Chapter D: The Stomach Fungi (1)

The Gasteromycetes are a complex mixture of higher fungi united in virtue of their spores being enclosed in a fruit-body and not forcibly ejected from the basidium; the group includes the puff-balls and their relatives.

_Key to some groups_

1. Fruit-body growing beneath the surface of the soil (hypogeous)
False truffles (including _Hymenogaster_, _Rhizopogon_)

Fruit-body not growing beneath the soil-surface 2

2. Spores in a slimy mass on a specialised fruit-body arising from an
egg-like structure Stinkhorns (_Phallus_ & _Mutinus_)

Spores powdery at maturity or in small capsules 3

3. Spores powdery at maturity and contained within the fruit-body 4

Spores enclosed in a small capsule or group of capsules in a
cup-like structure, resembling the eggs within the nest of a bird
Bird’s nest fungi (including _Crucibulum_ & _Cyathus_)

4. Spores intermixed with threads within the fruit-body from which
they are dispersed through a specialised pore at its apex
Puff-balls and Earth-stars (_Lycoperdon_ & _Geastrum_)

Spores not mixed with threads within the fruit-body and not
dispersed through special structure but through cracks as the
fruit-body weathers Earth-Balls (_Scleroderma_)

The Gasteromycetes is an unnatural group of predominantly saprophytic higher fungi many of which are extremely grotesque and strange in their morphology. Instead of the spores being formed asymmetrically on the basidium as is found in the agarics, the spores of members of this group are usually more or less symmetrically attached to their sterigmata or may even be seated directly (sessile) on the basidium. The whole group, even if unnatural, can, however, be regarded under one heading as a biological unit. Until something better is suggested and supported by evidence the existence of this group is very convenient.

Usually the basidia project into cavities within the fruit-body in which the spores themselves are released as the fruit-body gradually matures--hence the name Gastero-mycetes: ‘stomach-fungi’. In a few more advanced forms, the puff-balls of temperate countries, for instance, the spores escape from these cavities through a pore or pores in the outer wall of the fruit-body, and in the stinkhorns the spores are exposed as a sticky mass because the smell of the material in which they are held is attractive to flies. In forms which have subterranean (or hypogeous p. 243) fruit-bodies there is no special opening and here the spores are dispersed by insects and small mammals. In the bird’s nest fungi the spores are enclosed in separate packets within a saucer or cup-like open structure.

Recently it has been shown by examination of the microscopic structure of the fruit-bodies and spores that certain genera of the Gasteromycetes are more closely related to the agarics than many of them are between themselves.

It is believed that some of the Gasteromycetes may have evolved from more familiar fungi by adaptation to arid or semi-arid conditions. Although this is not true for all the Gasteromycetes within this one group of fungi, a whole series of methods of overcoming the disadvantages connected with non-violent disposal of spores has evolved. These methods include both changes in structure and ecology; only a few have evolved a mycorrhizal relationship with higher plants.

~Lycoperdon pyriforme~ Persoon

Stump puff-ball

_Fruit-body_: width 20-50 mm; height 40-75 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: more or less pear-shaped, pale brownish often with a
slight hump on the top, scurfy on the outside with tiny pointed
granules which soon fall off or become rubbed off by abrasion,
particularly after careless handling.

Stem: consisting of rather small cells and connected at the base by
long, white, branched cords of mycelium which permeate the substrate.

Spore-mass: white at first then greenish yellow and finally
olive-brown and formed around a sterile column.

Spores: small, olive, minutely warted but appearing smooth under the
student microscope; 4 µm in diameter and intermixed with long, olive
coloured, branched hyphal threads 4-5 µm broad and of irregular wall
thickness.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This puff-ball grows in huge clusters on
stumps and logs, or can be traced to buried pieces of wood; it occurs
from summer to late autumn.

_General Information_: There are several species of _Lycoperdon_ in
this country, some quite small and several rather infrequent. _L.
pyriforme_ is the only one which grows on wood; ‘pyriforme’ means
pear-shaped and is derived from the shape of the fruit-body.

~L. perlatum~ Persoon is also a common puff-ball; it is pestle-shaped
or top-shaped, whitish or tan with minutely roughened, globose spores
measuring 4 µm in diameter. The fruit-body is covered in a mixture of
large and small, fragile spines which leave a network when rubbed off.
It grows in woods and on heaths.

~L. foetidum~ Bonorden is similar to _L. perlatum_, but the spines are
umber or vandyke-brown; it also grows both in woods and upland
pastures, particularly the latter.

_Illustrations_: _L. pyriforme_--Hvass 316; LH 219; NB 155³; WD 109³.
_L. perlatum_--Hvass 315; LH 217; NB 155²; WD 110².

~Langermannia gigantea~ (Persoon) Rostkovius

Giant puff-ball

_Fruit-body_: diameter 300-450 mm (-1,050 mm).

_Description_:

Fruit-body: round or slightly flattened on the top, smooth or cracked
into small scales, white but becoming flushed yellowish with age and
finally olive-brown when old, frequently the outer layer dries and
breaks away to expose the powdery spore-mass within.

Stem: absent or only present as a small cone of tissue.

Spore-mass: whitish, cream-coloured and finally olive-brown.

Spores: small, brownish, minutely warted and spherical, 4-5 µm in
diameter and intermixed with thick-walled, branched, brown hyphae, 3-5
µm broad.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On the ground in copses, at the edges of
woods, under hedges or on refuse tips, and sometimes in gardens. It
may appear in the same place year after year, and has been recorded
growing beneath the rafters in houses.

_General Information_: When young it is white inside or cream-coloured
before the spores have developed and can then be cut into slices and
cooked. I have seen it on sale in markets in N. America and it is
collected for food by many in Europe. Its pumpkin-shape with a
circumference of anything up to 1,050 mm makes this fungus easily
recognisable. The number of spores produced by a fruit-body measuring
400 × 280 mm has been calculated by A. H. R. Buller as
7,000,000,000,000 spores!

~Calvatia utriformis~ (Fries) Jaap (= _C. caelata_ (Persoon) Morgan)
has a goblet-like shape and a distinct, sterile base composed of large
cells with a prominent membrane separating them from the spore-mass;
the spores are 4-5 µm diameter, smooth and spherical.

~C. excipuliformis~ (Fries) Perdeck (= _C. saccata_ (Vahl.) Morgan) is
pestle-shaped with a well developed stem. The spore-mass is composed
of warted, globose spores, 4-5 µm in diameter.

~Bovista nigrescens~ Persoon is very similar in shape to the Giant
puff-ball, but is very much smaller; it lacks a stalk, being attached
to the substrate only by mycelial cords. It commences white, but then
darkens to become purplish brown at maturity when it also breaks from
its moorings and rolls about in the wind.

The last three species are found on heaths, in pastures or on the
ground in woods.

_Illustrations_: _C. gigantea_--Hvass 312; LH 217; NB 371; WD 109⁷.
_B. nigrescens_--Hvass 311; LH 219; NB 37³.

Earth-stars and Earth-balls

The earth-stars, i.e. species of _Geastrum_, are closely related to the puff-balls, but differ in having two very distinct and separate enclosing walls, the outer one splitting at maturity to expose a ‘puff-ball’ within; an example of the genus is _G. triplex_ Jungh, found in parks or under beech trees or _G. rufescens_ Pers. (illustrated) in mixed woodland. The outer skin splits in different ways in different species: in some it splits like a star--hence the common name of Earth-star, in some the spore-mass is raised as if on stilts. There are several species of _Geastrum_ recorded for Britain, but they are decidedly uncommon.

The Earth-balls are, however, far from uncommon and may be met with from early summer until late autumn in any wood particularly those on sandy soils. They are unrelated to the earth-stars.

Earth-balls

~Scleroderma citrinum~ Persoon

Common earth-ball

_Fruit-body_: diameter 25-75 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: rounded or flattened on top, sometimes lobed, very firm,
yellow or clay colour, scaly, thick, white within or pinkish, if cut
when immature, and then purplish black as the spores mature.

Stem: absent or reduced to a small group of mycelial cords.

Spore-mass: purplish black.

Spores: medium to large, dark brown, 8-13 µm in diameter and covered
with a delicate network.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On the ground in woods or on heaths.

_General Information_: This fungus is found in many books under the
name of _S. aurantium_. _S. verrucosum_ Persoon is closely related,
but has a stem-like rooting base and an umber brown spore-mass. The
spores are also slightly different; they are 10-14 µm in diameter and
ornamented with spines and ridges.

The earth-balls appear to have characters in common with the false
truffles, indeed sometimes they grow partially buried in the sandy
soil of woods. Like the false truffles they have been used to
adulterate pâté as a cheap substitute for true truffles (see p. 244).
It is not wise, however, to eat earth-balls as there are cases of
poisoning known. Although truffle-like, they should be avoided except
under the guidance of an expert, as with agarics.

_Illustrations_: _Geastrum triplex_--Hvass 307; LH 221; NB 155¹.
_Scleroderma citrinum_--Hvass 320; LH 223; NB 155⁵; WD 111³.

Stinkhorns

~Phallus impudicus~ Persoon

Common stinkhorn

_Fruit-body_: Egg: 30-60 mm in diameter--then _Cap_: 25-40 mm and
_Stem_: width 18-25 mm; length 100-150 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: commencing as a white, silky egg-like structure full of
jelly in which is embedded a conical cap attached only at its apex to
a cylindrical white, spongy, hollow stem.

Cap: covered in a slimy mass of dark olive-coloured spores at
maturity.

Stem: cylindrical, rapidly elongating, white, spongy and hollow.

Spore-mass: dark olive-green, smelling strongly, foetid.

Spores: small, pale olive, oblong and 3-5 × 2 µm in size.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common from summer to autumn on the ground
in woods and in gardens.

_General Information_: Easily recognised by its shape and evil smell
which can be detected at some distance. The unburst eggs are called
‘witches eggs’. Under favourable conditions the egg bursts and the
stem elongates carrying the cap and spore-mass with it. The spore-mass
is attractive to flies and they feed upon it; spores stick to their
feet and so are transported from one place to another.

The very similar _P. hadriani_ Persoon is frequently found in
sand-dunes; it differs in having a lilaceous colour to the egg. An
interesting variety of the common stinkhorn is uncommonly found and
differs in having a skirt-like frill beneath the cap. The jelly in the
egg is a water-store and is used by the fungus to expand rapidly.

~Mutinus caninus~ (Persoon) Fries, the ‘Dogs stinkhorn’, is found
around old stumps or on piles of leaves. It has the spore-mass
covering an orange-red pear-shaped cap which is itself fused to the
stem.

The stinkhorns and their allies appear to be commoner in warmer
countries where they take on many bizarre shapes. Other than the three
species noted above stinkhorns are rarely found in this country, but
when they are it would appear they have been introduced with foreign
imports such as timber, ornamental plants, vegetables etc.

Eggs of phalloids brought into the laboratory can be surrounded by wet
tissues or blotting paper and then allowed to develop further in a
dish or box. Provided the skin covering the spores is not broken or
injured the fungus will not smell and therefore before it becomes
unpleasant, the whole mechanism of expansion can be studied.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 323; LH 215; NB 153¹; WD 108¹.

Birds nest fungi

~Crucibulum laeve~ (de Candolle) Kambly

_Fruit-body_: diameter 8-12 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: ochraceous brown or sand-colour, downy and then smooth,
truncate, cup-shaped with the cup at first closed by a yellowish
membrane which finally splits to expose a group of pale brown or dingy
whitish, circular, lens-shaped ‘eggs’ (peridioles), scattered on a
shiny pale ochraceous interior.

Spores: medium-sized, in packets within ‘eggs’, ellipsoid, hyaline,
smooth and 8-10 × 4-6 µm in size.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common in crowded groups on dead twigs,
fern stems, straw and wheat stubble.

_General Information_: _Cyathus_ differs from _Crucibulum_ in the more
complex fruit-body which consists of three layers, and the peridioles
forming on distinct stalks. Two species are frequently seen: _Cyathus
striatus_ Persoon has a grey, fluted inner surface to the cup and
strongly hairy red-brown outer surface; the spores measure 16-22 ×
9-10 µm. _Cyathus olla_ Persoon has a smooth, shiny, grey surface and
minutely silky, yellowish grey outer surface. _C. striatus_ is found
on twigs, and about dead stumps; _C. olla_ is more frequent in gardens
on herbaceous debris and dead pieces of perennial flowers--or even in
plant pots.

~Sphaerobolus stellatus~ Persoon is more distantly related and grows
on decaying leaves, bracken fronds, partially buried twigs and dung.
It is an intriguing fungus because it possesses a remarkable
spore-dispersal mechanism. The inner layer of the fruit-body when ripe
suddenly turns inside out catapulting the inner spore-mass to
distances of anything up to 4,200 mm, that is a distance of 1,000
times the size of the fruit-body. The fruit-body is externally whitish
or pale yellow, but this layer splits into lobes like a star exposing
the bright orange inner surface and pale spore-mass.

_Illustrations_: _Crucibulum laeve_--LH 223; WD 111⁷. _Cyathus
striatus_--LH 223; WD 111⁹. _Sphaerobolus stellatus_--LH 223; WD 111⁵.

E. CUP FUNGI AND ALLIES

_General Notes._

The Ascomycetes differ from all the other fungi so far dealt with in that the spores develop enclosed in a microscopic envelope or sac--called the ascus. Usually eight spores are produced in each ascus and they are often dispersed violently into the air. Elf-cups and morels are typical Ascomycetes, but the group also includes innumerable minute forms of the microscopic fungi, small discs, minute flask-like structures, some of which are parasitic on leaves and stems of higher plants. In number the large species of Ascomycetes are few when compared with the others and therefore can only be given but a mention in the present account. When collected the Ascomycetes can be distinguished from the Basidiomycetes by simply examining a slice of the spore-producing tissue where the tell-tale asci will be seen (see p. 21). If the fruit-body is placed in a tin when collected and opened in a warm room all the mature asci explode at once producing a cloud of spores visible in the air immediately over the fruit-body.

~Aleuria aurantia~ (Fries) Fuckel

Orange-peel fungus or Scarlet elf-cup

_Fruit-body_: diameter 25-50 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: cup-shaped then undulating and becoming flattened,
irregular, sometimes split and lacking a stem.

Inner surface: bright orange.

Outer surface: whitish and minutely downy.

Flesh: thin and white.

Spores: very long, ellipsoid, ornamented with a coarse network which
projects at each end, and 17-24 × 9-11 µm in size; eight contained in
an elongate, cylindric ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on bare soil in woods and open
spaces, on road verges, between stone sets and on lawns.

~Peziza repanda~ Persoon

Elf-cup

_Fruit-body_: diameter 20-50 mm.

_Description_: Plate 67.

Fruit-body: cup-shaped with white, crenulate margin, becoming expanded
and undulating, and lacking a stem.

Inner surface: light chestnut brown.

Outer surface: whitish or pale fawn and finely scurfy.

Flesh: whitish or fawn, and appearing as if layered.

Spores: very long, ellipsoid, smooth and 15-16 × 9-10 µm in size;
eight contained in an elongate, cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: On bare soil in woods, farm-yards,
hedgerows, etc.

_General Information_: There are many different species of _Peziza_
classified on the shape and ornamentation of the spores and colour of
the fruit-body--see pp. 216 and 220. _P. badia_ is darker, although
similar in other ways; it is found on pathsides in woods and has
roughened spores.

~Morchella esculenta~ St Amans

Common morel

_Cap_: width 30-40 mm; length 35-60 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length
50-80 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: consisting of a head with a honeycomb-like arrangement of
narrow ridges surrounding angular and often slightly elongated,
shallow pits, on a cylindric or swollen stem.

Cap: brownish grey then reddish brown or ochraceous brown.

Stem: cylindrical or slightly enlarged at the base, brittle, hollow,
minutely scurfy and/or furrowed.

Flesh: ochraceous.

Spore-print: cream.

Spores: very long, broadly ellipsoid, pale honey, smooth but for some
small granules at each end, and 16-23 × 11-14 µm in size; eight
contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Infrequent in gardens, on river-banks,
sites of bonfires, etc., in spring.

_Illustrations_: F7^{c}; LH 41; NB 41³.

~Gyromirta esculenta~ (Persoon) Fries

Turban-fungus

_Cap_: width 30-40 mm; length 35-45 mm. _Stem_: width 15-25 mm; length
50-80 mm.

_Description_: Plate 68.

Fruit-body: consisting of a subglobose, more or less lobed, wrinkled
and convoluted head on a short stem.

Cap: yellow-brown to reddish brown and becoming hollow or chambered.

Stem: flesh-coloured or creamy grey and powdery.

Flesh: yellow-buff, darker in the cap.

Spores: very long, ellipsoid, usually containing two or more yellowish
oil drops and 18-22 × 9-12 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate
cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is found in the spring, under
conifers, but also on railway embankments, river banks, etc. This
fungus is also known as the ‘Lorel’ or ‘Elephant’s ears’.

_General Information_: _Mitromorpha semilibera_ (Fries) Léville
differs from species of _Morchella_ in that the head is for its
greater length free from the stalk. It is frequently found in the
spring in gardens, tennis courts, etc.

_Illustrations_: G. esculenta--F 6^{d}; Hvass 327; LH 39.

~Helvella crispa~ Fries

Common white helvella

_Cap_: width 18-28 mm. _Stem_: width 8-12 mm; length 40-65 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: consisting of a saddle-shaped cap on a short stem.

Cap: convoluted towards the centre, two lobed, wavy at the margin,
white or cream-coloured.

Stem: cylindric and hollow, white or cream-coloured and unevenly and
deeply longitudinally furrowed.

Flesh: thin and pale.

Spores: very long, broadly ellipsoid, with a large central oil drop
and 18-20 × 10-13 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate
cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Frequent in damp woods with deciduous
trees, from early summer until autumn.

_General Information_: Plate 68.

~Helvella lacunosa~ Fries, ‘Slate grey Helvella’ is similar in stature
but differs in being ash-grey or dark grey.

~Leptopodia elastica~ (St Amans) Boudier is better placed in the genus
_Helvella_. It differs in having a slender, smooth, cylindric stem and
irregularly 2-3 lobed, yellow or tan-coloured cap.

~Cyathipodia macropus~ (Fries) Dennis is sometimes placed in
_Helvella_. It differs in having a grey cup-shaped cap on a long,
slender stem. The spore-bearing tissue in the last species is the
inner surface of the cup whilst in _Helvella_ and _Leptopodia_ it is
on the outer surface of the saddle-like cap.

~Mitrula paludosa~ Fries, the ‘Bog beacon’, is a similar fungus
growing in spring to early autumn on old leaves and detritus in
swamps. It is widespread and has a bright orange head on a white
stem--as the common name might suggest. It grows to a height of about
20 mm.

_Illustrations_: _H. crispa_--F 6^{e}; Hvass 331; LH 41. _H.
lacunosa_--F 6^{b}; Hvass 330; LH 39; NB 153⁴. _L. elastica_--Hvass
332; LH 39. _C. macropus_--F 6^{a}; LH 39.

~Rhizina undulata~

Pine fire fungus

_Fruit-body_: width 20-60 mm, or several coalescing.

_Description_: Plate 69.

Fruit-body: chestnut-brown to rust colour with a distinct white or
cream margin, fleshy, smooth, concave and thrown up into irregular
humps.

Stem: lacking, but undersurface pale, ochraceous, and bearing numerous
cylindrical branched, whitish root-like structures, 1-2 mm thick.

Flesh: reddish brown, tough and fibrous.

Spores: very, very long, spindle-shaped with two or more internal
droplets, with hyaline extensions at each end, and 22-40 × 8-11 µm in
size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Infrequent in pine woods but common at the
sites of bonfires in pine woodlands.

~Daldinia concentrica~ (Fries) Cesati & de Notaris

Cramp-balls

_Fruit-body_: diameter 20-40 mm × 20-60 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: date-brown at first finally black or dark brownish black,
tough, minutely pimply over entire surface although at first covered
in a powdery dust of asexual spores (conidia).

Stem: lacking.

Flesh: pale grey or buff, concentrically zoned with darker purplish
black layers below which are small, black dots.

Spores: very long, black, ellipsoid with one flattened side and 12-17
× 6-9 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common on old deciduous wood, particularly
of ash and beech.

_General Information_: These two fungi are unrelated; the first is
related to the disc-fungi, like species of _Peziza_, whilst _Daldinia_
is related to the Dead man’s finger fungus. _Rhizina undulata_ has
been shown to be able to attack roots of pine or larch trees and cause
death. _Daldinia_ is a pure saprophyte rotting down wood into more
simple compounds later to be incorporated into the soil-system. The
common name ‘Cramp-balls’ refers to the old belief that if one of the
fruit-bodies is carried in the pocket it saves the possessor from
cramp and rheumatism. The other common name for the same fungus is
‘King Alfred’s cakes’. The black colour of the fruit-body is like that
of charred cakes--resembling the cakes in the legend which King Alfred
allowed to burn.

_Illustrations_: _R. undulata_--LH 37; NB 111⁶. _D. concentrica_--F
7^{b}; LH 47; NB 147⁷.

~Xylosphaera polymorpha~ (Mérat) Dumortier

Dead man’s fingers

_Fruit-body_: width 10-20 mm; length 30-60 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: more or less club-shaped, irregularly or evenly lobed at
apex, at first light brown due to development of asexually produced
spores (conidia) but finally almost black.

Stem: black and short.

Flesh: white, fibrous and tough.

Crust: black, thin, pimply with the protruding tips of the perithecia,
and sometimes irregularly furrowed.

Spores: very long, fusiform with one flattened side, black and 20-32 ×
5-9 µm in size; eight contained in an elongate cylindrical ascus.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: Common either solitary or in clusters on
dead stumps or on buried wood, especially that of beech. This fungus
may be found throughout the year.

~Xylosphaera hypoxylon~ Dumortier

Stag’s horn fungus

_Fruit-body_: width 4-8 mm; length 25-60 mm.

_Description_: Plate 69.

Fruit-body: slender, subcylindrical to strap-shaped and usually forked
repeatedly near the tip, white at first due to production of conidia
and then black or dark brown and covered in pimples.

Stem: black and hairy.

Spores: very long, bean-shaped, black and 11-14 × 5-6 µm in size;
eight in an elongate ascus.

_General Information_: Another name for _X. hypoxylon_ is
‘Candle-snuff fungus’. Other club-shaped ascomycetes include members
of the genus _Geoglossum_ (already mentioned p. 172) and members of
the genus _Cordyceps_. Plate 69.

~Cordyceps militaris~ (St Amans) Link, the ‘Scarlet caterpillar
fungus’, produces orange-red or orange, minutely roughened
fruit-bodies up to 50 mm high, which grow on larvae and pupae of moths
buried in the soil. It is not infrequent late in the autumn in pasture
land.

~C. ophioglossoides~ (Fries) Link produces long (up to 100 mm high)
yellow stemmed, dark and rough headed fruit-bodies growing on the
subterranean fungus _Elaphomyces_--see p. 244.

~C. capitata~ (Fries) Link also grows on fungi beneath the soil
surface but has a rounded head. _Leotia lubrica_ Persoon the ‘Gum-drop
fungus’ is similarly coloured but grows on soil under trees and is
gelatinous. It grows in autumn and is quite common and in fact more
related to the Discomycetes than to _Cordyceps_.

_Illustrations_: _X. polymorpha_--F 7^{d}; LH 47; NB 147⁶. _X.
hypoxylon_--F 7^{e}; LH 47; NB 147⁵. _C. militaris_--LH 48.

F. SPECIALIZED HABITATS

(i) Fungi of dung and straw heaps

~Bolbitius vitellinus~ (Fries) Fries

Yellow cow-pat toadstool

_Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 2-5 mm; length 30-60 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: chrome-yellow or lemon-yellow when young, paling with age at
margin to become cinnamon-buff, bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to
become plane or slightly umbonate, smooth, viscid but soon drying;
margin striate then radially grooved, often split and the whole cap
soon collapsing.

Stem: slender, whitish, cream colour to pale yellow, at apex covered
in small, white floccose scales but downy at the base, fragile and
soon collapsing.

Gills: adnexed or free, cinnamon-buff, thin and crowded.

Flesh: yellowish, very thin and lacking distinct smell.

Spore print: rust-brown.

Spores: long, yellow-brown under the microscope, ellipsoid with a very
distinct germ-pore about 13 × 8 µm in size (11-15 × 6-9 µm).

Facial cystidia: rare, balloon-shaped.

Marginal cystidia: swollen, flask-shaped with a variable, elongate
neck.

_General Information_: This fungus is common on horse droppings or
other manures, but it may also be found amongst grass in pastures and
in sand-dunes, and gardens on piles of rotting grass stems or straw.
It is easily recognised by the colour and rapid expansion of the cap
and the sudden collapse of the whole fruit-body. ‘Vitellinus’ means
yolk of an egg and refers to the persistently bright yellow
cap-centre, so obvious even when the fruit-body collapses. This
collapsing is not one of autodigestion as described for members of the
genus _Coprinus_. It is variable both in size and habitat, and I even
have records of the fungus growing within herbaceous stems.

_Illustrations_: LH 153; WD 80⁶.

~Stropharia semiglobata~ (Fries) Quélet

Dung-roundhead

_Cap_: width 10-35 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 25-50 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: hemispherical or slightly umbonate, sometimes flattened and
hardly expanding even with age, very viscid, smooth, pale yellow-ochre
or yellowish tan.

Stem: slender, straight, white then yellowish, smooth, viscid, but
then dry and shiny below an imperfectly formed, thin ring.

Gills: adnate, almost triangular in shape, crowded, dark brown to
purplish black, but with ochraceous areas at maturity.

Flesh: pale ochre.

Spore-print: purplish brown.

Spores: very long, dark brown under the microscope, smooth, ellipsoid
with large germ-pore and about 18 × 10 µm in size (17-20 × 9-10 µm).

Facial cystidia: spindle-shaped, thin-walled and filled with amorphous
contents which become yellow in solutions containing ammonia.

Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped or flask-shaped, numerous,
thin-walled and typically yellowing as above.

_General Information_: ‘Semiglobata’ means hemispherical and refers to
the shape of the cap of _S. semiglobata_; it is a very variable fungus
in both size of the cap and the prominence of the ring. The
Dung-roundhead grows only on dung which is acidic in its soil status,
whilst _Panaeolus semiovatus_ (Fries) Lundell next described (p. 210)
grows on slightly to distinctly base-rich dung. This may explain why
in Britain the Dung-roundhead is the commoner of the two species.
However, _P. semiovatus_ was formerly placed in the genus _Stropharia_
because of its blackish spores and distinct ring. The spores of
_Stropharia_ in the mass are violaceous black whilst those of _P.
semiovatus_ are brownish black. Under the microscope they are also
differently coloured and have different chemical compositions as their
reaction with dilute solutions of ammonia shows; the spores of the
first species turn purplish olive in ammonia and those of the second
species become very dark brown.

_Illustrations_: F 33^{b}; Hvass 171; LH 153; NB 31⁵; WD 75³.

Mottle-gills--on dung from Spring until Autumn.

~Panaeolus semiovatus~ (Fries) Lundell

_Cap_: width 20-70 mm. _Stem_: width 5-10 mm; length 80-160 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: oval or bell-shaped, not expanding, dingy whitish or pale clay
colour, smooth, slimy when moist, but soon drying and then becoming
shiny, often wrinkled and cracked, and ornamented with fragments of
veil at the margin.

Stem: dull, straight, rather rigid, tapering upwards, white, and
striate at apex above a whitish erect and membranous, often
collapsing, ring; yellowish below the ring and whitish and cottony at
the slightly swollen base.

Gills: adnate, greyish then black, mottled and crowded.

Flesh: whitish or pale ochre.

Spore-print: black.

Spores: very long, very dark brown under the microscope with large
obvious germ-pore and 18 × 10 µm (16-20 × 9-11 µm) in size.

Facial cystidia: flask-shaped and with amorphous contents.

Marginal cystidia: numerous, flask-shaped.

~Panaeolus sphinctrinus~ (Fries) Quélet

_Cap_: width 15-35 mm. _Stem_: width 3-6 mm; length 60-95 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: bell-shaped, hardly expanding, expallent, dark grey to olivaceous
black, much paler when dry and zoned when half dry; margin ornamented
with a white fringe of veil fragments.

Stem: long, slender, straight, rather rigid but fragile, grey and
completely powdered with white.

Gills: adnate, crowded and grey then blackened, mottled throughout
except at the white fringed edge.

Flesh: reddish brown.

Spore-print: black.

Spores: long, very dark brown under the microscope, broadly
lemon-shaped with large germ-pore, smooth and 14-15 × 9-10 µm in size
(14-19 × 8-10 × 10-12 µm).

Facial cystidia: absent.

Marginal cystidia: numerous, cylindrical, flexuous and hyaline.

General Information: _P. sphinctrinus_ is recognised by the overall
grey colouration and very distinct white fringe to the cap-margin.

_P. campanulatus_ (Fries) Quélet which is said to be common is in
fact infrequent and many records really refer to _P. sphinctrinus_.
The word _semiovatus_ means half ovate and refers to the shape of the
cap in _P. semiovatus_. _Sphinctrinus_ means banded, referring to the
zoned cap of the fungus when it is partially dry.

_Illustrations_: _P. semiovatus_--LH 145; WD 77³. _P.
sphinctrinus_--NB 41⁵; WD 78¹.

~Coprinus cinereus~ (Fries) S. F. Gray

Dung-heap ink-cap

_Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 50-100 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: oval then rapidly expanding, covered at first in a mass of dense,
white or greyish woolly scales which break up into patches and finally
leave the cap shiny, brownish grey at centre and striate and dark grey
at the margin.

Stem: white, covered particularly towards the base with white, woolly
scales, long, fragile, tapering upwards and at the base often
elongated into a ‘tap root’ buried in the dung.

Gills: free, white but then rapidly dissolving into a black liquid.

Flesh: thin and whitish.

Spore-print: violaceous black.

Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid, smooth with a distinct germ-pore and
10-12 × 5-6 µm in size.

Facial cystidia: absent.

Marginal cystidia: inflated and large.

_General Information_: It is found on manure heaps, on straw dung and
on silage heaps: very common throughout the year.

_C. macrocephalus_ (Berkeley) Berkeley is very closely related to _C.
cinereus_, but differs in having much larger spores over 12-15 × 7-9
µm, a long cap and a stem which lacks a rooting base.

_Coprinus radiatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray is smaller in stature and also
differs in spore-size (11-14 × 6-7 µm). _C. pseudoradiatus_ Kühner &
Josserand is minute and has even smaller spores (7-9 × 4-5 µm). The
dung-heap ink-cap has long been used by scientists in genetic studies,
usually under the name of _C. lagopus_ (Fries) Fries. However, this
latter species, although similar, grows only on woodland detritus; it
has narrower spores. The dung-heap ink-cap may be referred to in other
books as _C. fimetarius_ Fries or _C. macrorhizus_ (Fries) Rea and
whilst _cinereus_ means grey referring to the colour, _fimetarius_
means dung--from the habitat, and _macrorhizus_ refers to the long
rooting base found in some specimens.

_Illustrations_: LH 137; NB 41¹⁰; WD 81⁴.

The genus _Coprinus_--or Ink-caps

The genus _Coprinus_ is easily recognised from all other agarics by the structure and development of the fruit-body. In the field, most species of the genus can be recognised by the gradual conversion of the gills, and often the cap tissue into a black liquid resembling ink--hence the name inky-caps. The conversion of the gills to an inky mass is called autodigestion and the process is complete within a few hours; this mechanism enables spores to be dispersed immediately they have ripened. Unlike other agarics the spores are not shot off into the spaces between the gills, but directly into the air. The gills are parallel-sided in _Coprinus_ and not wedge-shaped as in more normal agarics, and in order to achieve spore dispersal the gills must disintegrate; Coprini are very specialised.

_Coprinus_ is a large genus with over seventy members in the British Isles, many of which are strictly dung-loving. It is impossible to give more than one example in full here, for although many of the large species can be recognised on sight the smaller ones require the aid of a microscope. The interested student must therefore refer to more advanced texts, but in order to demonstrate the diversity of the Coprini and how they are classified the following key to the sections of _Coprinus_ will be found useful.

1. Cap naked of any veil fragments, either smooth or covered in minute
hairs 2

Cap covered when young by powdery or hairy veil, particles of which
either may persist on the cap until maturity or may disappear
quickly 3

2. Cap completely naked--group Nudi, e.g. _C. miser_ (Karsten) Karsten

Cap with hairs giving it a frosted appearance--group Setulosi, e.g.
_C. ephemerus_ (Fries) Fries, _C. pellucidus_ Karsten and _C.
bisporus_ J. Lange

3. Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of rounded cells
giving the cap a floccose powdery appearance--group Vestiti, e.g.
_C. patouillardii_ Quélet, _C. niveus_ (Fries) Fries and _C.
ephemeroides_ (Fries) Fries

Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of elongate cells,
either like thin-hairs or strings of sausages 4

4. Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of strings of
sausage-shaped cells--group Lanatuli, e.g. _C. cinereus_, _C.
pseudoradiatus_, _C. radiatus_ (see p. 211)

Veil on the cap composed under the microscope of thick- or
thin-walled, flexuous or straight, filamentous, hardly inflated
cells--group Impexi, e.g. _C. filamentifer_ Kühner, _C.
vermiculifer_ Dennis.

General notes on dung-loving fungi and their habitats

Dung fungi are highly satisfactory for demonstrating the diversity and morphology of a group of related organisms within a single ecological system, as representatives of most of the major groups of fungi usually grow on dung after a period of incubation. Dung will always produce characteristic fungi whatever time of year it is collected.

Dung is best incubated in a light place, for example on a window sill, in a warm room on layers of blotting paper or other absorbent material. For rabbit-pellets and samples of similar size petri-dishes are ideal, but for cow, horse and similar types of dung large covered dishes such as casseroles or sandwich containers are very good. Samples should not be kept in airtight containers for long periods of time as under such conditions animal life present rapidly breaks down the dung and induces anaerobic conditions. Instead larvae and earthworms should be excluded from the sample as they decompose the dung and inhibit fungal growth but their activity can be reduced, if causing a problem, by spraying the sample lightly with a proprietary fly-kill aerosol.

By keeping the dung under constant observation during incubation a whole succession of fungi can be seen. Thus the first fungi to appear are the moulds which although numerous need a microscope for their identification. The moulds are followed by a series of Ascomycetes (_Sporormia_ & _Sordaria_ with flask-shaped fruit-bodies and _Iodophanus_, _Coprobia_ and _Cheilymenia_ with disc-shaped fruit-bodies), which are best sought with the use of a powerful hand-lens or a stereoscopic binocular microscope when their full beauty will be revealed. However, because they need the aid of instruments even to see them they cannot be considered larger fungi. The fruit-bodies of the Basidiomycetes are readily seen with the naked eye, but a hand-lens is still very useful for observing features of the cap and stem, particularly the veil characters. The Basidiomycetes usually conclude the succession of fungi found on dung and soon after this state the dung is colonised by mosses and higher plants and later it is fully incorporated into the soil.

Dung is a very useful substrate for studying succession. However, equally interesting results can be obtained from observing the fungi which appear on a stump, colonise a newly laid lawn, or indeed those growing on refuse such as a cast-out rug; microscopic and larger fungi are all to be found.

If the dung cannot be incubated immediately it should be dried quickly, for most dung-fungi will survive such treatment and grow when the sample is remoistened. The blotting-paper on which the dung is placed should be kept moist throughout the incubation period.

One large discomycete (up to 80 mm across) occurring on manure-heaps must, however, be mentioned, this is _Peziza vesiculosa_ St Amans (see p. 200); the inner surface of this cup-fungus becomes detached from the flesh at maturity and forms blisters.

(ii) Fungi of bonfire-sites

~Pholiota highlandensis~ (Peck) A. H. Smith

Charcoal pholiota

_Cap_: width 20-50 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 25-60 mm.

_Description_: Plate 73.

Cap: convex then flattened and slightly umbonate, smooth, very sticky
at first, but becoming shiny when dry, orange-yellow to sand-colour;
the margin is first incurved and ornamented with filaments from the
veil, but these are soon lost.

Stem: dirty yellow, darker towards the base, cylindric or narrowed
downwards and covered in small fibrillose scales.

Gills: clay-coloured then dull brown, adnate and crowded.

Flesh: yellowish.

Spore-print: dull rust-brown.

Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, smooth, dull brown under the
microscope and 7-8 × 3-4 µm in size.

Facial cystidia: spindle-shaped with obtuse apex.

Marginal cystidia: similar to facial cystidia but usually smaller.

_General Information_: This fungus which occurs from spring to autumn
is recognised by the habitat, colour of the fruit-body and the
spore-size. It is known in many books as _Flammula carbonaria_
(Fries) Kummer, but the genus _Flammula_ is no longer used for it
refers to a flowering plant in the buttercup family.

_P. highlandensis_ is the same fungus as that referred to as _Pholiota
carbonaria_ by European Mycologists, but this name cannot be used for
it refers to an entirely different N. American species.
‘Highlandensis’, in fact, refers to the locality where the present
fungus was first found in the United States of America. The true _P.
carbonaria_ A. H. Smith has only been found once in Europe and this
only recently in the south of England. It differs in the reddish
orange scales on the stem; indeed it is a much brighter fungus than
the common charcoal _Pholiota_.

~Tephrocybe anthracophila~ (Lasch) P. D. Orton

_Cap_: width 1-4 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 2-5 mm.

_Description_: Plate 73.

Cap: blackish when wet, drying sooty brown, slightly depressed in the
centre, smooth, and viscid.

Stem: sooty brown, tough and smooth.

Flesh: sooty brown.

Gills: whitish then grey, adnate and not very crowded.

Spores: medium sized, subglobose, 4-6 × 4-5 µm in diameter and
minutely roughened.

Spore-print: white, not blueing in solutions of iodine.

_General Information_: _T. atrata_ also grows on burnt soil and is
very closely related, but differs in its spores being broadly
ellipsoid and smooth. _Mycena leucogala_ also grows on burnt soil (see
p. 88).

_Illustrations_: _T. anthracophila_--LH 83. _T. atrata_--WD 4^{b}.

~Psathyrella pennata~ (Fries) Pearson & Dennis

Bonfire brittle-cap

_Cap_: width 10-30 mm. _Stem_: width 1-3 mm; length 30-40 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: conical or bell-shaped then expanding and slightly umbonate,
whitish because of a coating of dense fibrils, but soon becoming
brownish as these are lost.

Stem: short, stout, white and densely floccose.

Gills: slightly adnate, pale brownish grey with pink tinge, then
dark-brown.

Spore-print: purplish brown.

Spores: medium sized, oval, ellipsoid with an obvious germ-pore,
purplish brown under the microscope and 8-9 × 4-5 µm in size.

Marginal & facial cystidia: flask-shaped, hyaline with either a short
or long neck.

The brown-spored _Hebeloma anthracophila_ Maire is similar.

~Coprinus angulatus~ Peck

Bonfire ink-cap

_Cap_: width 4-25 mm. _Stem_: 1-3 mm; length 15-30 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: dark red-brown at first, then orange-brown, especially at the
margin and appearing as if frosted all over, conical at first but
rapidly expanding at the margin and becoming grey-brown, strongly
striate and deliquescent, leaving finally only a central red-brown
umbo.

Stem: white and minutely hairy.

Gills: free, dirty whitish then black.

Spore-print: black-brown.

Spores: medium sized, dark brown under the microscope, lobed like the
hat of a bishop and 8-11 × 6-8 × 5-7 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: bottle-shaped, very variable.

Facial cystidia: similar to marginal cystidia.

_General Information_: It must be noted that this fungus has spores
which require three quite different measurements to describe the
dimension. Another species of _Coprinus_ found on burnt soil is _C.
lagopides_ Karsten which resembles _C. cinereus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
(p. 211); it is typified, however, by the rounded spores.

General notes on fungi of burnt sites

Several common fungi found at the sites of bonfires have their closest relatives amongst various groups of microscopic fungi more than amongst the large forms already discussed. Keeping a close watch at the site of a former bonfire day by day, week by week and month by month is very rewarding and shows a further example, like the dung habitat, of a tightly knit community of various groups of fungi.

_Peziza repanda_ Persoon has been discussed in detail above (p. 200); its close relatives _P. petersii_ Berkeley & Curtis (brown with grey tints and with spores finely warted and measuring 10-12 × 5-6 µm), _P. praetervisa_ Bresadola (violet or mauve and with spores finely warted and measuring 11-13 × 6-8 µm), _P. violacea_ Persoon (dark violet with smooth spores measuring 13-15 × 7-9 µm) and _P. echinospora_ Karsten (dark chocolate brown with spores densely warted and 14-18 × 7-10 µm in size) all grow on the sites of old bonfires or around charred root stumps. _Rhizina undulata_ also found by charred stumps has been described on p. 203. These are large to medium sized disc-fungi, but there are many much smaller species which cannot be dealt with here, such as species of _Anthracobia_ and _Trichophaea_. Pyrenomycetes are also found on charred wood and soil. Probably the commonest species of fungus met with is a pale reddish orange to rose-pink disc-fungus seated on a white mycelial mat; this is _Pyronema omphalodes_ (St Amans) Fuckel. _Morchella esculenta_ St Amans and _M. elata_ Fries (see p. 200) appear to grow on the sites of garden bonfires or where cinders have been spread on the soil surface. The stimulus for fruiting appears to be due to the release of mineral nutrients during the process of burning. Competition from other fungi appears to be reduced so rapid colonisation by the bonfire fungi (carbonicoles) after the period of sterilisation ensures their development. Many similar fungi were found about bomb- and shell-craters on the continent during the two World Wars.

One microscope fungus, however, must be mentioned when considering bonfires and that is _Neurospora sitophila_ Shear & Dodge so much used in genetical studies. It can be found as the conidial state on burnt soil and is called ‘Baker’s mould’ because it is frequently found growing on refuse in the hot moist conditions of bakers’ kitchens.

(iii) Fungi of bogs and marshes

(a) _Sphagnum_ bogs

~Hypholoma elongatum~ (Fries) Ricken

_Cap_: width 12-20 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-80 mm.

_Description_: Plate 75.

Cap: bell-shaped but rapidly expanding to become plane, honey-yellow
with a greyish green tint, slightly striate at the margin and also
with a few remnants of a fibrillose veil when very young, but these
are soon lost.

Stem: slender, smooth, whitish at the apex and yellow-brown or
honey-yellow below.

Gills: adnate and distant, pale ochraceous honey-yellow then lilaceous
grey and finally sepia.

Flesh: yellowish in the cap, red-brown in the stem and lacking a
distinct smell.

Spore-print: purplish brown.

Spores: long, ellipsoid, fairly thick-walled, olivaceous brown under
the microscope and with a small germ-pore, smooth and 10-12 × 6-7 µm
in size.

Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped and hyaline.

Facial cystidia: flask-shaped with contents which turn yellowish in
solutions containing ammonia.

_General Information_: This fungus which appears from early summer to
late autumn is recognised by the almost uniform ochraceous colour with
hint of olive and its habit of growing in troops. The word elongatum
means elongated and refers to the shape of the stem which pushes up
through the _Sphagnum_ and in order to disperse its spores it must
elongate so that it just pushes up above the bog-surface. _H.
polytrichi_ is closely related to _H. elongatum_ but has a paler cap
and stem and it grows in moss, particularly _Polytrichum_ in
woodlands; the spores of _H. polytrichi_ are paler, slightly narrower
and slightly thinner, but they have a much more distinct germ-pore.

Both the above species have been formerly placed in _Psilocybe_, but
they are more correctly classified in _Hypholoma_ along with the
sulphur-tuft fungus (see p. 64) because of the cortina-like veil and
specialised facial cystidia.

_Illustrations_: WD 78⁵.

~Tephrocybe palustris~ (Peck) Donk

_Cap_: width 12-30 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-75 mm.

_Description_: Plate 75.

Cap: bell-shaped then plane-convex, but finally depressed at centre,
watery buff to greyish with flush of ochre or smoky grey, striate to
centre when moist, but drying out non-striate and uniformly ochraceous
buff.

Stem: thin, rather long, smooth, similarly coloured to the cap or
paler, fragile and whitish woolly at the base.

Gills: dirty whitish, adnate with a tooth and not very crowded.

Flesh: thin, watery buff, drying out ochraceous and with a strong
smell of new meal.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, oval, not turning
blue-grey in solutions of iodine, and 6-7 × 4-5 µm in size.

Marginal and facial cystidia: absent.

_General Information_: This fungus which grows from late spring to
autumn is usually associated with a greying and finally a killing of
the _Sphagnum_, noticeable from a distance even in the absence of the
fruiting-bodies as paler patches in the rich green bog. Another agaric
found only in _Sphagnum_ bogs is _Omphalina sphagnicola_ (Berkeley)
Moser with decurrent gills and long, elongate, hyaline spores.

At the margin of _Sphagnum_ bogs, the fungus _Mycena bulbosa_ can be
found attached to the base of tufts of rushes.

Potting up a sward of _Sphagnum_ and retaining it in a warm greenhouse
during winter favours the bog agarics to fruit when other larger fungi
are not available.

~Mycena bulbosa~ (Cejp) Kühner

_Cap_: width 3-6 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-15 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: dirty white, greyish and very gelatinous.

Stem: very thin, hyaline with a very distinct hairy, basal disc.

Gills: crowded, adnexed, very short and whitish.

Spore-print: white, but because it is so small it is often difficult
to see.

Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, ellipsoid, not
blueing in solutions of iodine, and 8-10 × 4 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: clavate or ventricose, hyaline and smooth.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_Illustrations_: T. palustris LH 83.

~Galerina paludosa~ (Fries) Kühner

_Cap_: width 10-20 mm. _Stem_: width 3-5 mm; length 50-90 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: conico-convex expanding slightly but retaining the central umbo,
striate to half-way, sand-colour to red-brown, hygrophanous, minutely
floccose because of remnants of veil distributed over its surface, but
soon becoming smooth.

Stem: long, buried amongst the _Sphagnum_, red-brown and flecked with
white fibrils, except at the finely hairy apex, the fibrils typically
form a distinct but easily lost ring.

Gills: almost horizontal, adnate to subdecurrent, pale at first and
then rust-brown.

Spore-print: rust-brown.

Spores: medium-sized, ovate to slightly lemon-shaped, minutely warty,
honey-brown under the microscope and about 10 × 6 µm in size, (9-11 ×
6-7 µm).

Facial cystidia: absent.

Marginal cystidia: hyaline, almost cylindrical or bottle-shaped with
an inflated base.

_General Information_: This species grows from spring to early autumn
in _Sphagnum_ bogs; several other species of _Galerina_ are also found
in the same localities:--

(i) _G. sphagnorum_ (Fries) Kühner has a convex cap, fibrillose silky
and ochraceous brown stem, but it lacks the ring-zone so typical of
_G. paludosa_. The smell is like that of meal when crushed and the
gills are emarginate.

(ii) _G. tibiicystis_ (Atkinson) Kühner has a rapidly expanding cap
which becomes plano-convex or depressed at maturity; it also lacks a
ring-zone, but the stem in this species is finely hairy because of the
presence of numerous pin-shaped cells which can be seen only with the
aid of a lens. The gills are broadly adnate.

_Illustrations_: _G. paludosa_--LH 175.

(b) Alder-carrs

~Naucoria escharoides~ (Fries) Kummer

_Cap_: width 12-30 mm. _Stem_: width 1-3 mm; length 25-45 mm.

_Description_: Plate 76.

Cap: pale yellowish ochre, but becoming darker ochraceous with age,
scurfy, convex but then flattened, or with its edge upturned; the
margin is slightly striate when moist.

Stem: slender, pale to dirty yellowish ochre but darker brown at base,
slightly fibrillose, particularly at first because of filaments from a
veil, but these are soon lost.

Gills: pale tan to brownish ochre with a paler, floccose margin,
adnate and crowded.

Flesh: yellowish ochre but lacking a distinct smell.

Spore-print: clay-colour.

Spores: medium sized, almond-shaped, pale brown under the microscope,
warted and 10-11 × 5-6 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: swollen below, but drawn out into a hair-like apex.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_General Information_: Although this is a common species growing in
damp places under alder it is difficult except with an expert eye to
separate it from several closely related species which are also found
in similar places. At present it is not known whether these fungi are
favoured by the water-logged base-rich, reducing soils found nowhere
else except under alder, or if they have a special relationship with
the tree. There is ample evidence that soil conditions in alder woods
are rather different from those found in other woodlands, but whatever
the reason _Naucoria escharoides_ is only found under alder--in fact
this species has been placed in the genus _Alnicola_ because of this
character--_cola_ meaning inhabitant and _Alnus_ the tree of that
name. Willow-carrs have not been as extensively studied as alder-carrs
but there is evidence that a store of mycological information is still
to be obtained from these places. Several species of _Naucoria_ have
been described from only willow-carrs, while others are to be found
under both alder and willows; about eight species are known to grow
under alder. The word _escharoides_ means scab-like and refers to the
cap which when freshly collected is minutely scaly and appears scabby.

_Illustrations_: LH 163; WD 67¹.

(iv) Fungi of beds of herbaceous plants

Beds of herbaceous plants provide protection for many small agarics and collecting can be conducted in these situations from spring to early winter. The buffered environments under the herbs is humid and relatively still, and this allows the development of the small often delicate fruit-bodies of certain species to continue unimpeded. Nettle-beds or mixtures of nettle and dog’s mercury have very rich floras under the shelter of their leaves and stems, either on the bare soil or plant debris.

On herbaceous stems

~Coprinus urticicola~ (Berkeley & Broome) Buller

_Cap_: width 4-7 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-15 mm.

_Description_: Plate 76.

Cap: white then greyish, globose at first and then expanding to become
plane with upturned margin covered, at first, with scales from a veil
which at the centre are white-tipped with ochre.

Stem: white and slightly downy.

Spore-print: brownish black.

Spores: elliptic-ovoid, only slightly compressed with distinct
germ-pore, dark brown under the microscope and 6-8 × 5 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: ellipsoid to pyriform and hyaline.

Facial cystidia: elongate cylindric larger than marginal cystidia.

On bare soil

~Leptonia babingtonii~ (Bloxam) P. D. Orton

_Cap_: 5-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 20-50 mm.

_Description_: Plate 76.

Cap: grey to sepia or greyish brown entirely scaly-hairy, at first,
but then fibrillose.

Stem: silvery grey to grey-sepia and silky fibrillose.

Gills: greyish pink.

Spore-print: greyish pink.

Spores: very long, wavy angular in outline, very pale honey under the
microscope and 14-20 × 7-9 µm.

Marginal cystidia: club-shaped or balloon-shaped and hyaline.

Facial cystidia: absent.

So very different to other species of _Leptonia_ is it that it should
be classified in Dr. Pilát’s genus _Pouzaromyces_.

~Conocybe mairei~ Watling

_Cap_: width 5-10 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-40 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: pale to deep ochraceous or buff, minutely tomentose.

Stem: flexuous, whitish or very pale ochraceous.

Gills: pale buff then ochraceous.

Spore-print: ochraceous.

Spores: medium sized, ellipsoid or slightly almond-shaped with small
germ-pore and 6-8 × 3-4 µm in size.

~Flammulaster granulosa~ (J. Lange) Watling

_Cap_: 4-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 10-25 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: ochraceous to date-brown, darker at the centre and granular scaly
throughout.

Stem: similarly coloured to the cap and similarly roughened, except
for the slightly smoother paler apex.

Spores: ellipsoid to almond-shaped, very pale brown under the
microscope and 8-10 × 4-5 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: cylindric-wavy, hyaline.

Facial cystidia: absent.

Depending on the herbaceous constituents the fungus-flora will vary.
Certain species are found on all sorts of herbaceous debris, but
others are much more specific to their substrate preferences. Beds of
Butterbur, Coltsfoot or Impatiens are also good hunting places, as are
beds of sedges in fenland. In many of these localities agarics with
reduced fruit-bodies looking like disc-fungi are frequently seen. We
have already discussed the specific requirements of certain species of
_Marasmius_ (see p. 92).

(v) Fungi of moss-cushions

Many small species grow amongst moss cushions on tree trunks, tucked in crevices in walls or on the tops of old buildings. However, there is one genus of agarics, i.e. Galerina which is probably more typical than any other of such situations. There are many members of this genus whose small caps are found in the autumn pushing up through the moss plants. Plate 78.

~Galerina hypnorum~ (Fries) Kühner

_Cap_: width 4-6 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 20-40 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: hemispherical or bell-shaped, hygrophanous, orange-yellow,
sand-colour, smooth and striate almost to the cap-centre.

Stem: smooth and similarly coloured to the cap.

Gills: yellow-tawny then rust-coloured, adnate emarginate, rather
broad and somewhat distant.

Flesh: thin, yellow-tawny and with a smell of new meal.

Spore-print: rust-colour.

Spores: medium-sized, almond-shaped, golden yellow under the
microscope, slightly roughened and 10-11 × 6-7 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: flask-shaped or cylindrical with slight swelling at
the apex.

Facial cystidia: absent.

~Galerina mycenopsis~ (Fries) Kühner

_Cap_: width 6-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 30-60 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: similarly coloured to _G. hypnorum_, but with a few white silky
fibrils.

Stem: coloured as the cap, but with white silky fibrils when young.

Gills and flesh: as in _G. hypnorum_, but it has no smell.

Spore-print: rust-colour.

Spores: medium-sized, ellipsoid, pale golden yellow under the
microscope, smooth and 9-11 × 5-6 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: club-shaped, cylindrical and with distinct rounded
heads.

Facial cystidia: absent.