Chapter III: Introduction (2)

The majority of species of _Cortinarius_ are mycorrhizal and like the boletes possess very specific relationships with tree species. Thus some are typical of coniferous woodland and others typical of deciduous woodland in general, whilst others typify woods of a particular tree, e.g. beech, oak, birch, pine, larch. Some species are characteristic of woods on limestone or chalky soils (calcareous) whilst others are characteristic of woods on sandy, heathy acidic soils. For example, _Cortinarius armillatus_ (Fries) Fries which is found in damp woods and possesses one or more cinnabar-red or scarlet zones on the stem and red fibrils at the stem-base appears to be connected with birch. Several species are associated with native trees whilst others have undoubtedly been introduced from abroad. They are very important in the economy of the woodland ecosystem.

One of the most beautiful and easily distinguished of our British species is _Cortinarius violaceus_ (Fries) Fries which has uniformly deep violet-coloured stem and cap and coloured cystidia on the gill-margin, a character unusual in _Cortinarius_.

No species are known to be truly poisonous and many species are known to be edible, but many are too small to be of any value. Some of the larger species are regarded as good to eat, but frequently are too scarce. Thus the necessity for experience to recognise the different species, coupled with their often unpleasant tastes make them an unimportant group of agarics for eating.

~Russula ochroleuca~ (Secretan) Fries

Common yellow russula

_Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 20-35 mm; length 50-100 mm.

_Description_: Plate 7.

Cap: yellow-ochre or dull yellow becoming paler with age, or flushed
faintly greyish green, convex but soon expanding and becoming flat or
depressed in the centre, smooth, or granular when young and slightly
tacky in wet weather, faintly striate at the margin.

Stem: white at first then flushed slightly greyish, smooth or
wrinkled, firm at first but quickly becoming soft and fragile.

Flesh: brittle, firm at first then soft, white, yellow under
cap-centre.

Gills: white at first then flushed pale cream-colour, brittle, adnexed
to free, rather distant.

Spore-print: faintly cream when freshly prepared.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, broadly ellipsoid or subglobose to
almost globose, coarsely ornamented with prominent warts which stain
blue-black when mounted in solutions containing iodine and which are
faintly interconnected by low ridges, about 8 × 7 µm in size (9-10 ×
7-8 µm).

Marginal cystidia: prominent, lance- to spindle-shaped and often
filled with oily material.

Facial cystidia: similar in shape to marginal cystidia and projecting
some distance from the gill-face.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Commonly found in mixed woods from summer
until late autumn.

_General Information_: Easily recognised by the ochre-yellow cap, very
pale cream-coloured spore-print and greying stem. Two other
yellow-capped species of Russula are commonly found. R. claroflava
Grove with yellow spore-print and blackening fruit-body which grows
with birches in boggy places, and R. lutea (Fries) S. F. Gray which is
much smaller, having a cap up to 50 mm and very deep egg-yellow gills
and spore-print; it grows in deciduous woods.

_Illustrations_: F 22a; Hvass 226; LH 119; NB 137¹; WD 49¹.

General notes on the genus _Russula_

A large genus with nearly one hundred distinct species in the British Isles and several others yet unrecognised or undocumented. This genus is composed generally of large toadstools often beautifully coloured, indeed the majority have brightly coloured caps in reds, purples, yellows or greens depending on the species although a few are predominantly white bruising reddish brown or grey to some degree.

Such large and distinctive fungi one would think would be the easiest members of our flora to identify, unfortunately they are not. They form a group quite isolated in their relations, the only close relatives being members of the genus _Lactarius_, to be dealt with later (see p. 50). The flesh of members of both _Lactarius_ and _Russula_ contains groups of rounded cells, a feature unique amongst agarics and explains why in _Russula_ the fruit-bodies, cap and gills and sometimes the stem are brittle and easily break if crushed between the fingers. The fruit-body does not exude a milky liquid when the flesh is broken.

The spore-print varies, depending on the species involved, from white to deep ochre and individual spores are covered in a coarse ornamentation which is composed of isolated warts or warts interconnected by raised lines, or mixtures of both. The ornamentation stains deep blue-black when the spores are mounted in solutions containing iodine and the pattern which is produced appears in many cases to be of a specific character.

The majority of the species, if not all north-temperate species are mycorrhizal and the familiar host-tree fungus relationship can be recognised:--

_R. claroflava_ Grove, with birch in boggy places, _R. emetica_
(Fries) S. F. Gray with pine in wet places, _R. betularum_ Hora with
birch in grassy copses and _R. sardonia_ Fries with pines. Brief notes
are here included giving the basic characters of eight common species,
but it must be appreciated the identification of many species within
this genus is difficult.

~R. atropurpurea~ (Krombholz) Britz.

Blackish purple russula

_Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 14-25 mm; length 60-80 mm.

Cap: deep reddish purple but becoming spotted with either cream-colour
or white blotches.

Stem: white but becoming flushed greyish or stained brownish with age.

Gills: white then very pale yellow.

Flesh: white in cap and stem.

Spore-print: white.

On the ground in mixed woods and copses, particularly those containing
oak.

~Russula cyanoxantha~ (Secretan) Fries

_Cap_: width 50-150 mm. _Stem_: width 10-30 mm; length 50-100 mm.

Cap: lilac, bluish to purple often with green tints.

Stem: pure white.

Gills: pure white.

Flesh: white.

Spore-print: white.

Common in deciduous woods, especially beech-woods.

~R. emetica~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

Emetic russula

_Cap_: width 50-100 mm. _Stem_: width 8-15 mm; length 25-70 mm.

Cap: bright scarlet fading with age to become spotted pinkish,
slightly viscid when moist.

Stem: spongy, fragile.

Flesh: white.

Gills: pure white.

Spore-print: pure white.

In pine woods usually in boggy areas.

~R. fellea~ (Fries) Fries

Geranium-scented russula

_Cap_: width 40-75 mm. _Stem_: width 10-20 mm; length 30-75 mm.

Cap: tacky when fresh, straw-coloured or pale tawny brown.

Stem: similarly coloured to the cap.

Gills and flesh: pale straw-colour and smelling of House Geraniums
(i.e. Pelargoniums).

Spore-print: cream-coloured.

Common under beech.

~R. foetens~ (Fries) Fries

Foetid russula

_Cap_: width 70-170 mm. _Stem_: width 15-30 mm; length 50-90 mm.

Cap: slimy, dingy yellow to tawny, margin strongly furrowed and
ornamented with raised bumps.

Stem: whitish then flushed or spotted with rust-brown.

Gills: straw-coloured, often spotted brown with age and beaded with
watery droplets when growing under moist conditions.

Flesh: white to cream, brittle and with foetid-oily smell.

Spore-print: pale cream-colour.

Common in deciduous woods.

~R. mairei~ Singer

_Cap_: width 30-75 mm. _Stem_: width 7-15 mm; length 35-70 mm.

Cap: scarlet red but developing creamy areas with age, dry.

Stem and gills: white but with a distinct although faint greenish grey
flush, the former fairly firm.

Flesh: white.

Spore-print: pure white.

Commonly accompanying beech, even individual trees in gardens.

~R. nigricans~ (Mérat) Fries

Blackening russula

_Cap_: width 75-200 mm. _Stem_: width 15-35 mm; length 25-75 mm.

Cap: cream-coloured then flushed sooty brown, finally black as if
scorched by proximity to bonfire.

Stem: white then dark brown.

Gills: pale ochre reddening when bruised, thick and very distant.

Flesh: white slowly dull red on cutting then brown and finally
changing soot-colour after some time.

Spore-print: white.

Common in deciduous woods.

~R. xerampelina~ (Secretan) Fries

_Cap_: width 50-140 mm. _Stem_: width 15-30 mm; length 40-60 mm.

Cap: deep blood-red or brownish red.

Stem: white with a flush of red towards the base.

Gills: cream then ochraceous.

Flesh: white staining brownish and smelling strongly of fish- or
crab-paste, and staining dark green when a crystal of green iron
sulphate is rubbed into it.

Spore-print: deep cream-colour.

Common in mixed woods; a very variable fungus with many colour-forms,
but easily recognised by the green reaction with ferrous sulphate.

~Lactarius turpis~ (Weinm.) Fries

Ugly milk-cap

_Cap_: width 60-200 mm. _Stem_: width 10-25 mm; length 40-75 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: firm, convex usually with a central depression at maturity, dark
olive-brown or dark greyish olive with a yellow-tawny, woolly margin
when young which soon disappears, and the whole cap becomes sticky
with age and turns deep purple when a drop of household ammonia is
placed on it.

Stem: short, stout, similarly coloured to the cap except for the
distinctly ochraceous apex, slimy and pitted.

Gills: crowded, cream-coloured to pale straw-coloured, but soon
spotted with dirty brown, particularly when bruised.

Flesh: white or greyish ochre exuding a milk-like liquid which lacks a
distinct smell and is white and unchanging when exposed to the air.

Spore-print: pale pinkish buff.

Spores: subglobose or ellipsoid and covered in a network of strongly
developed, raised lines interconnected by finer ones, both of which
stain blue-black in solutions containing iodine, generally 8 × 6 µm in
size (7-8 × 6-7 µm).

Marginal cystidia: lance- or spindle-shaped and filled with oily
contents.

Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in woods and copses, or on heaths
especially in boggy places but always where birch is growing.

_General Information_: Easily recognised by the dull colours and
purple reaction with alkali; there is no British species with which
_L. turpis_ can be mistaken. The purple reaction is similar to that
found in the familiar school laboratory reagent litmus, for the
compound found in _L. turpis_ turns purple in alkali and reddens in
acidic solutions. First discovered by Harley in 1893 this reaction
marked the beginning of a whole series of chemical studies on the
agarics which has led to the discovery of many unique compounds.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 214 (but too green); LH 213; NB 113³; WD 38¹.

General notes on the genus _Lactarius_

There is little doubt that the genus _Russula_ and the genus _Lactarius_ are closely related; in fact they stand aside from the other agarics in the very important character mentioned on page 46. In Europe the easiest distinction between the two genera is that members of the genus _Lactarius_ exude a milk-like juice which may be white or variously coloured depending on the species involved (e.g. purple in _L. uvidus_ (Fries) Fries, yellow in _L. chrysorheus_ Fries). The cap, stem and frequently the gills are brittle and when broken liberate the milk-like liquid; when the fruit-body is dry, however, the presence of this liquid may be difficult to demonstrate. The spores have a blue-black ornamentation under the microscope when mounted in iodine, and although when in mass the colours are not as varied as those found in the genus _Russula_ there is every likelihood that they will play an important role in the classification of the group in the future. The colour of the spore-print has been rather neglected, although the genus includes some rather unusual fungi.

The odours of many species are very distinct and vary from the smell of coconut and spice to those of various flowers; an odour commonly met with is termed ‘oily rancid resembling butter which has become mouldy’; in early books it was described as being the smell of bed-bugs!

The majority of the species are undoubtedly mycorrhizal: thus _L. torminosus_ is found with birch, _L. deliciosus_ and _L. rufus_ with conifers and _L. quietus_ with oak. Brief notes are given on additional species:--

~L. camphoratus~ (Fries) Fries

Curry-centred milk-cap

_Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: length 20-50 mm; width 4-6 mm.

Cap and stem: red-brown.

Gills: reddish brown.

Flesh: reddish buff with an aromatic odour resembling spices which
becomes very strong when dried and exudes a pale thin milk-like
liquid.

Common in conifer woods and plantations.

~L. deliciosus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

Saffron milk-cap

_Cap_: width 50-120 mm. _Stem_: length 20-60 mm; width 15-25 mm.

Cap: viscid, dirty greyish ochre with flush of tawny but soon becoming
greenish with age.

Stem: dirty buff or greyish ochre, spotted with green particularly
with age or on handling.

Gills: orange-yellow bruising deep orange but becoming green with
time.

Flesh: pinkish to apricot-coloured but becoming green with age and
exuding a rich orange-red fluid which gradually becomes greyish green.

Frequent in conifer woods and plantations.

~L. glyciosmus~ (Fries) Fries

Coconut-scented milk-cap

_Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: length 30-50 mm; width 5-8 mm.

Cap: usually with a central ‘bump’, greyish lilac, dull and minutely
scaly or velvety.

Stem: white to pale yellowish.

Gills: pale yellowish to flesh-coloured then flushed lilaceous.

Flesh: pale yellowish or flushed lilaceous, smelling strongly of
desiccated coconut and exuding a white unchanging milk-like liquid.

In woods and on heaths, particularly where birch is growing.

~L. quietus~ (Fries) Fries

Oak milk-cap

_Cap_: width 30-80 mm. _Stem_: length 40-80 mm; width 10-15 mm.

Cap and stem: milky cocoa-coloured, zoned with reddish brown.

Gills: pale ochraceous then flushed red-brown.

Flesh: similar to gills, smelling strongly of rancid oil, and exuding
a white, thin milk-like liquid which becomes very, very faintly yellow
on exposure to the air.

Common wherever oak is growing.

~L. rufus~ (Fries) Fries

Rufous milk-cap

_Cap_: width 50-90 mm. _Stem_: length 50-90 mm; width 10-15 mm.

Cap: dark red-brown with a distinct, usually sharp ‘bump’ in centre.

Stem: pale red-brown throughout or whitish at base.

Gills: pale reddish brown and exuding a white, unchanging milk-like
fluid.

In pine woods and less frequently with birches on acid heaths.

~L. torminosus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

Woolly milk-cap

_Cap_: width 40-150 mm. _Stem_: length 60-100 mm; width 15-30 mm.

Cap: pale strawberry-pink or pale salmon colour, distinctly zoned,
slimy when wet at centre and strongly shaggy fibrillose at margin.

Stem and gills: pale strawberry colour.

Flesh: tinged salmon-pink and exuding a white unchangeable milk-like
liquid.

Frequent where birches grow.

~Amanita muscaria~ (Fries) Hooker

Fly agaric

_Cap_: width 100-175 mm. _Stem_: width 30-40 mm; length 150-275 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: bright scarlet to orange-red with scattered whitish or yellowish
fragments of veil particularly towards the centre and hanging down
from the margin, viscid when moist, striate at margin with age.

Stem: white, striate above the soft easily torn, although prominent,
ring which is white above and yellow below; stem-base swollen and
ornamented with patches of yellowish or white veil-fragments which
form concentric rings or ridges of tissue.

Gills: white, free, crowded, fairly thick, minutely toothed at their
edge.

Flesh: soft, lacking distinctive smell, or at times slightly earthy
and white, yellowish below cap-centre.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: long, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid, smooth about 10
× 7 µm in size (10-13 × 7-8 µm).

Marginal cystidia: composed of chains of swollen, hyaline cells.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in birch-woods, less frequently
collected in the vicinity of conifers; wide-spread and fairly common,
but it is erratic in its appearance giving the impression of being
absent from a locality until one season it suddenly fruits in
profusion.

_General Information_: An easily recognised fungus because of its
striking colour. It is also very familiar and well-known because it
appears so often on Christmas cards, and features commonly in
illustrations in children’s story-books. The fungus contains a poison
which formerly was used to kill flies--hence the common name of ‘Fly
agaric’ and the scientific name from the latin name for the house-fly.
The red skin of the cap, where the major amount of the poison resides,
was cut up with a little milk and sugar or honey; flies attracted to
this sweet concoction inadvertently ate the poison and later perished.
This fungus has a very well documented and long history and appears in
the legends of many countries. It is featured in Greek mythology,
Slavic and Scandinavian folk-lore and indeed appears in the
pre-history of Indian tribes of N.E. Asia. It has even been connected
with the formation of certain sects within the early Christian church.

_Illustrations_: F. frontispiece; Hvass 1; LH 117; NB 113¹; WD 2¹.

Notes on the genus _Amanita_

The genus _Amanita_ contains many important mycorrhizal fungi including the ‘Blusher’, _A. rubescens_ (Fries) S. F. Gray, the ‘Tawny grisette’, _A. fulva_ Secretan, and the ‘False death-cap’, _A. citrina_ S. F. Gray. The first grows on heaths and in woods with a variety of trees; _A. fulva_ frequently grows with birch and _A. citrina_ with several leafy trees although its var. _alba_ (Gillet) E. J. Gilbert appears to be confined to beech woods. However, there is some evidence that many members of the genus in drier more southern countries than Britain, are non-mycorrhizal. In fact the genus as a whole may be southern-temperate in its distribution. In the British Isles the number of species of _Amanita_ recorded decreases as one goes north, or the frequency of single species except for a few widespread forms falls off northwards. In a few cases a more familiar southern species is replaced in similar habitats by another species, e.g. _A. phalloides_ (Fries) Secretan is replaced by _A. virosa_ Secretan the ‘Destroying angel’ in Scotland, and _A. citrina_ frequently in the north by _A. porphyria_ (Fries) Secretan. Species of _Amanita_ are usually large conspicuous fungi and the genus contains some of our best known agarics. One, _A. muscaria_ (Fries) Hooker has already been mentioned, but the genus also includes the ‘Death-cap’ _A. phalloides_ and ‘Caesar’s mushroom’ _A. caesarea_ (Fries) Schweinitz, a fungus not found in this country but considered to be superior in edibility to all other fungi; thus edible and deadly poisonous species are found closely related and this simply emphasises how important it is not to eat the agarics one finds in the woods and fields except when accompanied by a ‘real’ expert. Deaths or near fatalities in Europe and North America are recorded annually due to the eating of fungi belonging to this genus.

The poisonous qualities of the fungi in this genus--only a very small amount of poison is often sufficient to produce fatal results--has led to a close connection between these fungi and black magic and the supernatural. This connection is even more emphasised when it is learnt that some have an intoxicating effect. Hence the long history mentioned earlier.

Members of the genus _Amanita_ are characterised by their anatomy and certain macroscopic features; the former is illustrated under _A. muscaria_, i.e. the divergent gill-trama. The main macroscopic character of note is the presence of a volva at the base of the stem and it is the details of this volva which helps to distinguish different species. _A. phalloides_ has a distinct, loose, membranous sheath, in _A. citrina_ the volva is reduced to a narrow rim around the bulbous stem and in _A. rubescens_ and _A. muscaria_ the volva is simply a series of concentric zones of woolly scales. All the four species noted above possess a ring, but _A. fulva_ the ‘Tawny grisette’ and _A. vaginata_ (Fries) Vittadini the ‘Grisette’ only possess a volva; this has lead to the use of the generic name _Amanitopsis_ in many books, now no longer considered necessary.

The veil in _Amanita_ is probably the most highly developed amongst our common agarics and from Appendix iv it can be seen how the scaly cap and stem originate and how the volva differs from the ring. The volva and cap-scales constitute what has been called the universal veil and the ring which stretches from the cap margin to the stem has been termed the partial veil.

The spores of species of _Amanita_ are large and their shape and chemical reactions help to distinguish the different species within the genus. One of the most interesting features, however, is that the spore-mass, although usually described as white, in many species is not white but flushed greenish grey, etc. The slight subtleties in colour of the spore-print assist in classification.

The following notes may be instructive in conjunction with the information above (for common names see above).

(i) Possessing a ring on the stem:--

~A. citrina~ S. F. Gray

_Cap_: width 55-80 mm. _Stem_: width 18-22 mm; length 70-80 mm.

A lemon-yellow or whitish capped agaric with bulbous stem-base, white
patches of volva on cap and white stem with flesh strongly smelling of
new potatoes.

Spores: almost globose and measuring 9-10 × 7-8 µm.

~A. excelsa~ (Fries) Kummer

_Cap_: width 75-140 mm. _Stem_: width 20-28 mm; length 85-120 mm.

A greyish or brownish capped agaric with clavate stem-base, grey
patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically scaly stem with
flesh unchanged on exposure to the air.

Spores: broadly ellipsoid and measuring 9-10 × 8-9 µm.

~A. rubescens~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

_Cap_: width 70-120 mm. _Stem_: width 12-25 mm; length 65-100 mm.

A reddish fawn or pinkish buff capped agaric with swollen stem-base,
pinkish or flesh-coloured patches of volva on cap and reddish
concentrically scaly stem with flesh becoming reddish when exposed to
the air.

Spores: ellipsoid and measuring 9-10 × 5-6 µm.

~A. pantherina~ (Fries) Secretan

‘Panther’

_Cap_: width 48-95 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 65-100 mm.

An olive-brown or smoky brown capped agaric with only slightly swollen
stem-base, white patches of volva on the cap and white concentrically
scaly stem with unchanging flesh.

Spores: ellipsoid and measuring 8-12 × 7 µm.

~A. phalloides~ (Fries) Secretan

_Cap_: width 70-85 mm. _Stem_: width 12-20 mm; length 85-120 mm.

A greenish or yellow-olive capped agaric with stem sheathed in
membranous volva, white patches of volva on cap and smooth, white stem
with white flesh.

Spores: broadly ellipsoid and measuring 10-12 × 7 µm.

(ii) Lacking ring on stem:--

~A. fulva~ Secretan

_Cap_: width 40-60 mm. _Stem_: width 10-15 mm; length 100-150 mm.

A thin, tawny-brown agaric with stem sheathed in membranous volva and
pale tawny, slightly scaly stem.

Spores: globose and 10-12 µm in diameter.

~A. vaginata~ (Fries) Vittadini

Differs from _A. fulva_ in the cap being metallic grey or silvery in
colour.

(b) Parasites

~Armillaria mellea~ (Fries) Kummer

Honey-fungus

_Cap_: width 50-150 mm. _Stem_: width 10-12 mm; length 75-150 mm.

_Description_: Plate 10.

Cap: at first convex then more or less flattened or slightly
depressed, very variable in colour, yellowish, olive, buff,
sand-coloured or some shade of brown, at first covered in small,
brownish or ochraceous scales which give the young cap a velvety
aspect, but gradually the scales disappear with age except at the
cap-centre; margin striate and usually paler than centre of the cap.

Stem: equal or swollen at base, often several grouped together, white
at apex above a whitish, rather thick, ring which is flushed with
olive-yellow or red-brown at its margin; stem-base fibrillose, whitish
but finally red-brown at maturity.

Gills: adnate or slightly decurrent, whitish then flushed flesh colour
and developing brownish spots with age or in cold, wet weather.

Flesh: with rather strong and unpleasant smell, white or flushed
pinkish in the cap, brown and stringy in the stem.

Spore-print: very pale cream colour.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, ellipsoid, less than 10 µm in length
(8-9 × 5-6 µm).

Marginal cystidia: variable, hyaline, cylindric and not
well-differentiated.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows in troops or is found
joined at the base to form clusters. It is always attached to old
trees, trunks, stumps and buried wood, either directly or by its
vegetative stage which darkens and aggregates to form strands
resembling boot-laces which are called rhizomorphs.

_General Information_: This rather variable, and therefore often
perplexing, fungus causes a destructive rot of trees and can travel
long distances through the soil with the use of its rhizomorphs. It
commonly grows on several species of broad-leaved trees, but can also
colonise conifer trees. It also attacks garden shrubs, such as
privet-hedges, and is particularly destructive to Rhododendrons
causing a wilt of the whole shrub and subsequent death; it has also
been recorded as attacking potatoes. The actively growing mycelium
which can often be found growing under the bark of infected trees,
exhibits a luminosity if freshly exposed and placed in a darkened
room. The rhizomorphs of _A. mellea_ are highly specialised structures
composed of mycelial threads some of which have become rather more
differentiated than is normally found in the vegetative stage of other
agarics.

_Illustrations_: F 27a; Hvass 26; LH 93; NB 141¹; WD 4³.

~Pholiota squarrosa~ (Fries) Kummer

Shaggy Pholiota

_Cap_: width 50-120 mm. _Stem_: width 17-25 mm; length 95-125 mm.

_Description_: Plate 11.

Cap: convex, but expanding and becoming flattened with a slight
central umbo, ochre-yellow to yellowish rust-colour and covered with
dark brown recurved scales which are particularly dense at the centre.

Stem: variable in length and thickness depending on how it is attached
to the substrate, whether in a deep crack or wound, or in a
depression, and how many specimens are in the cluster; its colour is
similar to that of the cap, exhibits a small, dark brown fibrillose,
torn ring or ring-zone and is ornamented with recurved red-brown
scales below that ring.

Gills: broadly adnate with a decurrent tooth and crowded, yellowish at
first then rust-coloured.

Flesh: with strong, pleasant but pungent smell, yellowish brown, soft
in the cap, fibrous in the stem.

Spore-print: rich rust-brown.

Spores: medium-sized, pale brown under the microscope, smooth,
ellipsoid, and 6-8 × 4 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped, hyaline, numerous.

Facial cystidia: flask-shaped with a small apical appendage and
becoming rich yellow when immersed in solutions containing ammonia.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in clusters in woods, gardens or
parks, on wood or at the base of the trunks of broad-leaved trees in
summer and autumn.

_General Information_: Although rather a common easily recognisable
and aesthetically pleasing fungus growing in its characteristic
clusters at the base of trees, it is a weak parasite entering the
living tissue after invading decayed areas of the tree. This is the
reason why when branches are broken off trees by wind, snow or storms,
they should be carefully trimmed to remove ragged edges and the wound
treated with a protective tar to stop the entry of rain, cold and
fungus spores. Other more destructive fungi may enter a tree through
such wounds; _P. squarrosa_ frequently attacks mountain ash or rowan.

It is recognised by the dry scaly cap and stem which helps to
distinguish it from the sticky capped _P. aurivella_ (Fries) Kummer
with similar habitat preferences but wider spores (6-9 × 4-5 µm). _P.
adiposa_ (Fries) Kummer is found on beech trees and it, too, has a
viscid cap, but the spores are 5-6 × 3-4 µm in dimensions.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 134; LH 149; WD 54².

(c) Saprophytes--wood inhabiting or lignicolous agarics

~Hypholoma fasciculare~ (Fries) Kummer

Sulphur-tuft

_Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 6-13 mm; length 40-100 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: sulphur-yellow, flushed with sand-colour or red-brown at centre
then ochraceous yellow throughout, convex at first with margin
incurved and clothed with fibrillose remnants of a yellow-olive veil,
but then becoming flattened and losing evidence of that veil.

Stem: equal or flexuous, usually with several joined at base,
similarly coloured to the cap, fibrillose streaky or with some fibrils
from the veil stretching from the cap to the stem in young specimens.

Gills: sinuate and crowded, at first sulphur-yellow then olive-green,
but finally with a flush of purple-brown.

Flesh: with rather strong and unpleasant smell, yellow throughout.

Spore-print: purple-brown.

Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid or ovoid, smooth, purple-brown and
less than 10 µm in length (6-8 × 4 µm).

Marginal cystidia: flasked-shaped, short, cylindric and hyaline.

Facial cystidia: more swollen than marginal cystidia and with silvery
contents which yellow in solutions containing ammonia.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: The sulphur-tuft grows in dense clusters
on and around old stumps of broad-leaved trees, and can be found
throughout the year; it also grows on conifers, but less frequently.

_General Information_: It may be recognised by the greenish tint of
the immature gills and of the young cap. _H. capnoides_ (Fries) Kummer
grows on the wood of coniferous trees and has a much more ochraceous
brown cap and stem than the sulphur-tuft and slightly larger
spores--7-8 × 4-5 µm. _H. sublateritium_ (Fries) Quélet grows on
hardwoods but is bigger than _H. fasciculare_ and has a brick-coloured
cap and very sturdy stem (spores 6-7 × 3-4 µm).

_Illustrations_: F 37b; Hvass 176; LH 147; NB 141⁵; WD 76².

~Flammulina velutipes~ (Fries) Karsten

Velvet-shank

_Cap_: width 20-80 mm. _Stem_: width 5-10 mm; length 35-60 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: bright sand-colour or slightly red-brown at centre, convex at
first then flattened with age, smooth, slimy because of the presence
of a sticky elastic skin, rather rubbery to the touch.

Stem: cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, dark brown and
densely hairy or velvety, tough and rubbery to handle.

Gills: adnexed, very unequal and somewhat distant, pale yellow,
gradually becoming buff as the spores mature.

Flesh: with rather pleasant smell, yellowish, watery and soft.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, ellipsoid and about 8 × 3-4 µm in Size
(7-9 × 3-4 µm).

Marginal cystidia: hyaline, elongate, broadly flask-shaped.

Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Found in clusters on old stumps, fallen
trunks and on the wounded parts of standing trees.

_General Information_: This fungus can be recognised by the clustered
habit, the viscid, bright tawny cap and the dark velvety stem. This is
one of the few agarics which occurs regularly late in the season, even
appearing in the winter, although it can be seen growing in its
familiar groups at almost any time of the year. This fungus holds a
rather isolated position in classification and was once placed in the
genus _Collybia_. It may be found in several books under this last
genus.

_Illustrations_: F 18b; Hvass 80; LH 109; NB 141³; WD 21⁴.

~Mycena galericulata~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

Bonnet mycena

_Cap_: width 25-50 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 50-125 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: conical or bell-shaped then expanding but retaining a central
umbo, never completely flattened, smooth, greyish, pale sepia or dirty
white and striate with darker lines from the margin to the centre.

Stem: similarly coloured to the cap, smooth, shiny, tough and usually
noticeably downy at base.

Gills: at first white flushed distinctly pale pink with age, uncinate,
rather distant and sometimes with interconnecting veins.

Flesh: white with little or no distinctive smell.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, broadly ellipsoid, smooth, about 10 × 7
µm in size (9-12 × 6-8 µm) and staining bluish grey when mounted in
solutions containing iodine.

Marginal cystidia: club-shaped but the apex ornamented with blunt
hairs of varying lengths.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Commonly found, in all but the coldest
months, in woods, parks or gardens, often in dense clusters on stumps
and fallen trunks of broad-leaved trees.

_General Information_: This is one of our commonest members, and one
of the largest in the genus _Mycena_; many species in this genus are
quite small yet are nevertheless very important components of the
woodland flora decomposing leaves, twigs, etc., and contributing in
this way to the recirculating of organic matter.

The name _Mycena_ is derived from the same Greek word as that which
refers to the country around the ancient city of Mycenae in the plain
of Argos, and from whence Agamemnon came and gathered his forces to
invade Troy to reclaim Helen his wife. It has been suggested that this
similarity in name came about through the necessity for an army
stationed in Argos, early in the history of Ancient Greece, to rely on
the mushrooms found on the plains about to save the soldiers from
starvation.

_Illustrations_: F 17a; Hvass 119; LH 109; NB 133⁸; WD 26³.

~Pluteus cervinus~ (Fries) Kummer

Fawn pluteus

_Cap_: width 40-100 mm. _Stem_: width 10-15 mm; length 75-125 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: conical, rapidly expanding and then becoming plano-convex or
flattened with only a slight but persistent umbo, dark brown, umber or
vandyke brown, viscid when wet and often with radiating fibrils.

Stem: white, streaked to varying degrees with dark brown fibrils,
cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, where it is attached
to the substrate.

Gills: remote, very crowded, thin, at first white then distinctly
salmon-pink.

Flesh: with pleasant smell, white and soft.

Spore-print: dull salmon-pink.

Spores: medium-sized, very faintly buff under the microscope, broadly
ellipsoid and 7-8 × 5-6 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped, the majority with three or four hooks
at the distinctively thick-walled apex.

Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia but sometimes intermixed
with those lacking hooks.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows singly or in groups on
old stumps and fallen trunks throughout the year except for the most
wintry months; it is commonest in autumn.

_General Information_: This fungus may also grow on old sawdust heaps,
a habitat which is often very worth while examining in detail by the
interested amateur during wet seasons. In summer sawdust heaps dry out
but after a good soaking, which, of course, can be applied
artificially by frequent watering with a hose or watering-can, many
interesting fungi develop. On sawdust heaps containing conifer debris
a larger species with black or dark brown edge to the gills is
found--_P. atromarginatus_ Kühner.

The peculiar pointed cystidia found on the gill-edge and on the
gill-face of _P. cervinus_ were thought by some early mycologists to
stop mites and insect larvae from crawling up between the gills and
damaging the developing spores. There is no evidence that this
actually takes place in nature; the real purpose of these obscure
structures is unknown and has been little studied.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 127; LH 121; NB 135¹; WD 50².

~Gymnopilus penetrans~ (Fries) Murrill

_Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 20-50 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: convex then becoming flattened at maturity, dry, slightly scaly,
golden tawny, or rusty yellow and when young with the remnants of a
rapidly disappearing yellow cortina hanging from the margin.

Stem: yellow above and red-brown or orange-tawny below and darkening
on bruising; veil forming a delicate fibrillose zone in the upper part
of the stem which is soon lost on excessive handling.

Gills: adnate to slightly decurrent, thin and crowded, at first golden
yellow, but soon spotted rust colour.

Flesh: yellow and lacking distinctive smell.

Spore-print: rich orange-tawny.

Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, finely roughened and deep yellow
brown under the microscope, less than 10 µm in length (7-8 × 5-4 µm).

Marginal cystidia: hyaline, flask-shaped with long often slightly
irregular neck.

Facial cystidia: similar to the marginal cystidia, but often broader.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is found on sticks or twigs or
chips of coniferous wood, particularly in plantations.

_General Information_: Although it has only comparatively recently
been recognised in Britain it is very wide-spread. It has been
confused with, indeed described under, the name of the less-common
fungus _Gymnopilus sapineus_ (Fries) Maire which also grows in conifer
woods; it is easily distinguished, however, by its spotted gills. Both
the fungi above can be found in books under the old name _Flammula_,
from the bright colour of the caps of many of its constituent members,
but _Flammula_ has been used for a genus of flowering plants also and
this has precedence.

_Illustrations_: F 29a; Hvass 152 not very good; LH 175 not very good;
NB 109⁶.

Notes on the artificial family group ‘_Pleurotaceae_’--the Oyster mushrooms

One of the common features of lignicolous fungi is the fact that they lack a distinct stem or if one is present it is attached to one side of the cap, i.e. lateral. However, in the past the correlation of the habitat with lack of stem has induced mycologists to define a single family to include all these forms. After studying the anatomy and microscopic characters this grouping has been found to be entirely artificial and simply reflects how the morphology is tied up intimately with the ecology of a species.

In this one family members of the genera _Panus_, _Panellus_, _Lentinus_, _Lentinellus_, _Crepidotus_, _Pleurotellus_, and _Pleurotus_ have all been grouped together, but some of the genera are more related to the polypores referred to later (p. 135); many of those with brown spores are better placed with _Cortinarius_ and some of those with white or cream-coloured spores are better placed close to _Mycena_ and _Tricholoma_. This leaves as a residue the genus _Pleurotus_, a genus which although rather heterogeneous contains one familiar member, i.e. the common Oyster mushroom, _Pleurotus ostreatus_.

~Pleurotus ostreatus~ (Fries) Kummer

Oyster mushroom

Grows up to 150 mm across.

Cap: flattened, shell-shaped, smooth or slightly cracked, deep bluish
grey, gradually becoming brownish with age and finally dark buff.

Stem: absent or very short, passing gradually into one side of the
cap.

Gills: white flushing dirty yellow with age, rather distant and deeply
decurrent.

Flesh: white, soft and with very pleasant smell.

Spore-print: pale lilac.

Spores: long, hyaline, oblong under the microscope and 10-11 × 4 µm in
size.

Marginal and facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common, clustered in tiers on stumps,
trunks, posts, etc.

_General Information_: This fungus is not infrequent on old
telephone-poles and forms white sheets of mycelium immediately under
the bark of fallen trees. Although frequent in autumn it may be found
throughout the year and is easily recognised by its size and
bracket-like, shell-shaped caps. It surprisingly has a pale lilac
spore-print and not as might be expected a white spore-print. In the
var. _columbinus_ Quélet the young caps are a beautiful peacock-blue;
this variety frequently grows on poplars.

_Illustrations_: F 125²; Hvass 109; LH 107; NB 125²; WD 31¹.

~Panus torulosus~ (Fries) Fries is a tough, funnel-shaped, yellowish
cinnamon fungus with oblong-ellipsoid, small, hyaline spores measuring
5-6 × 3 µm and changing yellowish not bluish grey in iodine solutions.

~Panellus stipticus~ (Fries) Karsten forms tiers of pale
cinnamon-brown, more or less kidney-shaped, scurfy caps on old wood
and has egg-shaped, hyaline, small spores measuring 4 × 2-3 µm which
become bluish grey in iodine solutions.

~Lentinellus cochleatus~ (Fries) Karsten forms irregular lobed and
twisted, flattened or funnel-shaped dirty brownish caps with a
fragrant smell, toothed gill-edges and almost spherical, small,
hyaline spores measuring 5 × 4 µm which become bluish grey in iodine
solutions.

_Lentinellus_ apparently has very close affinities to _Auriscalpium_,
‘the Ear pick fungus’, (p. 158) both in the structure of the spores
and the anatomy of the fruit-body.

~Lentinus lepideus~ (Fries) Fries forms very tough fruit-bodies with
convex or flattened, pale yellowish caps and stems ornamented with
dark tawny or brown scales. The stem is often eccentric and buried in
cracks or soft rotten wood on which it grows; the spores are
non-amyloid. It grows on pine stumps but also on decaying or
unprotected railway sleepers and wooden paving blocks, joists, etc.,
made of conifer wood. When the fungus fruits in a darkened
environment, such as a cellar, the mushroom-like fruit-bodies are not
produced but are replaced by slender branched structures similar to
the ‘Stag’s horn’ or ‘Candle-snuff fungus’ (p. 206), or to certain of
the Fairy Club fungi (p. 172). Similar growths have been recorded for
_Polyporus squamosus_ which grows on hard wood timber and is described
in detail later (p. 140).

~Crepidotus mollis~ (Fries) Kummer

Soft slipper toadstool

Cap: up to 45 mm across and in tiers, sessile, shell-shaped or
kidney-shaped, smooth, rubbery and brownish ochre in colour.

Gills: pale buff then cinnamon-brown and finally flushed snuff-brown,
thin and crowded.

Flesh: watery, gelatinous beneath the skin of the cap and whitish
buff.

Spore-print: warm brown.

Spores: ellipsoid, smooth, medium-sized, pale buff under the
microscope and 8-9 × 5-5·5 µm in size.

Easily recognised by the soft elastic cap which can be stretched
without breaking, the brown gills and pale buff spores. (See Plate 49,
p. 153.)

_Illustrations_: LH 177; NB 145³; WD 69¹.

The artificiality of classifying all those agarics with both a
spoon-shaped or bracket-shaped fruit-body, and a reduced (or lacking)
stem is further exemplified by the presence of similar genera in other
groups of fungi. For instance _Claudopus_ is typified by pink, angular
spores (Plate 28) and _Clitopilus_ is characterised by longitudinally
ridged spores, i.e. they are not angular in all optical sections but
only when seen end on (see p. 101). An example of the former is _C.
parasiticus_ (Quélet) Ricken which grows on dead remains of woody
fungi, and of the latter _C. passackerianus_ (Pilát) Singer which may
invade mushroom beds. Both species are quite small though the last
fungus is similarly coloured to the more familiar _Clitopilus
prunulus_ (Fries) Kummer, ‘The Miller’, so common in woods and fields.

Thus in the British Isles agarics with eccentric stems may be found,
in the white, brown and pink-spored groups--and in the tropics and
subtropics the picture is completed by the existence of the genus
_Melanotus_ in the black-spored agarics. _M. bambusinus_ Pat. grows on
bamboos and _M. musae_ (Berk. & Curt.) Singer grows on dead leaves and
debris of bananas; the latter is also a probable agent in the decay of
fibres in the tropics.

(d) Saprophytes--terrestrial agarics

~Melanoleuca melaleuca~ (Fries) Murrill

_Cap_: width 40-110 mm. _Stem_: width 50-80 mm; length 50-90 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: dark brown, umber or vandyke when moist, hygrophanous and
becoming very much paler on drying almost tan, convex then flattened
sometimes umbonate, smooth or wrinkled.

Stem: white or whitish covered in brownish fibrils which increase in
number with age or after handling; solid, rather elastic and slightly
swollen towards the base.

Gills: white, broad, crowded and as if cut out from behind before
joining the stem.

Flesh: with pleasant smell, soft, white, becoming brownish with age,
particularly in the stem.

Spore-print: very pale ivory-colour.

Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, hyaline under the microscope and
roughened by distinct dots which become blue-black when mounted in
solutions containing iodine, 8 × 4-5 µm.

Marginal cystidia: spear- or sword-shaped, roughened with crystals at
the top and appearing as if barbed like fish-spines.

Facial cystidia: numerous and similar to marginal cystidia.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in autumn in woods; also found in
pastures.

_General Information_: A very common fungus which is rather confusing
to the beginner because of its variation in colour, brought about by
the change in colour with change in content of water. However, this
fungus can be easily recognised by the unusually ornamented cystidia
found on the gill-faces and gill-margins. This character and the fact
that the spores possess amyloid ornamentation define in part the genus
_Melanoleuca_. In many books this common fungus is found under the
genus _Tricholoma_; however, members of this latter genus have neither
amyloid ornamented spores nor barbed cystidia.

_Illustrations_: LH 103; WD 13¹.

~Clitocybe infundibuliformis~ (Weinm.) Quélet

Common funnel-cap

_Cap_: width 20-60 mm. _Stem_: width 8-13 mm; length 35-75 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: yellowish ochre flushed slightly pinkish buff or cinnamon but
later pale tan on ageing or drying, funnel shaped.

Stem: colour like cap or slightly darker, flexible but firm and solid.

Gills: white or faintly flushed buff, decurrent and crowded.

Flesh: with pleasant slightly floral smell, white, soft and fairly
thin.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline, tear-drop shaped, smooth, 6-7 × 3-4 µm
and not blueing when mounted in solutions containing iodine.

Marginal cystidia: little different from young basidia in dimension
and shape, although some may have a short apical prolongation.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Woods, copses, heaths and hill-pastures
from summer to autumn.

_General Information_: An easily recognisable fungus because of its
graceful stature, thin, funnel-shaped pinkish buff cap and
tear-drop-shaped spores. Several _Clitocybe_ species grow in
woodlands, many of them appearing later in the season when colourful
agarics are rarer.

The genus _Clitocybe_ is characterised by the fleshy cap with incurved
margin when young, fibrous, fleshy stem and decurrent gills. _C.
clavipes_ (Fries) Kummer has a smoky brown, top-shaped cap, fragile
stem which also has a distinct swelling at its base, and strong rather
unpleasant smell. _C. nebularis_ (Fries) Kummer is similar, but is
pale cloudy grey, has a less fragile stem and a fairly pleasant smell.
This species if often covered in a bloom which develops further as the
fruit-body deteriorates. The agaric _Volvariella surrecta_ (Knapp)
Singer is a rare parasite of _C. nebularis_ (see p. 247) and it has
been suggested that this bloom may in fact belong to this species.
However, I have on several occasions tried to encourage the bloom to
reproduce by keeping hoary looking fruit-bodies of _C. nebularis_ in a
damp-chamber, but as yet I have never been successful.

Nevertheless, it is an exercise which would be of great interest to
continue and a source of great excitement if the small pink-spored
agaric were produced. _C. fragrans_ (Fries) Kummer is a small, sweetly
aromatic-smelling species found in frondose woods, and _C. langei_
Hora, is a mealy-smelling species of conifer plantations.

_Illustrations_: F 16a; Hvass 55; LH 95; WD 16².

~Hebeloma crustuliniforme~ (St Amans) Quélet

Fairy-cake mushroom

_Cap_: width 40-80 mm. _Stem_: width 8-12 mm; length 38-85 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: pale yellow buff or pale tan with a distinct reddish buff or
cinnamon-brown tint, darkening only slightly with age; smooth, at
first tacky to the fingers, but then dry and shiny at centre, convex
and hardly expanding.

Stem: cylindrical or slightly swollen towards the base, whitish and
with a flush of pinkish buff at apex, and covered all over in small,
white scales.

Gills: sinuate, crowded, pale clay-colour or buff, but finally dull
dark yellow ochre except for the distinct white margins which are
beaded in wet weather with droplets of liquid.

Flesh: whitish with a very strong smell of radishes.

Spore-print: dark clay-colour.

Spores: long, slightly almond-shaped, pale brown under the microscope,
distinctly warted and about 11 × 6 µm in size (10-12 × 6-7 µm).

Marginal cystidia: cylindrical to skittle-shaped with slightly to
distinctly swollen apex.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in autumn on the ground by
pathsides and in woodland clearings.

_General Information_: Recognisable by the uniform cinnamon or pinkish
buff cap, white woolly scales on the stem and distinctive, strong
smell of radish. There is some evidence that this species may on
occasions be mycorrhizal; further field studies are required.

There are several closely related fungi which are difficult for the
amateur to differentiate from _H. crustuliniforme_; there is no doubt
that there are several species present in the British Isles which do
not appear in the Check List of British Agarics & Boleti; in fact, it
would appear that there are several yet to be described as new to
science. Although individual species are fairly difficult to delimit,
the genus _Hebeloma_ itself is easily recognised, most members being
medium sized with brown sinuate gills, whitish, yellowish, or pinkish,
i.e. pale, caps and white-powdered stems. The word ‘crustulin’ which
appears in the Latin name of _H. crustuliniforme_ is itself from the
Latin and means small cake, referring to the cap-shape, which remains
fairly constant throughout the fungus’ growth. The common name is
derived from this also.

~Inocybe geophylla~ (Fries) Kummer

Common white inocybe

_Cap_: width 10-25 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 30-50 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: conical with incurved margin then bell-shaped and retaining a
distinct umbo even when mature, silvery white then ivory and finally
pale tan particularly centrally and silky fibrillose throughout.

Stem: slender, cylindrical but for a small swelling at the base, silky
and shining with a few fibrils from a former cortina which may be
brownish due to spores adhering to it at maturity.

Gills: adnexed to free, crowded, pale ochraceous becoming
clay-coloured.

Flesh: white with smell of newly dug potatoes, strong when fresh.

Spore-print: clay-colour.

Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid or slightly French-bean-shaped,
smooth, yellow-brown under the microscope and 9-11 × 4-5 µm in size.

Marginal and facial cystidia: flask- to spindle-shaped with distinctly
thickened walls and frequently ornamented with crystals apically.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woodland clearings, by
pathsides or on the edges of ditches bordering woods.

_General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the very
pale uniform colour, the colour of the spore-print, silky umbonate cap
and small size. The cortina connects the cap-margin and the stem and
consists of a cobwebby structure which collapses at maturity.

A violet coloured variety, var. _lilacina_ Gillet is frequently found,
in fact, even accompanying var. _geophylla_; it differs only in the
lilac-colour of the cap and stem. _I. geophylla_ is a member of the
very large genus _Inocybe_, further members of which will be dealt
with later (see p. 238).

The genus is well defined with dull-yellow spore-print, well
differentiated sterile cells on the gill-edge (and often on the
gill-face) and the cobweb-like veil, or cortina, stretching from the
cap-margin to the stem and easily observed in young specimens. The
genus is split into three distinct groups: those with smooth spores,
those with nodulose spores and those with subglobose spores ornamented
with long projections. _I. geophylla_ is included in the first group.
The group which includes the nodulose-spored members has been elevated
to the rank of genus by some authors, i.e. _Astrosporina_--a name
referring to the spore-shape eg., _I. asterospora_.

_Illustrations_: F 13a (too blue); LH 155; NB 139⁵; WD 65⁴.

~Laccaria laccata~ (Fries) Cooke

Deceiver

_Cap_: width 12-28 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 15-60 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: hygrophanous, reddish brown or brick-colour becoming ochraceous
on drying, but can be rapidly returned to the original colour by
placing on the top a drop of water which is rapidly absorbed; fragile,
convex at first then flattened or depressed about centre, smooth or
surface scaley, striate at margin when moist.

Stem: similarly coloured to the cap, fibrous, cylindrical, tough and
usually with white woolly base.

Gills: adnate with or without a decurrent tooth, thick, distant and
pinkish or pale reddish-brown, powdered with white when mature.

Flesh: red-brown, soft in the cap and fibrous in the stem.

Spore-print: pure white.

Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope and spherical, 7-8
µm in diameter and beautifully spiny.

Marginal and facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woodland, copses, on
heaths; in fact it may be found in nearly all possible habitats.

_General Information_: This is a very common agaric which in the
future will probably be split into several distinct species;
unfortunately it is as variable as it is common, hence the common name
‘deceiver’; it is often mistaken at first glance for many other
species quite unrelated. I have seen even the most experienced
mycologist pick up rather unfamiliar specimens of _Laccaria laccata_
in mistake for a species of _Lactarius_ or a species of _Collybia_,
etc. I would hate to say more because I have been ‘deceived’ myself on
more than one occasion. _L. laccata_ appears to be a composite
species, but because of the difficulty in defining some of the
characters the splitting of the species has not as yet been
satisfactorily solved. The smell, however, may well give a clue for
some specimens smell very strongly of radish whilst others are
odourless.

~L. proxima~ (Boudier) Patouillard, differs in having ellipsoid
spores; it is larger in stature and is common in wet places.

~L. amethystea~ (Mérat) Murrill, differs in the deep violet or
amethyst-colour of the fruit-body and commonly grows in shaded woods.

~L. bicolor~ (Maire) P. D. Orton, which is less frequent, has
lilaceous gills and violaceous mycelium at the base of the stem.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 66; NB 133¹; WD 20².

~Mycena sanguinolenta~ (Fries) Kummer

Small bleeding mycena

_Cap_: width 10-17 mm. _Stem_: width 2-4 mm; length 50-80 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: bell-shaped or conical expanding only slightly with age and so
remaining umbonate, reddish-brown, striate to the margin from the
darker apex and blotched age with red-brown spots.

Stem: pale reddish brown, very slender, fragile, woolly at the base
and exuding a red-brown juice when broken.

Gills: adnate, fairly distant, whitish to flesh-colour with a dark
red-brown edge and not noticeably becoming blotched with red-brown.

Flesh: with no distinctive smell, reddish-brown and very thin.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium sized, hyaline, ellipsoid to pip-shaped, smooth about
10 µm long (9-10 × 4-5 µm) and becoming bluish grey when mounted in
solutions containing iodine.

Marginal cystidia: awl-shaped, pointed at the apex, swollen below and
filled with dark red-brown contents.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Solitary or in small groups on poorly kept
lawns, in woods and copses; it is particularly frequent in the beds of
needles found in pine woods.

_General Information_: This fungus is easily recognised by the slender
habit, reddish juice exuded when broken and habitat preferences.
_Mycena haematopus_ (Fries) Kummer is larger and grows in tufts on
wood, but also has a red-brown juice which, however, spots the gills.
Another very common species of Mycena is _M. galopus_ (Fries) Kummer
which has a greyish or brownish cap and exudes a milk-like juice. The
related _M. leucogala_ (Cooke) Saccardo is almost black (see p. 216).
These agarics exuding juice when broken have a flesh composed of
filaments, a very different flesh-structure to species of _Lactarius_
(see p. 50) and although their spores are amyloid they do not turn
blue-black in iodine because of the presence of amyloid crests and
warts. There are few additional species of agaric which exude a
milk-like liquid, but the majority of these are tropical or
subtropical. The second names or epithets for the four species
mentioned above all refer to the ‘latex’--sanguinolenta--bleeding,
_haematopus_ blood-foot; _galopus_, milk-foot and _leucogala_, white
milk. For notes on Mycena one is referred to p. 68 describing _M.
galericulata_ (Fries) S. F. Gray.

_Illustrations_: WD 28⁴.

~Collybia maculata~ (Fries) Kummer

Spotted tough-shank

_Cap_: width 80-130 mm. _Stem_: width 5-20 mm; length 50-158 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: white but soon becoming spotted with reddish-brown, finally
cream-colour with red-brown blotches, convex then becoming flattened,
fleshy, firm and tough.

Stem: white becoming streaked red-brown, thickest in the middle,
longitudinally furrowed or striate and often narrowed downwards into a
long irregular root embedded in the deep litter.

Gills: very crowded, cream-coloured, becoming spotted red-brown with
age.

Flesh: with pleasant smell, white and fibrous in the stem.

Spore-print: pinkish cream-colour.

Spores: small, almost spherical, hyaline under the microscope, about 5
µm in diameter (4-5 × 5 µm) and not blueing when placed in solutions
containing iodine.

Marginal and facial cystidia: absent.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in troops in woods, particularly
beech but also found in pine woods and on heaths.