Chapter XXIV: Conclusion: The Future of Europe (1)

_Summary of the Argument presented in this Book respecting the mental Progress of Europe._

_Intellectual Development is the Object of Individual Life.--It is also the Result of social Progress._

_Nations arriving at Maturity instinctively attempt their own intellectual Organization.--Example of the Manner in which this has been done in China.--Its Imperfection.--What it has accomplished._

_The Organization of public Intellect is the End to which European Civilization is tending._

A Philosophical principle becomes valuable if it can be used as a guide in the practical purposes of life.

[Sidenote: General summary of the work.] The object of this book is to impress upon its reader a conviction that civilization does not proceed in an arbitrary manner or by chance, but that it passes through a determinate succession of stages, and is a development according to law.

[Sidenote: Individual and social life have been considered;] For this purpose we considered the relations between individual and social life, and showed that they are physiologically inseparable, and that the course of communities bears an unmistakable resemblance to the progress of an individual, and that man is the archetype or exemplar of society.

[Sidenote: in the intellectual history of Greece;] We then examined the intellectual history of Greece--a nation offering the best and most complete illustration of the life of humanity. From the beginnings of its mythology in old Indian legends and of its philosophy in Ionia, we saw that it passed through phases like those of the individual to its decrepitude and death in Alexandria.

[Sidenote: and the history of Europe.] Then, addressing ourselves to the history of Europe, we found that, if suitably divided into groups of ages, these groups, compared with each other in chronological succession, present a striking resemblance to the successive phases of Greek life, and therefore to that which Greek life resembles--that is to say, individual life.

For the sake of convenience in these descriptions we have assumed arbitrary epochs, answering to the periods from infancy to maturity. History justifies the assumption of such periods. [Sidenote: The contrasts its ages display.] There is a well-marked difference between the aspect of Europe during its savage and mythologic ages; its changing, and growing, and doubting condition during the Roman republic and the Caesars; its submissive contentment under the Byzantine and Italian control; the assertion of its manhood, and right of thought, and freedom of action which characterize its present state--a state adorned by great discoveries in science, great inventions in art, additions to the comforts of life, improvements in locomotion, and the communication of intelligence. Science, capital, and machinery conjoined are producing industrial miracles. Colossal projects are undertaken and executed, and the whole globe is literally made the theatre of action of every individual.

Nations, like individuals, are born, pass through a predestined growth, and die. One comes to its end at an early period and in an untimely way; another, not until it has gained maturity. One is cut off by feebleness in its infancy, another is destroyed by civil disease, another commits political suicide, another lingers in old age. But for every one there is an orderly way of progress to its final term, whatever that term may be.

[Sidenote: The object of development is intellect.] Now, when we look at the successive phases of individual life, what is it that we find to be their chief characteristic? Intellectual advancement. And we consider that maturity is reached when intellect is at its maximum. The earlier stages are preparatory; they are wholly subordinate to this.

[Sidenote: It is the same in individual life,] If the anatomist be asked how the human form advances to its highest perfection, he at once disregards all the inferior organs of which it is composed, and answers that it is through provisions in its nervous structure for intellectual improvement; that in succession it passes through stages analogous to those observed in other animals in the ascending scale, but in the end it leaves them far behind, reaching a point to which they never attain. The rise in organic development measures intellectual dignity.

[Sidenote: and in the animal series,] In like manner, the physiologist considering the vast series of animals now inhabiting the earth with us, ranks them in the order of their intelligence. He shows that their nervous mechanism unfolds itself upon the same plan as that of man, and that, as its advancement in this uniform and predetermined direction is greater, so is the position attained to higher.

[Sidenote: and in the general life of the globe.] The geologist declares that these conclusions hold good in the history of the earth, and that there has been an orderly improvement in intellectual power of the beings that have inhabited it successively. It is manifested by their nervous systems. He affirms that the cycle of transformation through which every man must pass is a miniature representation of the progress of life on the planet. The intention in both cases is the same.

[Sidenote: Succession of automatism, instinct, and intelligence.] The sciences, therefore, join with history in affirming that the great aim of nature is intellectual improvement. They proclaim that the successive stages of every individual, from its earliest rudiment to maturity--the numberless organic beings now living contemporaneously with us, and constituting the animal series--the orderly appearance of that grand succession which, in the slow lapse of time, has emerged--all these three great lines of the manifestation of life furnish not only evidences, but also proofs of the dominion of law. In all the general principle is to differentiate instinct from automatism, and then to differentiate intelligence from instinct. In man himself the three distinct modes of life occur in an epochal order through childhood to the most perfect state. And this holding good for the individual, since it is physiologically impossible to separate him from the race, what holds good for the one must also hold good for the other. Hence man is truly the archetype of society. His development is the model of social progress.

[Sidenote: The object of social development.] What, then, is the conclusion inculcated by these doctrines as regards the social progress of great communities? It is that all political institutions--imperceptibly or visibly, spontaneously or purposely--should tend to the improvement and organization of national intellect.

The expectation of life in a community, as in an individual, increases in proportion as the artificial condition or laws under which it is living agree with the natural tendency. Existence may be maintained under very adverse circumstances for a season; but, for stability and duration, and prosperity, there must be a correspondence between the artificial conditions and the natural tendency.

[Sidenote: Application of these principles to Europe.] Europe is now entering on its mature phase of life. Each of its nations will attempt its own intellectual organization, and will accomplish it more or less perfectly, as certainly as that bees build combs and fill them with honey. The excellence of the result will altogether turn on the suitability and perfection of the means.

[Sidenote: Example offered by China.] There are historical illustrations which throw light upon the working of these principles. Thus, centuries ago, China entered on her Age of Reason, and instinctively commenced the operation of mental organization. What is it that has given to her her wonderful longevity? What is it that insures the well-being, the prosperity of a population of three hundred and sixty millions--more than one fourth of the human race--on a surface not by any means as large as Europe? Not geographical position; for, though the country may in former ages have been safe on the East by reason of the sea, it has been invaded and conquered from the West. Not a docility, want of spirit, or submissiveness of the people, for there have been bloody insurrections. The Chinese empire extends through twenty degrees of latitude; the mean annual temperature of its northern provinces differs from that of the southern by twenty-five Fahrenheit degrees. Hence, with a wonderful variety in its vegetation, there must be great differences in the types of men inhabiting it. But the principle that lies at the basis of its political system has confronted successfully all these human varieties, and has outlived all revolutions.

[Sidenote: She has organized her public intellect,] The organization of the national intellect is that principle. A broad foundation is laid in universal education. It is intended that every Chinese shall know how to read and write. The special plan then adopted is that of competitive examinations. The way to public advancement is open to all. Merit, real or supposed, is the only passport to office. Its degree determines exclusively social rank. The government is organized on mental qualifications. The imperial constitution is imitated in those of the provinces. Once in three years public examinations are held in each district or county, with a view of ascertaining those who are fit for office. The bachelors, or those who are successful, are triennially sent for renewed examination in the provincial capital before two examiners deputed from the general board of public education. The licentiates thus sifted out now offer themselves for final examination before the imperial board at Pekin. Suitable candidates for vacant posts are thus selected. There is no one who is not liable to such an inquisition. When vacancies occur they are filled from the list of approved men, who are gradually elevated to the highest honours.

[Sidenote: and obtains stability for her institutions.] It is not because the talented, who, when disappointed constitute in other countries the most dangerous of all classes, are here provided for, that stability of institutions has been attained, but because the political system approaches to an agreement with that physiological condition which guides all social development. The intention is to give a dominating control to intellect.

[Sidenote: Imperfection of the method she employs.] The method through which that result is aimed at is imperfect, and, consequently, an absolute coincidence between the system and the tendency is not attained, but the stability secured by their approximation is very striking. The method itself is the issue of political forms through which the nation for ages has been passing. Their insufficiency and imperfections are incorporated with and reappear in it.

[Sidenote: Its literary basis inadequate.] To the practical eye of Europe a political system thus founded on a literary basis appears to be an absurdity. But we must look with respect on anything that one-fourth of mankind have concluded it best to do, especially since they have consistently adhered to their determination for several thousand years. Forgetting that herein they satisfy an instinct of humanity which every nation, if it lives long enough, must feel, Europe often asserts that it is the competitive system which has brought the Chinese to their present state, and made them a people without any sense of patriotism or honour, without any faith or vigour. These are the results, not of their system, but of old age. There are octogenarians among us as morose, selfish, and conceited as China.

[Sidenote: Relative position of Europe and China.] The want of a clear understanding of our relative position vitiates all our dealings with that ancient empire. The Chinese has heard of our discordant opinions, of our intolerance toward those who differ in ideas from us, of our worship of wealth, and the honour we pay to birth; he has heard that we sometimes commit political power to men who are so little above the animals that they can neither read nor write; that we hold military success in esteem, and regard the profession of arms as the only suitable occupation for a gentleman. It is so long since his ancestors thought and acted in that manner that he justifies himself in regarding us as having scarcely yet emerged from the barbarian stage. On our side, we cherish the delusion that we shall, by precept or by force, convert him to our modes of thought, religious or political, and that we can infuse into his stagnating veins a portion of our enterprise.

[Sidenote: What China has really accomplished.] A trustworthy account of the present condition of China would be a valuable gift to philosophy, and also to statesmanship. On a former page I have remarked (Chap. I. Vol. I.) that it demands the highest policy to govern populations living in great differences of latitude. Yet China has not only controlled her climatic strands of people, she has even made them, if not homogeneous, yet so fitted to each other that they all think and labour alike. Europe is inevitably hastening to become what China is. In her we may see what we shall be like when we are old.

A great community, aiming to govern itself by intellect rather than by coercion, is a spectacle worthy of admiration, even though the mode by which it endeavours to accomplish its object is plainly inadequate. [Sidenote: Difference in government by force and intelligence.] Brute force holds communities together as an iron nail binds pieces of wood by the compression it makes--a compression depending on the force with which it has been hammered in. It also holds more tenaciously if a little rusted with age. But intelligence binds like a screw. The things it has to unite must be carefully adjusted to its thread. It must be gently turned, not driven and so it retains the consenting parts firmly together.

Notwithstanding the imperfections of a system founded on such a faulty basis, that great community has accomplished what many consider to be the object of statesmanship. They think that it should be permanence in Institutions. But permanence is only, in an apparent sense, the object of good statesmanship; progression, in accordance with the natural tendency, is the real one. The successive steps of such a progression follow one another so imperceptibly that there is a delusive appearance of permanence. Man is so constituted that he is never aware of continuous motion. Abrupt variations alone impress his attention.

Forms of government, therefore, are of moment, though not in the manner commonly supposed. Their value increases in proportion as they permit or encourage the natural tendency for development to be satisfied.

While Asia has thus furnished an example of the effects of a national organization of intellect, Europe, on a smaller scale, has presented an illustration of the same kind. [Sidenote: A similar example in the case of Italy.] The papal system opened, in its special circumstances, a way for talent. It maintained an intellectual organization for those who were within its pale, irrespective of wealth or birth. It was no objection that the greatest churchman frequently came from the lowest walks of life. And that organization sustained it in spite of the opposition of external circumstances for several centuries after its supernatural and ostensible basis had completely decayed away.

[Sidenote: Approach of Europe to universal education.] Whatever may be the facts under which, in the different countries of Europe, such an organization takes place, or the political forms guiding it, the basis it must rest upon is universal, and, if necessary, compulsory education. In the more enlightened places the movement has already nearly reached that point. Already it is an accepted doctrine that the state, as well as the parent, has rights in a child and that it may insist on education: conversely also, that every child has a claim upon the government for good instruction. After providing in the most liberal manner for that, free countries have but one thing more to do for the accomplishment of the rest.

[Sidenote: Necessity of intellectual freedom.] That one thing is to secure intellectual freedom as completely as the rights of property and personal liberty have been already secured. Philosophical opinions and scientific discoveries are entitled to be judged of by their truth, not by their relation to existing interests. The motion of the earth round the sun, the antiquity of the globe, the origin of species, are doctrines which have had to force their way in the manner described in this book, not against philosophical opposition, but opposition of a totally different nature. And yet the interests which resisted them so strenuously have received no damage from their establishment beyond that consequent on the discredit of having so resisted them.

There is no literary crime greater than that of exciting a social, and especially a theological odium against ideas that are purely scientific, none against which the disapproval of every educated man ought to be more strongly expressed. The republic of letters owes it to its own dignity to tolerate no longer offences of that kind.

[Sidenote: The future course of Europe.] To such an organization of their national intellect, and to giving it a political control, the countries of Europe are thus rapidly advancing. They are hastening to satisfy their instinctive tendency. The special form in which they will embody their intentions must, of course, depend to a great degree on the political forms under which they have passed their lives, modified by that approach to homogeneousness which arises from increased intercommunication. The canal system, so wonderfully developed in China, exerted no little influence in that respect--an influence, however, not to be compared with that which must be the result of the railway system of Europe.

[Sidenote: Its hopefulness compared with that of China.] In an all-important particular the prospect of Europe is bright. China is passing through the last stage of civil life in the cheerlessness of Buddhism; Europe approaches it through Christianity. Universal benevolence cannot fail to yield a better fruit than unsocial pride. There is a fairer hope for nations animated by a sincere religious sentiment, who, whatever their political history may have been, have always agreed in this, that they were devout, than for a people who dedicate themselves to a selfish pursuit of material advantages, who have lost all belief in a future, and are living without any God.

* * * * *

I have now come to the end of a work which has occupied me for many years, and which I submit, with many misgivings as to its execution, to the indulgent consideration of the public. These pages will not have been written in vain if the facts they present impress the reader, as they have impressed the author, with a conviction that the civilization of Europe has not taken place fortuitously, but in a definite mariner, and under the control of natural law; that the procession of nations does not move forward like a dream, without reason or order, but that there is a predetermined, a solemn march, in which all must join, ever moving, ever resistlessly advancing, encountering and enduring an inevitable succession of events; that individual life and its advancement through successive stages is the model of social life and its secular variations.

I have asserted the control of natural law in the shaping of human affairs--a control not inconsistent with free-will any more than the unavoidable passage of an individual as he advances to maturity and declines in old age is inconsistent with his voluntary actions; that higher law limits our movements to a certain direction, and guides them in a certain way. As the Stoics of old used to say, an acorn may lie torpid in the ground, unable to exert its living force, until it receives warmth, and moisture, and other things needful for its germination; when it grows, it may put forth one bud here and another bud there; the wind may bend one branch, the frost blight another; the innate vitality of the tree may struggle against adverse conditions or luxuriate in those that are congenial; but, whatever the circumstances may be, there is an overruling power for ever constraining and modelling it. The acorn can only produce an oak.

The application of this principle to human societies is completely established by a scientific study of their history; and the more extensive and profound that study, the better shall we be able to distinguish the invariable law in the midst of the varying events. But that once thoroughly appreciated, we have gained a philosophical guide for the interpretation of the past acts of nations, and a prophetic monitor of their future, so far as prophecy is possible in human affairs.

INDEX.

Abba Oumna, a distinguished Jewish physician, i. 401.

Abbot Arnold, his sanguinary order at the capture of Beziers, ii. 62.

Abdallah penetrates Africa as far as Tripoli, i. 334.

Abdalmalek invades Africa, i. 334.

Abderrahman slain at the battle of Tours, ii. 30.

Abderrahman III., description of the Court of, ii. 32.
Introduces cotton manufacture into Spain, ii. 386.

Abderrahman Sufi improves the photometry of the stars, ii. 42.

Abdulmalek, his scrupulous integrity in regard to the church of
Damascus, i. 338.

Abelard, Peter, his character and doctrines, ii. 11.

Abkah, his temporary success in subjugating Africa, i. 334.

Aboul Wefa discovers the variation of the moon, i. 325.

Abraham Ibn Sahal, obscene character of the songs of, ii. 35.

Absorption of the soul of man, the Veda doctrine of, i. 60.

Abu-Bekr, the successor of Mohammed and first Khalif, i. 334.

Abul Cassem, a Moorish writer of the tenth century, on trade
and commerce, ii. 44.

Abul Hassan, an Arab astronomer, ii. 42.

Abu Othman, a Moorish writer on zoology, ii. 39.

Acacius, Bishop of Constantinople, excommunicated by Felix, the
Bishop of Rome, i. 352.

Academies, accusation of heresy against the Italian, ii. 213.
Foundation of modern learned, ii. 287.

Academy, Old, founded by Plato, i. 169.
Middle, founded by Arcesilaus, i. 169.
New, founded by Carneades, i. 169.
Fourth, founded by Philo of Larissa, i. 170.
Fifth, founded by Antiochus of Ascalon, i. 170.

Acherusian Cave, superstitiously believed to lead to hell, i. 36.

Achilles, spear of, preserved as a relic, i. 51.
Puzzle, advanced by Zeno the Eleatic as one of four arguments
against the possibility of motion, i. 122.

Acoustics, discoveries in, and phenomena of, ii. 370.

Adrian, Pope, incurs the displeasure of Charlemagne in
consequence of selling his vassals as slaves, i. 373.

Adriatic Sea, North, change of depth in, i. 30.

Aeneas Sylvius becomes Pope Pius II., i. 299.
His remark on the Council of Basle, ii. 100.
On the state of faith, ii. 103.
On Christendom, ii. 109.

Aerial martyrs, account of, i. 426.

Aeschylus condemned to death for blasphemy, but saved by his
brother Aminias, i. 50.

Aesculapius, the father of Greek medicine, i. 393.

Affinity, first employed in its modern acceptation by Albertus
Magnus, ii. 153.

Africa, circumnavigation of, by the ships of Pharaoh Necho, i. 78.
Conquered by the Arabs, i. 333.
Effects of the loss of, on Italy, i. 350.
Circumnavigation of, by Vasco de Gama, ii. 168.

Age of the earth, problem of, ii. 294.
Proofs of, ii. 334.

Age of Faith, Greek, i. 143.
Its problems, i. 217.
European, i. 308.
In the East, end of, i. 326.
In the West, i. 349; ii. 1, 27, 77, 105.
Its literary condition, ii. 128.
Results of, in England, ii. 229.
Contrast of, and age of Reason, ii. 389.

Age of Greek decrepitude, i. 207.

Age of Inquiry, Greek, its solutions, i. 217.
History of, European, i. 239, 265.

Age of Reason, Greek, i. 171.
Greek, its problems, i. 221.
Approach of, ii. 151, 190.
History of, ii. 252, 294.

Ages, duration of Greek, i. 222.

Ages of life of man, i. 14.
Of intellectual progress of Europe, i. 19.
Algazzali's, of life of man, ii. 52.
Each has its own logic, ii. 192.
Agriculture in a rainless country, i. 85.

Air, modern discoveries of the relations of, i. 102.

Aix-la-Chapelle, adorned by Charlemagne, i. 373.

Aiznadin, battle of, i. 335.

Al Abbas, a Moorish writer on botany, ii. 39.

Alaric, capture of Rome by, i. 300.

Albategnius discovers the motion of the sun's apogee, i. 325.
Determines the length of the year, ii. 41.

Al Beithar, a Moorish writer on botany, ii. 39.

Albertus Magnus constructs a brazen man, ii. 116.
His extensive acquirements, ii. 153.

Alberuni, a Moorish writer on gems, ii. 39.

Albigensian revolt, ii. 147.

Albucasis, a skilful surgeon of Cordova, ii. 39.

Alby, edict of Council of, against the Jewish physicians, ii. 125.

Al-Cawthor, river of, mentioned in the Koran, i. 346.

Alchemists, Saracenic, i. 409.

Alchemists, minor, of England, France, and Germany, ii. 155.

Alchemy, theory and object of, i. 406.

Alcuin, a Benedictine monk, founded the University of Paris, i. 437.

Alemanni, Christianized at the beginning of the sixth century, i. 365.

Alexander, Bishop of Constantinople, his controversy with Arius, i. 285.

Alexander II. excommunicates the Bishop of Milan, ii. 17.

Alexander IV., Pope, he endeavours to destroy the "Everlasting
Gospel," ii. 78.

Alexander of Aphrodisais, his principles and tendencies, i. 259.

Alexander the Great, his invasion of Persia, i. 171.
His character, i. 174.

Alexandria, foundation of, i. 173.
Political state of, i. 200.
Decline of the school of, i. 204.
Description of, i. 323.
Its capture, i. 334.

"Alexiad" of Anna Comnena, ii. 59.

Algazzali, his writings and doctrines, ii. 50.

Alhakem, Khalif, his extensive library, ii. 32.

Alhazen discovers atmospheric refraction, ii. 42.
Review of, ii. 45.
His conclusions on the extent of the atmosphere confirmed, ii. 367.

Ali, believed by the Shiites to be an incarnation of God, i. 347.
His patronage of literature carried out by his successors, ii. 36.

Alineations, employed by Hipparchus in making a register of the
stars, i. 202.

Alliacus, Cardinal, the five memoirs of, ii. 254.

Almagest, of Ptolemy, description of, i. 203.
Translated by Averroes, ii. 67.

Almaimon, his letter to the Emperor Theophilus, ii. 40.
Determines the obliquity of the ecliptic, ii. 41.
Also the size of the earth, ii. 41.
His accuracy confirmed by the measurements of Fernel, ii. 255.

Almansor patronizes learned men irrespective of their religious
opinions, i. 336.

Alps, upheaval of, i. 31.

Al-Sirat bridge, spoken of in the Koran, i. 346.

Alwalid I., Khalif, prohibits the use of Greek, i. 339.

Amadeus, elected "Pope Felix V.," ii. 103.

Amber brought from the Baltic, i. 46.
Supposed by Thales to possess a living soul, i. 97.
Its electrical power imputed to a soul residing in it, i. 100.
Study of its phenomena has led to important results, ii. 376.

Ambrose of Milan converts St. Augustine, i. 304.
Apology for the impostures practised by, i. 313.

Ambrose Pare lays the foundation of modern surgery, ii. 285.

America, persecutions practised in, ii. 117.
Discovery of, ii. 163.
Where name first occurs, ii. 163.
Crime of Spain in, ii. 188.
Antiquity of its civilization, ii. 189.

America, United States of, separation of Church and State in,
ii. 143, 227.
Opportune occurrence of the Revolution, ii. 150.
Culmination of the Reformation in, ii. 226.

American tragedy, ii. 166.

Ammon, St., wonder related of, i. 427.

Ammonius Saccas, reputed author of the doctrines of
Neo-Platonism, i. 211.

Amrou, the Mohammedan general, takes Alexandria, i. 333.

Amulets, whence their supposed power derived, i. 403.

Anabaptists, number of, put to death, ii. 226.

Analogy of Greek and Indian Philosophy, i. 210.

Analysis, higher, commencement of the, i. 134.
Political dangers of, i. 139.

Anaxagoras condemned to death for impiety, i. 50.
His doctrines, i. 106.
Persecution and death of, i. 110.

Anaximander of Miletus, his doctrines, i. 106.
Originates cosmogony and biology, i. 107.
Holds the doctrine that air is the first principle, i. 98.

Anchorets, number of, i. 432.

Animals, Veda doctrine of use of, i. 61.
Are localized as well as plants, ii. 309.
Order of succession of, ii. 321.

Animals, cold and hot-blooded, ii. 332.
Characteristics of, ii. 339.
In lower tribes of, movements are automatic, ii. 349.
Their instinctive and intellectual apparatus, ii. 351.
Their nature, ii. 363.
Analogy between, and Man, ii. 364.

Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, takes part in the dispute
between the realists and nominalists, ii. 12.

Anthony, St., a grazing hermit, i. 427.
Delusions of, i. 429.

Anthropocentric stage of thought, i. 36.
Ideas, prominence of, i. 64.
Ruin of, ii. 279.
Philosophy, review of, ii. 287.

Antimony, its uses, and origin of its name, ii. 156.

Antiochus of Ascalon, founder of the fourth Academy, i. 170.

Antiochus, King of Syria, cedes his European possessions to
Rome, i. 246.

Antisthenes, founder of the Cynical School, i. 149.

Antonina, wife of Belisarius, her cruel treatment of Sylverius, i. 354.

Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, his acknowledgments to
Epictetus, i. 259.

Antonio de Dominis, outrage on the body of, ii. 225.

Apennines, upheaval of, i. 31.

Apocalypse, comments on, ii. 78.

Apollonius Pergaeus, the writings of, i. 201.
His geometry underrated by Patristicism, i. 316.

Apollonius of Tyana aids in the introduction of Orientalism, i. 210.
Wonders related of, ii. 115.

Aquinas, Thomas, a Dominican, the rival of Duns Scotus, ii. 14.
Sojourns with Albertus Magnus, ii. 116.

Arabian influence, importance of, i. 383.
Sorcery, i. 390.
School system, ii. 36.
Practical science, ii. 38.
Medicine and surgery, ii. 39.
Astronomy, ii. 41.
Practical art, ii. 43.
Commerce, ii. 43.
Numerals, ii. 49.

Arabs cultivate learning, i. 335.
Rapidity of their intellectual development, i. 336.
Invade Spain, ii. 28.

Arabs, civilization and refinement of Spanish, ii. 30.
Introduce the manufacture of cotton into Europe, ii. 386.
Invent cotton paper, and the printing of calico by wooden
blocks, ii. 386.

Arantius, a distinguished anatomist, ii. 284.

Arcesilaus, founder of the Middle Academy, i. 169.

Archimedes, the writings of, i. 194.
His mechanical inventions held in contempt by Patristicism, i. 316.

Arctinus, his poems held in veneration, i. 51.

Arddha Chiddi, the founder of Buddhism, life of, i. 66.

Argonautic voyage, object of, i. 41.
Its real nature, i. 45.

Ariminium, Council of, i. 289.

Aristarchus attempts to ascertain the sun's distance, i. 199.

Aristippus, the founder of the Cyrenaic School, i. 149.

Aristotle keeps a druggist's shop in Athens, i. 129, 397.
Biography of, i. 176.
His works translated into Arabic, i. 402.

Aristotelism compared with Platonism i. 177.

Arithmetic, Indian, ii. 40.

Arius, his heresy, i. 285.
His death, i. 288.
Political results of his heresy, i. 326.

Arnold of Brescia, murder of, ii. 25.

Arnold de Villa Nova, biographical sketch of, ii. 130.

Art, Black, i. 404.

Artesian Wells, ii. 301.

Articulata, anatomy of, ii. 350.

Asclepions, effect of the destruction of, i. 387.
Nature and organization of, i. 396.

Asellius discovers the lacteals, ii. 285.

Asoka, King, patronizes Buddhism, i. 67.

Aspasia, history of, significant, i. 132.

Astrolabe, known to the Saracens, ii. 42.

Astronomical refraction, understood by Alhazen, ii. 46.

Astronomy, primitive, i. 39.
Passes beyond the fetich stage, i. 100.
Of Eratosthenes, i. 199.
How she takes her revenge on the Church, i. 360.
The intellectual impulse makes its attack through, ii. 133.
Affords illustration of the magnitude and age of the world, ii. 278.

Athanasius rebels against the Emperor Constantine, i. 289.
First introduces monasticism into Italy, i. 433.

Athene, statues of, i. 51.

Athens, her progress in art, i. 132,
her philosophy, i. 133.
Her fall, ii. 109.

Atlantic, first voyage across, ii. 162.

Atmosphere, height of, determined by Alhazen, ii. 47.
Effects of light on, ii. 320.
The phenomena and properties of, ii. 367.

Atomic theory, suggested by Democritus, i. 125.

Attalus, King of Pergamus, effect of his bequests to Rome, i. 247.

Attila, King of the Huns, "the scourge of God," invades Africa, i. 350.

Augsburg, Diet of, ii. 211.

Augustine, St., causes Pelagius to be expelled from Africa, i. 294.
Writes the "City of God," i. 301.
Character of that work, i. 304.
Denies the possibility of the Antipodes, i. 315.
His notion of the Virgin, i. 361.
On spontaneous generation, ii. 329.

Auricular confession, introduction of, ii. 65.

"Ausculta Fili," Papal bull of, ii. 83.

Australian, how affected by physical circumstances, i. 26.

Avenzoar, a Moorish writer on pharmacy, ii. 39.

Averroes, of Cordova, the chief commentator on Aristotle, ii. 39.
His theory of the soul, ii. 193.
Confounded force with the psychical principle, ii. 343.
His erroneous view of man, ii. 357.

Avicenna, the geological views of, i. 411.
A physician and philosopher, ii. 39.

Avignon, Papacy removed to, ii. 86.
Voluptuousness of, ii. 95.
Papacy leaves, ii. 96.

Azof, Sea of, dependency of the Mediterranean, i. 28.

Babylonian, extent of astronomical observations, i. 192.

Bacon, Lord, nature of his philosophy, ii. 258.

Bacon, Roger, titles of his works, ii. 120.
Is the friend of the Pope, ii. 132.
His history and his discoveries, ii. 153.

Baconian philosophy, its principles understood and carried into
practice eighteen hundred years before Bacon was born, ii. 175.

Bactrian empire, European ideas transmitted through, i. 45.

Badbee, John, the second English martyr, denies
transubstantiation, ii. 99.

Bagdad, Khalifs of, patronize learning, i. 335.
Its university founded by the Khalif al Raschid, i. 402.

Baghavat Gita, i. 65.

Baines on the extent of the cotton manufacture, ii. 386.

Bajazet, defeats Sigismund, King of Hungary, at the battle of
Nicopolis, ii. 106.

"Balance of Wisdom," probably written by Alhazen, ii. 47.

Balboa discovers the Great South Sea, ii. 174.

Ball, John, his preaching an index of the state of the times, ii. 148.

Balthazar Cossa, Pope John XXIII., ii. 98.

Barbarians, Northern, their influence on civilization in Italy, i. 416.

Barbarossa, Frederick, surrenders Arnold of Brescia to the
Church, ii. 25.

Barsumas assists in the murder of the Bishop of Constantinople, i. 297.

Basil Valentine introduces antimony, ii. 156.

Basil, St., Bishop of Caesarea, founder of the Basilean order of
monks, i. 436.

Basle, Council of, ii. 102.

Bavarians, Christianized, i. 365.

"Beatific Vision," questioned by John XXII., ii. 94.

Beccher introduced the phlogistic theory, ii. 286.

Bechil, the discoverer of phosphorus, i. 410.

Belgrade, taken by Soliman the Magnificent, ii. 109.

Belisarius reconquers Africa, i. 327. Captures Rome, i. 350.

Benedetto Gaetani, Cardinal, his participation in causing the
abdication of Peter Morrone, Celestine V., ii. 80.

Benedict, St., miracles related of, i. 435.

Benedictines, their numbers, i. 436.

Ben Ezra, his numerous acquirements, ii. 123.

Berengar of Tours, opinions of, ii. 10.
Many of his doctrines embraced by Wickliffe, ii. 98.

Berkeley, his doctrine on the existence of matter, i. 231.

Bernard of Clairvaux stimulates the second Crusade, ii. 24.

Bernard, St., attacks Abelard, ii. 11.

Bernardini, Peter, the father of St. Francis, ii. 64.

Bertha, Queen of Kent, assists in the conversion of England to
Christianity, i. 366.

Beziers, the capture of, by Abbot Arnold, ii. 62.
Council of, opposes the Jewish physicians, ii. 125.

Bible, translated into Latin by Jerome, i. 306.
Its superiority to the Koran, i. 343.
Translated into English by Wickliffe, ii. 99.
Its character and general circulation, ii. 224.

Biology originates with Anaximander, i. 107.

Birds, migration of, i. 6.

Bishops, rivalries of the three, i. 298.
Their fate, i. 306.
Accusation of House of Commons against the English, ii. 235.
Their reply, ii. 236.

Black Art sprang from Chaldee notions, i. 404.

Black Sea, a dependency of the Mediterranean, i. 28.

Bleaching by chlorine, ii. 386.

Blood admixture, effect of, i. 15.
Degeneration, its effect, ii. 144.

Boccaccio obtains a professorship for Leontius Pilatus, ii. 194.

Bodin's, "De Republica," i. 6.

Boethius falls a victim to the wrath of Theodoric, i. 353.
His character, i. 358.

Boilman, Tom, origin of the nickname, ii. 244.

Boniface VIII., Pope, "Benedetto Gaetani," his quarrel with the
Colonnas, ii. 80.

Boniface of Savoy, Archbishop of Canterbury, his rapacity, ii. 75.

Boniface, an English missionary of the seventh century, i. 366.

Books, longevity of, ii. 201.

Borelli on circular motion, ii. 272.
Applies mathematics to muscular movement, ii. 286.

Boyle improves the air-pump, ii. 286.

Bradley determines the velocity of direct stellar light, ii. 299.

Brahman, how regarded according to the Institutes of Menu, i. 63.
Attempted to reconcile ancient traditions with modern
philosophical discoveries, ii. 335.

Brain, functions, ii. 351.

Breakspear, Nicholas, afterwards Pope Adrian IV., ii. 25.

Brown, discoverer of the quinary arrangement of flowers, ii. 286.

Brindley, a millwright's apprentice, ii. 385.
His engineering triumph in the construction of canals, ii. 387.

Bruchion, the library in, i. 318.

Bruno, Giordano, teaches the heliocentric theory, ii. 257.
Is burnt as a heretic, ii. 258.

Brutes, why supposed by Diogenes to be incapable of thought, i. 102.

Buddhism, its rise, i. 65.
The organisation of, i. 67.
Its fundamental principle, i. 68.
Its views of the nature of man, i. 70.
Philosophical estimate of, i. 72.

Bulgarians converted by a picture, i. 367.

Bunsen, his estimate of Eusebius's chronology, i. 198.

Bunyan, John, his writings surpass those of St. Augustine, i. 305.
His twelve years' imprisonment for preaching, ii. 242.
Probable source of much of the machinery of the Pilgrim's
Progress, ii. 248.

Burnet's "Sacred Theory of the Earth," ii. 286.

Byzantine system adopted in Italy, i. 349.
Government persecutes the Nestorians and Jews, i. 385.
Suppression of medicine, i. 386.

Cabanis, quoted on the influence of the Jews, ii. 120.

Cabot, Sebastian, rediscovers Newfoundland, and attempts to
find a north-west passage to China, ii. 174.

Cabral discovers Brazil, ii. 174.

Cadesia, effect of the battle of, i. 335.

Caesalpinus first gives a classification of plants, ii. 390.

Caesar becomes master of the world, i. 248.

Calico printing, antiquity of the art, and how improved, ii. 386.

Caligula, Emperor, an adept in alchemy, i. 407.

Calixtus III., Pope, issues his fulminations against Halley's
comet, ii. 253.

Callimachus, author of a treatise on birds, and a poet, i. 201.

Callisthenes accompanies Alexander the Great in his campaigns, i. 172.
Is hanged by his orders, i. 174.
Transmits to Aristotle records of astronomical observations, i. 192.

Calvin establishes a new religious sect, ii. 211.
Causes Servetus to be burnt as a heretic, ii. 225.

Calydonian boar, hide of, preserved as a relic, i. 51.

Cambyses conquers Egypt, i. 79, 186.

Canal of Egypt, reopened by Necho, i. 78.
A warning from the oracle of Amun causes Necho to stop the
construction of, i. 93.
Cleared again from sand, i. 325.

Canals the precursors of railways, ii. 387.
Of China, their influence, ii. 400.

Cannibalism of Europe, i. 32.

Canonic of Epicurus, imperfection of, i. 167.

Canosa, scene at, the King of Germany seeking pardon of the
Pope, ii. 19.

Cape of Good Hope, doubled by Vasco de Gama, ii. 168.
First made known in Europe by the Jews, ii. 175.

Caracalla, alluded to in the reply of the Christians to the
Pagans, i. 302.

Carat, its derivation and signification, ii. 44.

Carneades, the founder of the New Academy, his doctrines, i. 169.

Carthage, description of, i. 129.
Its conquest contemplated by Alexander the Great, i. 174.
Most effectually controlled by invading Africa, i. 245.
Heraclius contemplates making it the metropolis of the Eastern
empire, i. 329.
Stormed and destroyed by Hassan, i. 334.

Carthaginian commerce, nature, and extent of, i. 130.

"Carolinian Books" published by Charlemagne, against image
worship, i. 372.

Caspian and Dead Seas, level of, ii. 305.

Castelli assists in the verification of the laws of motion, ii. 271.
Creates hydraulics, ii. 285.
Lays the foundation of hydraulics, ii. 390.

Casuistry, development of, ii. 66.

Catalogue of stars contained in the Almagest of Ptolemy, i. 203.

Catasterisims of Eratosthenes, i. 196.

Catastrophe, insufficiency of a single, ii. 316.
Doctrine of, ii. 323.

Cato causes Carneades to be expelled from Rome, i. 164.

Celibacy of clergy insisted on by the monks, i. 426.
Necessity of, ii. 16.

Celt, sorcery of the, i. 34.

Cerebral sight, important religious result of, i. 430.

Cerinthus, his opinion of the nature of Christ, i. 270.

Chadizah, the wife of Mohammed, i. 330, 337.

Chakia Mouni, meaning of the name, i. 67.
The founder of Buddhism, i. 342.

Chalcedon, Council of, i. 297.
It determines the relation of the two natures of Christ, i. 299.

Chaldee notions give rise to the black art, i. 404.

Chalons, battle of, i. 350.

Charlemagne, his influence in the conversion of Europe, i. 364.
Disapproves of idolatry, i. 368.
Developes the policy of his father Pepin, i. 371.
Is crowned Emperor of the West, i. 371.
The immorality of his private life, i. 374.

Charles Martel gains the battle of Tours, i. 368.
His relations to the Church, i. 369.
Pope Gregory III. seeks his aid, i. 423.

Charms, the source of their supposed power, i. 403.

Chemistry, fetichism of, i. 101.
Pythagorean, i. 116.
Scientific, cultivated by the Arabs, i. 408.
Progress of, ii. 374.

Chilperic II. permitted to retain his title, i. 369.

Chilperic III. deposed and shut up in the convent of St. Omer, i. 370.

China, her policy, ii. 395.

Chinese Buddhism, i. 72, 74.

Chosroes II., his successes, i. 328.
The effect of his wars on commerce, i. 337.

Christian reply to the accusation of the Pagans, i. 301.

Christianity, influence of Roman, i. 241.
Debased in Rome, i. 264.
Distinction between, and ecclesiastical organizations, i. 267.
Its first organization, i. 269.
Three modifications of, i. 271.
Judaic, i. 271.
Gnostic, i. 273.
Platonic, i. 273.
Spreads from Syria, i. 274.
Antagonizes imperialism, i. 275.
Its persecutions, i. 277.
Hellenized, i. 290.
Paganization of, i. 309.
Expelled from Palestine, Asia Minor, Egypt, and Carthage, i. 332.
Paganisms of, i. 359.
Allied to art, i. 359.

Chronology of Eratosthenes, i. 197.

Church, Greek and Latin, i. 291.
Effects of union of, and State, i. 377.
What she had done, ii. 145.
Services, their influence on the people, ii. 202.
Separation of, and State, ii. 227.

Cicero, his opinions and principles, i. 258.

Cimbri, cause of their invasion, i. 30.

Cipher, its derivation and meaning, ii. 40.
Alluded to by Pope Sylvester, ii. 49.

Circle, the quadrature of, treated by Archimedes, i. 194.

Circumnavigation of Africa, why undertaken by the Egyptian Kings, i. 78.
Its repetition contemplated by Alexander, i. 173.
Of the earth, ii. 172.
Results of, ii. 173.

Circumstances, how far man is the creature of, i. 389.

Clement V., Pope, takes up his residence at Avignon, ii. 86.

Clement of Alexandria, his invective against the corruptions of
Christianity, i. 358.

Cleomedes, an astronomer of Alexandria, i. 202.

Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, i. 200.
Is presented with one of the Alexandrian libraries, i. 318.

Clergy, responsible for the massacre at Thessalonica, i. 313.
Support the delusion of supernaturalism, ii. 113.
American, ii. 227.
English accused by the Commons, ii. 235.
Discipline Act, ii. 237.
Degraded condition of the lower, in England, ii. 242.

"Clericis Laicos," bull issued by Pope Boniface, ii. 82.

Clermont, Council of, authorizes the First Crusade, ii. 21.

Climacus, John, author of "Ladder of Paradise," ii. 59.

Climates, in time and place, ii. 317.

Clotilda, Queen of the Franks, counsels her husband Clovis, i. 365.

Clouds and their nomenclature, ii. 373.

Cnidos, medical school of, i. 396.

Cnudesuya, aqueduct of, ii. 186.

Coal period, ii. 320.
Its botany, ii. 332.

Cobham, Lord, hanged for heresy and treason, ii. 99.

Cochlea, its function, i. 5.

Coenobitism succeeds Eremitism, i. 432.

Coffee-houses, their political and social importance, ii. 249.

Coinage, its adulteration, i. 251.

Coiter creates pathological anatomy, ii. 285.

Cold, influence of, on man, i. 28.

Colleges founded by the Jews, i. 402, ii. 121.

Colonial system, origin of Greek, i. 128.

Colonies, Greek, essentially weak, i. 113.
Philosophical influence of, i. 128.

Colonnas, their quarrel with Pope Boniface, ii. 80.

Colossus of Rameses II., its great antiquity, i. 87.

Colours of rainbow, ii. 379.

Columban, a missionary of the sixth century, i. 366.

Columbus, his early life, ii. 159.
Is confuted by the Council of Salamanca, ii. 161.
His voyage across the Atlantic, ii. 162.
Discovery of America, ii. 163.

Commerce, development of Mediterranean, i. 45.
Favourable to the spread of new ideas, i. 127,
many of the devices of modern, known to the Carthaginians, i. 130.

Communities, nature of progress of, i. 12.

Comnena, Anna, "Alexiad" of, ii. 59.

Condillac, his theory of memory and comparison, i. 232.

Conon of Alexandria, i. 194.

Constance, Council of, ii. 99.

Constantine the Great, the success of his policy, i. 277.
Influence of the reign of, i. 278.
Removes the metropolis, i. 279.
His tendencies to Paganism, i. 280.
His relations to the Church, i. 281.
His policy, i. 282.
Conversion and death, i. 283.
Attempts to check the Arian controversy, i. 286.
Denounces Arius as a heretic, i. 287.

Constantine, Pope, an usurper, his cruel treatment, i. 378.

Constantine Copronymus, his iconoclastic policy, i. 418.

Constantine Palaeologus, the last of the Roman Emperors, ii. 108.

Constantinople, Council of, i. 419.
Determines that Son and Holy Spirit are equal to the Father, i. 299.
The seventh general, held at, i. 419.
Sack of, ii. 56.
Its literature, ii. 58.
Siege of, by the Turks, ii. 107.
Fall of, ii. 108.

Convocation, charges against, ii. 235.

Copais, tunnel of, i. 32.

Copernican system, condemned by the Inquisition, ii. 263.
Theory of, rectified, ii. 268.

Copernicus, the works of, ii. 255.
His doctrine, ii. 256.

Copronymus the Iconoclast, i. 418.

Cordova, description of, ii. 30.

Corinth, mechanical art reached its perfection in, i. 132.
Her fall, ii. 109.

Cosmas Indicopleustes, his argument against the sphericity of
the earth, ii. 159.

Cosmo de' Medici, ii. 192.

Cosmogony, originates with Anaximander, i. 107.
Of Anaxagoras, i. 109.
Of Pythagoras, i. 115.

Cotton manufacture, ii. 385.

Councils, their object and nature, i. 236.
Are not infallible, i. 297.

Creations and extinctions, cause of, ii. 311.

Criterion of truth, existence of, doubted by Anaxagoras, i. 110.
One of the problems of Greek philosophy, i. 230.
Remarks on, i. 232.
A practical one exists, i. 235.

Criticism, effect of philosophical, i. 46.
Rise of, ii. 190.
Effect of, on literature and religion, ii. 224.

Cross, the true, discovered, i. 309.

Crotona, a Greek colonial city, i. 111.
Its extent, i. 128.

Crusades, origin of, ii. 20.
The first, ii. 22.
Political result of, ii. 23.
Atrocities in the South of France, ii. 62.
Effect of, ii. 135.

Ctesiphon, the metropolis of Persia, sack of, i. 335.

Cuvier, his doctrine of the permanence of species, ii. 326.
His remark on vivisection, ii. 349.

Cuzco, the metropolis of Peru, description of, ii. 181.

Cycle of life, i. 233.

Cyclopean structures, i. 32.

Cynical school, i. 149.

Cyprian, his complaints against the clergy and confessors, i. 358.

Cyprian, St., his remarks at the Council of Carthage, i. 291.

Cyprus taken by the Saracens, i. 335.

Cyrenaic school, i. 149.

Cyril, St., his acts, i. 321.
An ecclesiastical demagogue, i. 391.

Daille, his estimate of the Fathers, ii. 225.

Damascus taken, i. 334.

Damasus, riots at the election of, i. 292.

Damiani, Peter, his charges against the priests of Milan, ii. 7.

Death, interstitial, i. 14.

"Defender of Peace," nature of the work, ii. 93.

Deification, John Erigena on, ii. 9.

Deity, anthropomorphic ideas of, in the Koran, i. 342.

Delos, a slave market, i. 246.

Deluges, ancient, i. 30.

Delusions, of the sense, i. 230.
Created by the mind, i. 429.

Demetrius Phalereus, his instructions to collect books, i. 188.

Demetrius Poliorcetes quoted, i. 166.

Democritus asserts the unreliability of knowledge, i. 124.

Descartes, his theory of clear ideas, i. 231.
Introduces the theory of an ether and vortices, ii. 285.

Desert, influences of the, i. 6.

Destiny, Democritus's opinion of, i. 125.
Stoical doctrine of, i. 185.

Deucalion, deluge of, i. 51.

Development of organisms, Alhazen's theory of, ii. 48.

Dew, the nature of, ii. 384.

Diaphragm of Dicaearchus, i. 196.

Didymus, wonderful taciturnity related of, i. 427.

Diocles, a writer on hygiene and gymnastics, i. 397.

Diocletian, state of things under, i. 276.

Diogenes of Apollonia developes the doctrines of Anaximenes, i. 99.

Diogenes of Sinope extends the doctrines of Cynicism, i. 149.

Dioscorus, Bishop of Alexandria, deposed by the Council of
Chalcedon, i. 297.

Djafar, or Geber, an Arabian chemist, describes nitric acid and
aqua regia, i. 410.

Djondesabour, medical college of, founded by the Nestorians and
Jews, i. 391.
Patronized by the Khalif al Raschid, i. 402.

Docetes, their ideas of the nature of Christ, i. 270.

Dogmatists, their theory of the treatment of disease, i. 399.

Dominic, St., wonders related of, ii. 63.

Dominicans, they oppose Galileo, ii. 262.

Donatists recalled from banishment by Constantine, i. 281.

Drama, an index of national mental condition, ii. 249.

Draper's Physiology quoted on cerebral sight, i. 430.
On the benefits conferred by the Church, ii. 145.
On the necessity of resorting to anatomy and physiology, ii. 343.

Dreams, Algazzali's view of their nature, ii. 51.

Druids, i. 241.

Du Molay, burnt at the stake, ii. 92.

Duns Scotus, John, a Franciscan monk, the rival of Thomas
Aquinas, ii. 14.

Duverney on the sense of hearing, ii. 286.

Ear, i. 5.

Earth, globular form of, implied by the voyage of Columbus, ii. 164,
proved by its shadow in eclipses of the moon, ii. 171.
Is not the immovable centre of the universe, ii. 254.
Age of, ii. 278.
Its slow cooling, ii. 301.
Mean density of, ii. 302.
Movement of the crust of, ii. 306.
Development of life on, ii. 355.

Earthquakes, ii. 302.

Easter, dispute respecting, i. 291.

Ebionites, their doctrine of our Saviour's lineage, i. 272.

Ebn Djani, physician to the Sultan Saladin, and author of a
work on the medical topography of Alexandria, ii. 124.

Ebn Junis, a Moorish astronomer, ii. 41.
Astronomical table of, ii. 42

Ebn Zohr, competitor of Raschi, ii. 123.

Ecclesiasticism, its decline, ii. 143.
Its downfall, ii. 284.

Eclipse, solar, predicted by Thales, i. 97.

Ecliptic, discovery of obliquity of, falsely imputed to
Anaximenes, i. 99.
Determined with accuracy by Almaimon, ii. 41.
Slow process of its secular variation, ii. 304.

Ecstasy, i. 213.

Edessa, church of, re-built by Moawiyah for his Christian
subjects, i. 338.

Edward I. of England compels the clergy to pay taxes, ii. 81.

Egypt, conquest of, by Cambyses, i. 79.
Antiquity of civilization in, i. 81.
Pre-historic Life of, i. 81.
Influence of, on Europe, i. 82.
Antiquity of its monarchy, i. 84.
Geological age of, i. 87.
Geography and topography of, i. 87.
Roman annexation of, i. 248.

Egyptian ports opened, i. 77.
Theology i. 91.

Elcano, Sebastian de, the Lieutenant of Magellan, ii. 173.

Eleatic philosophy, i. 118.
Influence of the school, i. 220.

Electricity, discoveries in, ii. 377.

Electro-magnetism, ii. 378.

Elixir of Life, i. 407.
Effect of the search for, on medicine, i. 411.
Eloquence, Parliamentary, decline of its power, ii. 204.

Elphinstone, quotation from, i. 64.

Elysium, i. 36.

Emanation, doctrine of, i. 225.

Empedocles, biography of, i. 123.

Empirics, their doctrine, i. 399.

England, conversion of, i. 366.
Policy of an Italian town gave an impress to its history, ii. 17.
Its social condition, ii. 229.
Condition of, at the suppression of the monasteries, ii. 230.
Backward condition of, ii. 233.
State of, at the close of the seventeenth century, ii. 238.

Ephesus, Council of, called "Robber Synod," i. 297.
Determines that the two natures of Christ make but one person, i. 299.

Epictetus, his doctrines, i. 259.

Epicureans, modern, i. 168.

Epicurus, the doctrine of, i. 165.
His irreligion, i. 168.

Epicycles and eccentrics, Hipparchus's theory of, i. 202.

Epochs of individual life, i. 14.
Of national life, i. 19.

Erasmus becomes alienated from the Reformers, ii. 225.
Wonderful popularity of his "Colloquies," ii. 238.

Eratosthenes, the writings and works of, i. 196.
Astronomy of, i. 199.

Eremitism, its modifications, i. 432.

Erigena, John, a Pantheist employed by the Archbishop of Rheims, ii. 9.

Essenes, a species of the first hermits among the Jews, i. 425.

Ether, movements of, ii. 382.

Ethical philosophy, i. 143.
Its secondary analysis, i. 164.

Ethics of Plato, i. 158.

Ethnical element, definition of, and conditions of change in, i. 12.

Eucharist, difference of opinion about, ii. 210.

Euclid of Alexandria, his various works, i. 193.
His reply to Ptolemy Philadelphus, i. 398.

Euclid of Megara, an imitator of Socrates, i. 148.

Eugenius IV., Pope, dethroned by the Council of Basle, ii. 102.

Eumenes, King of Pergamus, establishes a second library in
Alexandria, i. 318.

Eunapius, his opinion of Plotinus, i. 212.

Eunostos, harbour of, connected by a canal with lake Mareotis, i. 323.

Euripides tainted with heresy, i. 50.

Europe, description of, i. 23.
Greatest elevation of, above the sea, i. 23.
Vertical displacement of, i. 29.
Conversion of, i. 365.
Psychical change in, i. 364.
Social condition of, after Charlemagne, i. 376.
Barbarism of, ii. 27.
Future of, ii. 392.

European climate, modification of Asiatic intruders by, i. 34.
Old religion, i. 240.
Priesthood, i. 240.
Slave-trade, i. 373.

Eusebius, his contempt of philosophy, i. 314.
Perverts chronology, i. 197.
Is deposed, i. 297.
His apology for the Fathers, i. 314.
His chronology subverts that of Manetho and Eratosthenes, i. 316.
His admission of his own want of truthfulness, i. 360.

Eustachius distinguished by his dissections, ii. 284.

Eutychianism, i. 296.

"Everlasting Gospel," ii. 75.

Existence depends on physical conditions, i. 7.

Extinction of species, cause of, i. 8.

Extinctions and creations, law of, ii. 311.

Eye, arranged on refined principles of optics, i. 5.
Functions of, ii. 380.
Capabilities of the human, ii. 383.

Fabricius ab Aquapendente discovers the valves in the veins, ii. 285.

Fairies destroyed by tobacco, ii. 126.

Faith, two kinds of, ii. 192.

Fallopius distinguished by his dissections, ii. 284.

Fasting, continued, its effect on the mind, i. 429.

Faustus, his accusation to Augustine, i. 310.

Felix V., Pope, abdicates, ii. 103.

Felix, Bishop of Rome, excommunicated by Acacius, Bishop of
Constantinople, i. 352.

Fernel establishes the true nature of syphilis, ii. 232.
Measures the size of the earth, ii. 255.

Fetiches supposed a panacea, i. 386.

Fetichism displaced by star worship, i. 3.
Difficulty of early cultivators of philosophy to emerge from, i. 100.

Feudal system, how it originated, i. 376.

Fire, asserted by Heraclitus to be the first principle, i. 104.