On a R.F. vase in Vienna, _Dike_ (Justice) is seen overcoming _Adikia_ (Injustice)[1084]; _Apate_ (Deceit) on the vase with Dareios in council beguiles the goddess Asia with bad advice,[1085] and also leads Tereus astray[1086]; _Phobos_ (Fear) drives the chariot of Ares when he assists Kyknos against Herakles[1087]; he is specially associated with the god of war, the idea being that of inducing panic among enemies; and in many cases his head appears, like that of the Gorgon, as a device on shields.[1088] In one instance he appears as a lion-headed monster.[1089] Artemis, in the capacity of _Aidos_ (Shame), hinders Tityos from carrying off Leto.[1090] _Eris_ (Strife) appears on B.F. vases as a winged female figure running, in scenes of combat, chariot-races, etc., or as a single figure.[1091] But the identification is not always certain; in some combat scenes it is possible that Ate or a Ker is meant, and in those of an agonistic character we may see Agon, the personification of athletics (see above, p. 89).[1092]

* * * * *

VIII. The metaphysical ideas next to be discussed are almost exclusively punitive agencies, either connected with scenes in the under-world (Ananke, Poinae, and the Furies), or bringing down penalties and disasters on the heads of wrong-doers, such as the personifications of madness which occur in many of the tragic subjects on Apulian vases.

In the first group we reckon _Ananke_ (Necessity) and the _Poinae_ (Punishments), who appear with the Furies in a scene from the under-world,[1093] _Ate_ or _Ker_ (Destiny), a winged figure seen at the death of Hector[1094] and at the madness of Lykourgos[1095]; and _Nemesis_ (Vengeance) in the scene between Atreus and Thyestes,[1096] with reference to its fate-fraught character. In less tragic circumstances the latter is present in a bridal scene, with attributes of a flower and an apple.[1097] The Moirae or Fates have already been mentioned (p. 83), as has Themis or Divine Ordinance (p. 74).

The second group includes _Lyssa_ (Frenzy), who drives Aktaeon, Hippolytos, and Lykourgos to madness or destruction[1098]; _Mania_ (Madness), who similarly drives Herakles to slay his children[1099]; and _Oistros_ (_E.g._ a Gad-fly), who performs similar functions when Medeia is about to slay hers.[1100]

* * * * *

IX. Personifications relating to social enjoyments, such as games, the drama, or banquets, are closely analogous to many of those described under headings III. and VI., and occur in the same connection. Thus in Dionysiac scenes we find Choro (Dance), Molpe (Song), Dithyrambos, Hedymeles (Sweet Song), Komos (Revelry), Komodia and Tragoedia (Comedy and Tragedy), and Pannychis and Kraipale, typifying all-night revels and their consequences.[1101]

* * * * *

X. Finally, there are what M. Pottier has described as personifications of individualities, under which heading fall many conceptions which do not find a place in any of the classes already discussed. Among these are many of the names given to Maenads and Satyrs (p. 65), which are intermediate between personal names and embodiments of abstract or physical ideas, some inclining more to one side, some to the other. Of these it is only necessary to mention as illustrative of the present subject the Mainas[1102] and the Nymphe[1103] found as names of individuals on several vases, and the Oinopion or “Wine-drinker” on vases by Exekias.[1104]

To the same class belong the names given to Nymphs of various kinds, such as the Nereids (see p. 26) or the Hesperides. The latter are named on one vase[1105] as Asterope, Chrysothemis, Hygieia, and Lipara; on another[1106] as Aiopis, Antheia, Donakis, Kalypso, Mermesa, Nelisa, and Tara.

Of more general signification, and sometimes perhaps to be regarded as descriptive titles rather than names, are such as Archenautes (Ship-captain),[1107] Komarchos (Master of Revels),[1108] or Paidagogos (Tutor).[1109] On the other hand, Neanias, Komos, Paian (given to boys at play),[1110] and Eutychia (on the tomb of a woman)[1111] may be merely fanciful personal names.

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Footnote 621:

B.M. B 589, B 693; B 180 (between vine-poles); Bibl. Nat. 176;
Hartwig, pl. 30, fig. 2 (Hieron); Branteghem Coll. No. 28 (Hermaios);
Athens 1583 = Rayet and Collignon, p. 291; _Amer. Journ. of Arch._
1900, pl. 1, p. 185 (Duris in Boston).

Footnote 622:

Petersburg 880 = Reinach, i. 13.

Footnote 623:

B.M. F 194.

Footnote 624:

B.M. E 257.

Footnote 625:

_Wiener Vorl._ 1890–91, pl. 7, fig. 2 (Nikosthenes in Boston).

Footnote 626:

B.M. E 439.

Footnote 627:

B.M. E 362.

Footnote 628:

Athens 1583 = Rayet and Collignon, p. 291.

Footnote 629:

Bibl. Nat. 576 = Hartwig, _Meistersch._ pl. 33, 1.

Footnote 630:

Reinach, ii. 35.

Footnote 631:

_Ibid._ i. 159.

Footnote 632:

B.M. B 225, B 378, B 426, E 102; Louvre F 133; Petersburg 855 =
Reinach, i. 18.

Footnote 633:

B.M. E 429; Millin-Reinach, i. 60, ii. 17; Reinach, i. 168, ii. 302.

Footnote 634:

Reinach, ii. 32 (cf. Triptolemos).

Footnote 635:

_Bourguignon Sale Cat._ 57; _Mon. Grecs_, 1879, pl. 3.

Footnote 636:

B.M. B 79.

Footnote 637:

_Mus. Greg._ ii. 3, 3_E.g._.

Footnote 638:

Munich 339 = Reinach, ii. 36 = _Wiener Vorl._ 1888, 7, 1.

Footnote 639:

_Cat._ 969 = Reinach, i. 415: see p. 178.

Footnote 640:

B.M. E 182; Bibl. Nat. 219 = _Mon. di Barone_, pl. 1; Reinach, i. 1
and 3 = Petersburg 1792 and 1793; and see p. 19.

Footnote 641:

B.M. E 492; Reinach, i. 93, 122; Helbig 103 = Rayet and Collignon, p.
223.

Footnote 642:

Petersburg 2007 = Reinach, i. 7.

Footnote 643:

Bibl. Nat. 440 = Reinach, ii. 260.

Footnote 644: