Chapter D: The Stomach Fungi (2)

_General Information_: _G. mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner is similar to or
slightly larger than _C. mycenopsis_, but differs in its dull
honey-coloured cap and stem, and distinctly roughened spores. _G.
calyptrata_ P. D. Orton is small and has been long confused with _G.
hypnorum_; it, however, is of a much brighter orange-colour, with
distinct white fibrils on the cap and has spores which have a distinct
envelope, sometimes separating as a loose covering. _G. vittaeformis_
(Fries) Moser is a red-brown fungus with 2-spored basidia, facial
cystidia, minutely hairy stem, and very rough spores; it grows in moss
in pastures as well as on moss-cushions.

(vi) Heath and mountain fungi

(a) Moorland fungi

~Marasmius androsaceus~ (Fries) Fries

Horse-hair toadstool

_Cap_: width 5-15 mm. _Stem_: width 1 mm; length 30-60 mm.

_Description_: Plate 77.

Cap: whitish to pale smoke-brown with a distinct wine-coloured tinge,
membranous, flattened, or umbilicate and radially wrinkled.

Stem: thread-like, black or very dark brown, horny and usually
springing from a black horse-hair-like mycelium.

Gills: whitish or dirty flesh-colour, adnate and crowded.

Flesh: white in the pileus and black in the stem.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium-sized, pip-shaped, not blueing in solutions containing
iodine and measuring 7-9 × 3-4 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: oval or ellipsoid, covered on the upper half with
small pimple-like projections.

Facial cystidia: absent.

_General Information_: This fungus is common in troops from late
summer until winter on dead and dying heather. It is also found in
woods on leaves and twigs, particularly in plantations on conifer
needles. It is easily recognised by the dark horse-hair-like stem
which becomes bent and twisted on drying and the small, pinkish
flesh-coloured cap. The word _androsaceus_ means, and refers to, the
stem which resembles the tough and wiry fronds of some of the red
algae, such as _Ahnfeldtia_ which is found around our sea-shores.

_Illustrations_: LH 115; NB 47¹; WD 24⁴.

~Omphalina ericetorum~ (Fries) M. Lange

_Cap_: width 5-20 mm. _Stem_: width 2 mm; length 10-20 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: variable in colour, straw-colour, cream-colour, bistre or grey,
convex then flat or slightly depressed, radially grooved to the centre
when moist; the margin is scalloped.

Stem: slender, similarly coloured to the cap, except for a brownish
wine-coloured zone at the very apex, thickened upwards and smooth with
a white and woolly base.

Gills: adnate to decurrent, white then cream-colour or yellowish,
triangular in shape, very distant and often connected by veins.

Flesh: pale cream-colour.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium sized, hyaline under the microscope, broadly ellipsoid,
or pip-shaped, not becoming bluish grey in solutions of iodine, 8-10 ×
5 µm in size.

Marginal and facial cystidia: absent.

_General Information_: This fungus is common and often in large troops
on peaty ground in woods as well as in moorland and mountain regions.
In mountains _O. ericetorum_ must be carefully distinguished from some
of the truly mountain species of _Omphalina_ dealt with on p. 236. _O.
wynniae_ (Berkeley & Broome) P. D. Orton is similar but pale
lemon-yellow and is found on stumps of conifers. The word _ericetorum_
refers to the habit of growing on heaths--_Erica_ is the Latin name
for heath. In many books this same fungus is called _O. umbellifera_
which reflects the shape of the cap--umbrella shaped.

_Illustrations_: Hvass 116; LH 99; NB 85⁷; WD 29⁹.

~Entoloma helodes~ (Fries) Kummer

_Cap_: width 25-75 mm. _Stem_: width 2-6 mm; length 25-55 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: finely or minutely velvety at centre, fibrillose or white silky
as if frosted towards the margin, sepia or bistre, or mouse-grey,
dull-coloured but with a hint of violaceous brown.

Stem: equal or slightly thickened at the apex, sometimes club-shaped,
thickened at the base, greyish brown and pale cream-colour at the
base.

Flesh: dark sepia in the cap, whitish in the stem and smelling
strongly of meal.

Gills: white or whitish at first then dirty pinkish brown, adnate and
emarginate.

Spore-print: dull salmon-pink.

Spores: medium to long, angular, ellipsoid-oblong, slightly
cinnamon-colour under the microscope and 9-12 × 7-8 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: conspicuous, spindle or bottle-shaped and with
subcapitate apex.

Facial cystidia: absent.

~Hypholoma ericaeum~ (Fries) Kühner

_Cap_: width 15-30 mm. _Stem_: width 4-7 mm; length 50-100 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: fleshy, convex, later becoming flattened but remaining slightly
umbonate at the centre, viscid at first, smooth and shining when dry,
bright reddish to sand-colour or brown.

Stem: slender, yellow above, brown below, smooth and tough.

Gills: adnate or adnexed, purplish black with a whitish margin and
fairly crowded.

Flesh: yellowish or red-brown in the stem.

Spore-print: purple-brown.

Spores: long, dark purple-brown, broadly ellipsoid and 12-15 × 7-9 µm
in size.

Marginal cystidia: cylindrical or flask-shaped.

Facial cystidia: flask-shaped and filled with contents which become
yellowish in solutions containing ammonia.

~Clavaria argillacea~ (Persoon) Fries

_Fruit-body_: height 20-60 mm.

_Description_:

Fruit-body: club-shaped, blunt or rounded at the apex, cylindrical or
compressed and often grooved, yellow ochraceous or buff.

Stem: distinct but short and yellowish.

Flesh: yellowish.

Spore-print: white.

Spores: medium-sized, hyaline under the microscope, smooth and 10-11 ×
5-6 µm in size.

All these three species are typical of bare peaty soil, or moss
covered peat amongst or around Heather or Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_)
bushes.

(b) Mountain fungi and the so-called Basidiolichens

‘Basidiolichens.’ Plate 78.

_Omphalina ericetorum_ (Fries) M. Lange has already been described (p.
232): it grows on acidic soils and ascends into mountain areas where
it frequently grows on algal scum which accumulates around _Sphagnum_
plants.

Under these conditions the algal cells enter the base of the fungus
and grow in the cavity of the stem and amongst those hyphae which
constitute the base. This association, however, appears to be much
closer in the two lichens _Coriscium viride_ (Acharius) Vain and
_Botrydina vulgaris_ Meneghini which have long been classified as
species of lichen of unknown affinity because no perfect state was
known. _Coriscium viride_ consists of blue-green overlapping plates or
scales with narrow rounded often paler margins and which dry out
greenish brownish grey. _Botrydina vulgaris_, in contrast, consists of
dark green, gelatinous blobs drying out greenish brown.

_Coriscium_ is now considered to be an association of an algae and a
Basidiomycete, the latter being the agaric, _Omphalina hudsoniana_
(Jennings) Bigelow, which resembles _O. ericetorum_ but for the
pinkish coloured stem. _Botrydina_ may be a complex of several
separate associations of an algae with different species of
_Omphalina_. In the high mountains the association is with _O.
luteovitellina_ (Pilát & Nannfeldt) M. Lange a small uniformly bright
yellow agaric, whilst in _Sphagnum_ bogs it is with _O. sphagnicola_
(Berkeley) Moser. _Myxomphalia maura_ (Fries) Hora, a fungus typical
of burnt ground, is also reported to take up this association in
lowland woods and _O. velutina_ (Quélet) Quélet appears to be capable
of forming a loose relationship with algal cells also. This is a most
interesting association and research work is still at an early stage.
In the tropics and subtropical regions of the world, similar
associations are found on rotten and decomposing trunks and stumps. In
these examples the _Basidiomycetes_ are frequently fairy-clubs,
particularly species of _Multiclavula_ (‘many small clubs’). A few
species of this genus may be found also in North temperate woodlands.
_Botrydina_ also grows in Europe with _Stereum fasciatum_ (Schw.)
Fries and _Athelia viride_ (Bres.) Parm. (see p. 176), and _Odontia
bicolor_ (Fries) Quélet is rarely collected without green algal cells
buried in the thallus. Perhaps associations like this are much
commoner than at first supposed. Probably the most remarkable of this
group of poorly known organisms is _Cora pavonia_ (Sw.) Fries which
produces masses of interlocking fans; it is tropical and found in
Brazil.

Mountain fungi: general remarks

There are several groups of mountain fungi, some mycorrhizal formers, some which prefer peaty soil and some which are associated with algae forming a loose relationship--the Basidiolichens. When the mountain top is covered with such dwarf willows as _Salix herbacea_ or _S. reticulata_ the leaves are cast each year, woody tissue develops above and below the ground; in fact all the processes taking place in our familiar woodlands are also taking place in these communities, the only difference being that the trees are dwarf. Indeed it looks quite odd to see normal sized agarics growing amongst the woody stalks of dwarf trees, the leaves of which are often one-tenth the size of the fruit-bodies, but this is what happens.

The mycorrhizal formers in these conditions include species of _Russula_ (e.g. _Russula alpina_ Möller & Schaeffer, _R. xerampelina_ var. _pascua_ Favre (see p. 45)), _Lactarius_ (e.g. _Lactarius lacunarum_ Hora see p. 50), _Cortinarius_ (e.g. _C. anomalus_ (Fries) Fries see p. 42) and _Amanita_ (e.g. _Amanita nivalis_ Greville see p. 56). Subterranean fungi are also found, e.g. _Elaphomyces_ see p. 244, and, just as woodlands, valley bottoms have a saprophytic ground flora of toadstools so do the high mountain ‘woods’, and many familiar fungi of the lowerland areas are to be found there also, e.g. _Mycena epipterygia_ (Fries) S. F. Gray, _Mycena olivaceo-marginata_ (Massee) Massee (see p. 88.)

The barer tops of the mountains, where large areas of moss are only to be found, support species of _Hygrocybe_, e.g. _H. lilacina_ (Laestadius) Moser and _H. subviolacea_ (Peck) P. D. Orton & Watling (see p. 97).

In the moist atmosphere on the hills in western Scotland, woodland-like floras containing familiar flowering plants are found on the mountain sides often much higher than in central Scotland. It is in such communities that typical woodland fungi are also to be found, e.g. _Nolanea cetrata_ (Fries) Kummer (see p. 101).

(vii) Sand-dune fungi

~Inocybe dunensis~ P. D. Orton

_Cap_: width 27-75 mm. _Stem_: width 4-10 mm; length 35-80 mm.

_Description_:

Cap: convex then expanded, usually broadly umbonate, pale or dirty
ochraceous paler at the margin, reddish brown at the centre, smooth,
radially fibrillose towards the margin and sometimes showing the
remains of a pale greyish buff veil.

Stem: equal with marginate or rounded bulb at the base, white or
whitish, then becoming discoloured pinkish or brownish, powdered with
white, at first, but finally silky.

Gills: free or narrowly adnate, subcrowded, whitish then clay-buff,
finally snuff-brown with whitish edge.

Flesh: white or whitish, tinted ochraceous or dirty pinkish and with
strong smell of rancid oil.

Spore-print: snuff-brown.

Spores: medium to long, ellipsoid-oblong, indistinctly nodulose or
wavy-angular and 9-12 × 6-7 µm in size.

Facial cystidia: swollen, spindle-shaped with short, broad neck,
thick-walled and crested with crystals.

Marginal cystidia: spindle-shaped and crested with crystals.

_General Information_: This fungus is often buried to half-way in the
sand of slacks near dwarf willows (_Salix_ spp.). Three other species
of _Inocybe_ grow in dune-slacks _I. halophila_ Heim, _I. serotina_
Peck and _I. devoniensis_ P. D. Orton, but all differ in their spores
being smooth and elongate-cylindric. _Astrosporina_, a name referring
to the shape of the spore, has been considered a genus of agarics in
its own right and to this group _I. dunensis_ would belong. However,
as the members show the same range of characters as those species with
the smooth spores it seems unnecessary to split _Inocybe_ into two.
The cystidia in many species are unusual, being crested with a bundle
of crystals which have been reported as being calcium oxalate,
although even the simplest school-laboratory tests have been rarely
applied to them (see p. 84).

~Psathyrella ammophila~ (Durieu & Léville) P. D. Orton

Sand-dune brittle-cap

_Cap_: width 20-40 mm. _Stem_: width 4-8 mm; length 40-80 mm.

_Description_: Plate 79.

Cap: semiglobate to convex, pale dingy clay-colour or dark tan to
dirty brownish, non-striate, rather fleshy and usually sand covered.

Stem: deeply rooting in sand and club-shaped towards the base,
similarly coloured to the cap except for the whitish apex.

Gills: adnate, subfuscous or dark dirt-brown.

Flesh: dirty buff and with no distinct smell.

Spore-print: pale snuff-brown with purplish flush.

Spores: long, ovoid, yellowish-grey brown under the microscope with a
distinct germ-pore and 10-12 × 7 µm in size.

Marginal cystidia: balloon-shaped, obtuse or somewhat bottle-shaped
and hyaline.

Facial cystidia: sparse, similar to the marginal cystidia, voluminous.

_General Information_: This is a very distinct fungus found amongst
stems of Marram grass in sand-dune systems. At first sight it appears
as if it is growing in the bare sand, but by careful excavation it
usually is found attached to pieces of Marram grass, indeed the hyphae
enter the roots of the grass, but apparently do not kill them.

This fungus was first described in the genus _Psilocybe_ (see p. 114)
because of its brownish purple spore-print, but the cap-surface is
composed of rounded cells and so is related to all the other species
of _Psathyrella_.

_Psathyrella flexispora_ Wallace & P. D. Orton grows in similar
habitats amongst _Ammophila_ and other seashore grasses. It is easily
recognised by the chocolate, umber or date-brown cap and the peculiar
shaped spores, which look as if they have been slightly twisted during
their development.

~Stropharia coronilla~ (Fries) Quélet, resembling a little mushroom
(i.e. _Agaricus_) is also found in sand-dune systems and, just as
species of _Psathyrella_, it possesses purplish black spores. However,
the cap is ochraceous yellow with a whitish margin formed of veil
fragments. The stem is white becoming yellow with age and possesses a
narrow, white striate ring. The spores are ellipsoid and measure 8-9 ×
4-5 µm and it has filamentous cells in the cap. Unlike _P. ammophila_
it is not confined to sand-dune systems but it is also to be found in
pastures and on heaths.

~Conocybe dunensis~ P. D. Orton

Sand-dune brown cone cap.

_Cap_: width 10-30 mm. _Stem_: width 2-4 mm; length 40-100 mm.

_Description_: Plate 80.

Cap: conical then conico-expanded, date-brown, dull sand-colour or
dark liver-colour, drying buff or ochraceous, expallent, not or
indistinctly striate when moist.

Stem: whitish or pale ochraceous then darker ochraceous or dirty
brownish from the base up, lower part whitish and buried in the sand.

Flesh: thin and pale ochraceous.

Gills: adnate, whitish but soon pale honey and finally rusty honey.

Spore-print: rust-brown.

Spores: long, ellipsoid or slightly amygdaliform, golden brown under
the microscope with large germ-pore and 12-14 × 7-8 µm in size.

Facial cystidia: absent.

Marginal cystidia: capitate.

_General Information_: _C. dunensis_ differs from _C. tenera_ in its
dull colours (see p. 116) and habitat preferences. _Conocybe
dunensis_, _Stropharia coronilla_, the two species of _Psathyrella_
are all dull-coloured. However, in the sand-dunes colourful agarics
are also found. The most common is _Hygrocybe conicoides_ (P. D.
Orton) Orton & Watling; _Laccaria maritima_ (Theodowicz) Moser is
indeed an unusual but rewarding find. ‘Lac’ as in _Laccaria_ is a
red-brown resinous substrate produced by the lac-insect and resembles
the cap colour of many species of the genus, including _L. maritima_,
_L. laccata_ and _L. proxima_ (see p. 86). All these fungi were
formerly placed in _Clitocybe_, but they differ in the warted or spiny
spores which at maturity give the rather thick gills the appearance of
being heavily talced. _L. maritima_ can be distinguished from all
other species of Laccaria by the elongated spores which are minutely
spiny and not strongly warted as in _L. laccata_. _Hygrocybe
conicoides_ (P. D. Orton) Orton & Watling has a conical to
conico-convex, acutely umbonate cap with wavy-lobed margin; it is
scarlet or cherry-red, discolouring blackish with age or on bruising.
The gills are at first chrome-yellow then become flushed red and the
stem is yellow or greenish lemon becoming streaky blackish after
handling. The spores are 10-13 × 4-5 µm in size and slightly French
bean-shaped. It can be readily distinguished from close relatives,
e.g. _H. conica_ (Fries) Kummer by the gills soon turning reddish, the
reddish cap and the narrow spores.

(viii) Subterranean fungi

_General notes_

The adaptive habit of growing completely submerged beneath the surface of the ground has developed in all the major groups of fungi. Thus the simplest form related to the common bread-mould have taken up the character just as certain relatives of the disc-fungi (discomycetes) and of the flask-fungi (pyrenomycetes). In the higher fungi in several foreign countries even agarics, polypores and stinkhorns have become hypogeous, but in this country we have a very depauparate flora composed of some twenty-eight species of false (Basidiomycete) truffle. The following key may assist in identifying the different groups of hypogeous fungi for some of these species are of commercial value and includes the French or Perigord truffle, _Tuber melanospermum_ Vittadini which is used as a constituent of Pâté de Foie Gras, and many of the fungi used as poor quality substitutes. There is a long folk-history surrounding truffles and they have been utilised in the production of aphrodisiacs for centuries. Seeking them out was a difficulty and has been overcome in different countries in different ways. Thus in continental Europe, pigs have been used to sniff them out but on finding them the pigs cannot eat the truffles because of a ring placed through their nose. In Dorset a particular breed of dog was developed to do the same job--the Dorset hounds.

A simple key would read as follows:--

1. Spores produced on basidia 2

Spores produced in asci 4

2. Chambers throughout the inner tissue containing spores of
approximately the same age 3

Chambers in the inner tissues containing spores found at different
stages of development _Hymenogaster_

3. Basidiospores brown or greenish brown under the microscope, and
black in mass _Melanogaster_

Basidiospores colourless or pale honey colour under the microscope
and ochraceous in mass _Rhizopogon_

4. Asci globose, irregularly arranged within the fruit-body and
quickly breaking down to shed the spores _Elaphomyces_

Asci globose or club-shaped and arranged in fertile areas which
do not rapidly break down to shed the spores _Tuber_ & relatives

Basidiomycetes

~Rhizopogon roseolus~ (Corda) Fries

Red truffle

_Description_:

Fruit-body: globular to tubiform and up to 60 mm broad, partly covered
in mycelial cords, dirty white, later reddish-tawny gradually reddish
and finally olive-brown, it soon becomes tawny on bruising when fresh
and young.

Spores: medium sized, narrowly ellipsoid, smooth at first, hyaline
then pale olive under the microscope and measuring 8-11 × 4 µm.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is not uncommon on the edges
of paths, in pine woods just pushing up through the soil surface.

Ascomycetes

~Elaphomyces granulatus~ Fries

Harts’ truffle

_Description_:

Fruit-body: globose to ovoid, 20-40 mm broad, pale ochraceous, covered
in small pyramidal warts, and when it is cut it shows three layers, an
outer thin yellowish zone, an inner thicker compact white zone and
within this a purplish black area full of spores separated into
chambers by bands of sterile white tissue; the first two zones make up
the ‘rind’.

Spores: spherical, blackish brown, warty, 24-32 µm in diameter; eight
contained in globose asci.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is not uncommon in the surface
layers of pine woods at the junction of needle debris and mineral
soil. _E. muricatus_ Fries is similar, but differs in the marbled
flecked interior.

~Tuber aestivum~ Vittadini

English truffle

_Description_:

Fruit-body: subglobose except for basal flattening, up to 80 mm broad,
covered in 5-6-sided pyramidal scales, dark brown to violaceous, white
then greyish brown within, separated by a network of veins radiating
from the basal cavity.

Spores: very large, ellipsoid, light or yellowish brown and ornamented
with a prominent network, borne in two’s and sixes in subglobose asci
and variable in size, 20-40 × 15-30 µm.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus is to be found buried in the
surface layers of soil in beech woods. _T. rufum_ is smaller and
smoother and the spores are not crested but simply minutely spiny.

_Illustrations_: _R. luteolus_--Hvass 322; LH 215. _El.
granulatus_--Hvass 325; LH 49. _T. aestivum_--LH 43. _Melanogaster
variegatus_--LH 215 (see p. 243). _Hymenogaster tener_--LH 215 (see p.
243).

(ix) Fungal parasites

~Nyctalis parasitica~ (Fries) Fries

Pick-a-back-toadstool

_Description_: Plate 81.

Cap: bell-shaped then becoming expanded, silky dirty white, but
gradually grey with a flush of lilac with age.

Stem: slender, white and smooth except for the base.

Gills: pallid but soon becoming brownish, adnate or adnate with tooth,
thick and distant alternately long and short and contorted or united
with age.

Flesh: dark brown.

Spore-print: buff.

Spores: small, hyaline under the microscope, ovoid, 5-6 × 3-4 µm but
usually replaced completely or in part by ovoid, smooth, thick-walled
and pale brownish asexually produced spores (chlamydospores) measuring
about 15 × 10 µm in size.

_Habitat_ & _Distribution_: This fungus grows in clusters on old
decaying specimens of various species of _Russula_ and _Lactarius_
(Russulaceae)--see p. 45.

_General Information_: _N. asterophora_ Fries is closely related and
also grows on decaying specimens of various species of Russula,
particularly _R. nigricans_ (Fries) Fries. It differs, however, in the
cap being fawn-coloured and very mealy when touched; it is recognised
by the poorly formed often developmentally hindered gills on which
chlamydospores are formed. Unlike the smooth asexual spores in _N.
parasitica_ this species has chlamydospores with conical, blunt
humps--i.e. star-shaped; _asterophora_ in fact means ‘I bear stars’.
These fungi have been associated by some mycologists with the common
chanterelle (_Cantharellus cibarius_ Fries, see p. 162) in virtue of
them possessing reduced fold-like gills. However, the fold-like gills
are secondary in nature, correlated with the active production of
chlamydospores and the suppression of the formation of basidiospores.
The gills are not therefore of a primitive type. The genus _Nyctalis_
is related to fungi such as _Tephrocybe palustris_ (Peck) Donk (see p.
223).

There are several rather uncommon ‘agaric-parasites’ of agarics or
other higher fungi, e.g. _Volvariella surrecta_ (Knapp) Singer, but
their formal description must be left to other more advanced texts.
However, the intriguing bolete, _Boletus parasiticus_ Fries, which
grows on _Scleroderma_ (earth-balls) in this country has been
mentioned and figured previously (p. 35 & Plate 64). It is of interest
to note that a close relative of _B. parasiticus_ in Japan lives on
another group of Gasteromycetes.

_Illustrations_: _N. parasitica_--F 11^{a}; LH 81; WD 25⁷. _N.
asterophora_--LH 81; WD 25⁸.

General notes on Fungicoles

Many beginners are confused on finding specimens which, although appearing agaric-like, are covered in long hairs or irregularly shaped bumps. Indeed many of these abnormalities are true agarics attacked by microscopic fungi, and I know of one textbook on mushrooms and toadstools which includes such an abnormality amongst the discussion on the normal fruit-bodies. Thus _Sporadinia grandis_ Link, which is a primitive fungus, attacks many fungi reducing them to a grey velvety mass of fungal filaments. Specimens of several species of _Mycena_ (p. 88) are common in autumn, covered in whiskers with small nobbles on the top. These whiskers are produced by the parasitic _Spinellus megalocarpus_ (Corda) Karsten, another primitive fungus--a phycomycete.

In some wet seasons the orange and green coloured _Lactarius deliciosus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray is to be found contorted and covered in small pinkish to lilac pimples of the ascomycete _Byssonectria lactaria_ (Fries) Petch, and other species of _Lactarius_ are attacked by _Byssonectria viridis_ (Berkeley & Broome) Petch which converts the fruit-bodies into a hardened mass of green tissue. In North America, species of _Lactarius_ are frequently attacked by _Hypomyces lactifluorum_ (Schweintz) Tulasne and the whole fungus is reduced to a contorted acidic-smelling mass of fungal tissue with vivid orange pimples or warts on the outer surface. These parasitic fruit-bodies are eaten as a delicacy in their own right whereas the same consumer will be less enthusiastic about eating the same agaric before it is so deformed.

Boletes particularly _B. subtomentosus_ Fries, _B. chrysenteron_ St Amans and _B. edulis_ Fries are frequently converted into yellow powdery masses due to the production of asexual spores of the fungus _Sepedonium chrysospermum_ Fries; the sexual stage occurs on the remains after they have collapsed into the soil surface--this stage is called _Apiocrea chrysosperma_ (Tulasne) Sydow. Several closely related fungi in the genus _Hypomyces_ also attack agarics.

The yellow pustules found on the spore-bearing surface of the birch polypore _Piptoporus_ (p. 142) is _Hypocrea pulvinata_ Fuckel; it is only one of several lower fungi which grow on bracket fungi. The genus _Cordyceps_ has been mentioned previously (p. 206) and in the discussion it was indicated that certain hypogeous fungi are attacked by members of this genus.

White gelatinous pustules found amongst the fruit-bodies of _Stereum sanguinolentum_ (p. 176) have a hard white centre. On examination these ‘nuclei’ are aborted structures of the stereum covered in the jelly-fungus _Tremella encephala_ Persoon. This fungus is apparently parasitic; it is closely related to _Tremella foliacea_ and _T. mesenterica_ described on page 184.

G. APPENDIX

(i) Species list of specialised habitats

_INTRODUCTION_

Although some fungi prefer one type of woodland more than another many fungi are less specialised and may be found in all kinds of woods. Indeed many fungi which we usually associate with a woodland fungus flora can also be commonly seen in pastures and gardens, e.g. _Laccaria laccata_ (Fries) Cooke, _Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire.

It is useful to consider the fungi of different woodland types separately, but this in some cases is very difficult because some species are not exclusive; indeed some species may grow in completely contrasting habitats, e.g. _Amanita muscaria_ (Fries) Hooker in both birch and conifer woods, or on contrasting substrates, e.g. _Fomes fomentarius_ (Fries) Kickx on birch in Scotland and beech on the continent of Europe. The picture becomes even more complex because frequently woods, in fact, often include several tree species growing in close proximity and it is then difficult to draw connections between a fungus and the tree with which it is truly growing--we know little or nothing except for mycorrhizal fungi, why certain fungi prefer certain habitats.

A parallel example is that phenomenon seen in certain polypores which only attack twigs or branches and not stumps or trunks, whilst others grow exclusively on stumps. We know little of the reasons for these demarcations, even when they occur within the same host. Mycology, therefore, offers to the beginner and the professional many opportunities in physiology and ecology.

In grassland areas it is difficult to know where to draw the line between one plant-community and another when listing species, for although ecologically distinct both would come under the name grassland. In the field, however, this is often very obvious and there is little doubt that fungi can give just as accurate an indication as to the soil-type, as many mosses or vascular plants. In sand-dune systems, the mobile dunes offer a different ecological niche to that of the fixed dunes which in many ways resemble grasslands. Thus although the lists below are split into easily manageable units, some flexibility must still be allowed. It is meant only as a guide--and will differ in some cases from one place to another, even within the British Isles.

=General Woodland=

_Agaricus silvicola_ (Vitt.) Peck
_Amanita citrina_ S. F. Gray
_A. excelsa_ (Fries) Kummer
_A. rubescens_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_A. vaginata_ (Fries) Vittadini
_Boletus calopus_ Fries
_B. erythropus_ (Fries) Secretan
_B. piperatus_ Fries
_Cantharellus infundibuliformis_ Fries
_Clitocybe clavipes_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. fragrans_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. nebularis_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. odora_ (Fries) Kummer
_Collybia butyracea_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. confluens_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. dryophila_ (Fries) Kummer
_Hebeloma crustuliniforme_ (St Amans) Quélet
_Hygrocybe strangulatus_ (Orton) Moser
_Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire
_Inocybe eutheles_ (Berkeley & Broome) Quélet
_I. fastigiata_ (Fries) Quélet
_I. geophylla_ (Fries) Kummer
_Laccaria laccata_ (Fries) Cooke
_Lactarius mitissimus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. piperatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_L. subdulcis_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Limacella glioderma_ (Fries) Maire
_Mycena filopes_ (Fries) Kummer
_M. galopus_ (Fries) Kummer
_M. pura_ (Fries) Kummer
_M. sanguinolenta_ (Fries) Kummer
_M. vitilis_ (Fries) Quélet
_Paxillus involutus_ (Fries) Fries
_Ripartites tricholoma_ (Fries) Karsten
_Russula adusta_ (Fries) Fries
_R. atropurpurea_ (Krombholz) Britz.
_R. delica_ Fries
_R. foetens_ (Fries) Fries
_R. nigricans_ (Mérat) Fries
_R. ochroleuca_ (Secretan) Fries
_R. xerampelina_ (Secretan) Fries
_Tricholoma agyraceum_ (St Amans) Gillet
_T. orirubens_ Quélet
_T. saponaceum_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. sciodes_ (Secretan) Martin
_T. terreum_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. virgatum_ (Fries) Kummer
_Tylopilus felleus_ (Fries) Karsten

_Hydnum repandum_ Fries

_Phallus impudicus_ Persoon
_Scleroderma citrinum_ Persoon
_S. verrucosum_ Persoon

_Leotia lubrica_ Persoon
_Microglossum viride_ (Fries) Gillet

On wood

_Armillaria mellea_ (Fries) Kummer
_Crepidotus variabilis_ (Fries) Kummer
_Hypholoma fasciculare_ (Fries) Kummer
_H. sublateritium_ (Fries) Quélet
_Pluteus cervinus_ (Fries) Kummer

_Calocera cornea_ (Fries) Fries
_Coriolus versicolor_ (Fries) Quélet
_Merulius tremellosus_ Fries
_Schizophyllum commune_ Fries
_Stereum hirsutum_ (Fries) Fries
_S. rugosum_ (Fries) Fries

_Lycoperdon pyriforme_ Persoon

_Coryne sarcoides_ (S. F. Gray) Tulasne
_Cudoniella acicularis_ (Fries) Schroeter
_Nectria cinnabarina_ (Fries) Fries
_Xylosphaera hypoxylon_ Dumortier
_X. polymorpha_ (Mérat) Dumortier

Conifer Woods

characterised by species of _Suillus_, _Chroogomphus_, _Gomphidius_, several _Lactarius_ and _Russula_ spp.

_Agaricus sylvatica_ Secretan
_Amanita porphyria_ (Fries) Secretan
_Boletus badius_ Fries
_B. pinicola_ Venturi
_Chroogomphus rutilus_ (Fries) O. K. Miller
_Clitocybe flaccida_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. langei_ Hora
_Collybia distorta_ (Fries) Quélet
_Cortinarius callisteus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. gentilis_ (Fries) Fries
_C. mucosus_ (Fries) Kickx
_C. pinicola_ P. D. Orton
_C. sanguineus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. semisanguineus_ (Fries) Gillet
_Cystoderma amianthinum_ (Fries) Fayod
_Gomphidius glutinosus_ (Fries) Fries
_G. maculatus_ Fries
_G. roseus_ (Fries) Karsten
_Hygrophorus hypothejus_ (Fries) Fries
_Hypholoma marginatum_ (Fries) Schroeter
_Inocybe calamistrata_ (Fries) Gillet
_Lactarius camphoratus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. deliciosus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_L. helvus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. rufus_ (Fries) Fries
_Leccinum vulpinum_ Watling
_Marasmius androsaceus_ (Fries) Fries
_Mycena adonis_ (Fries) S. F. Gray (= _Hemimycena_)
_M. amicta_ (Fries) Quélet
_M. capillaripes_ Peck
_M. coccinea_ Quélet
_M. rubromarginata_ (Fries) Kummer
_M. vulgaris_ (Fries) Kummer
_Nolanea cetrata_ (Fries) Kummer
_N. cuneata_ Bresadola
_Rozites caperata_ (Fries) Karsten
_Russula caerulea_ Fries
_R. decolorans_ (Fries) Fries
_R. emetica_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_R. erythropus_ Peltereau
_R. nauseosa_ (Secretan) Fries
_R. obscura_ Romell
_R. paludosa_ Britz.
_R. queletii_ Fries
_R. sardonia_ Fries
_Tricholoma albobrunneum_
_T. flavovirens_ (Fries) Lundell
_T. focale_ (Fries) Ricken
_T. imbricatum_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. vaccinum_ (Fries) Kummer

_Ramaria ochraceo-virens_ (Jungh.) Donk
_R. invallii_ (Cotton & Wakef.) Donk
_Sarcodon imbricatum_ (Fries) Karsten
_Sparassis crispa_ (Wulfen) Fries
_Thelephora palmata_ (Bulliard) Patouillard
_T. terrestris_ Fries

_Geastrum pectinatum_ Persoon

Hypogeous

_Rhizopogon luteolus_ Fries
_Elaphomyces granulatus_ Fries
_E. muricatus_ Fries

On cones

_Baeospora myosura_ (Fries) Singer
_Strobilurus esculentus_ (Wulf. ex Fr.) Singer
_S. stephanocystis_ (Hora) Singer
_S. tenacellus_ (Fries) Singer

_Auriscalpium vulgare_ S. F. Gray

On conifer wood

_Gymnopilus penetrans_ (Fries) Murrill
_Hypholoma capnoides_ (Fries) Kummer
_Mycena alcalina_ (Fries) Kummer
_Lentinus tigrinus_ (Fries) Fries
_Paxillus atrotomentosus_ (Fries) Fries
_P. panuoides_ (Fries) Fries
_Pholiota flammans_ (Fries) Kummer
_Pleurotellus porrigens_ (Fries) Singer (= _Pleurocybella_)
_Pluteus atromarginatus_ Kühner
_Tricholompsis rutilans_ (Fries) Singer
_Xeromphalina campanella_ (Fries) Maire

_Calocera viscosa_ (Fries) Fries
_Dacrymyces stillatus_ Nees ex Fries
_Pseudohydnum gelatinosum_ (Fries) Karsten
_Gloeophyllum sepiarium_ (Fries) Karsten
_Heterobasidion annosum_ (Fries) Brefeld
_Hirschioporus abietinus_ (Fries) Donk
_Laetiporus sulphureus_ (Fries) Murrill
_Phaeolus schweinitzii_ (Fries) Patouillard
_Stereum sanguinolentum_ (Fries) Fries
_Tremella encephala_ Persoon
_T. foliacea_ (Persoon) Persoon
_Tyromyces stipticus_ (Fries) Kotlaba & Pouzar

Deciduous Woods General

_Amanita fulva_ Secretan
_A. inaurata_ Secretan
_A. virosa_ Secretan
_Boletus edulis_ Fries
_B. chrysenteron_ St Amans
_B. luridus_ Fries
_B. subtomentosus_ Fries
_Collybia peronata_ (Fries) Kummer
_Lactarius vellereus_ (Fries) Fries
_Russula cyanoxantha_ (Secretan) Fries
_R. grisea_ (Secretan) Fries
_R. heterophylla_ (Fries) Fries
_R. lutea_ (Fries) Fries
_R. ochroleuca_ (Secretan) Fries
_Tricholoma album_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. columbetta_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. saponaceum_ (Fries) Kummer
_T. sulphureum_ (Fries) Kummer

_Cantharellus cibarius_ Fries
_Clavulina cinerea_ (Fries) Schroeter
_C. cristata_ (Fries) Schroeter
_Hydnum repandum_ Fries

_Geastrum rufescens_ Persoon
_Lycoperdon perlatum_ Persoon

_Helvella crispa_ Fries
_H. elastica_ (St Amans) Boudier
_H. lacunosa_ Fries
_Disciotis venosa_ (Persoon) Boudier
_Paxina acetabulum_ (St Amans) Kuntze
_Peziza badia_ Mérat
_P. succosa_ Berkeley

On wood

_Coprinus disseminatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_C. micaceus_ (Fries) Fries
_Crepidotus mollis_ (Fries) Kummer
_Galerina mutabilis_ (Fries) P. D. Orton
_Gymnopilus junonius_ (Fries) P. D. Orton
_Mycena galericulata_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Oudemansiella radicata_ (Fries) Singer
_Pholiota squarrosa_ (Fries) Kummer
Pleurotoid fungi (see p. 74)
_Psathyrella candolleana_ (Fries) R. Maire
_P. hydrophilum_ (Mérat) Maire

_Coniophora puteana_ (Fries) Karsten
_Meripilus giganteus_ (Fries) Karsten
_Tremella mesenterica_ Hooker

Beech Woods

_Amanita citrina var alba_ Gillet
_Boletus edulis_ Fries
_B. satanus_ Lenz
_Collybia fuscopurpurea_ (Fries) Kummer
_Coprinus picaceus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Cortinarius pseudosalor_ J. Lange
_C. bolaris_ (Fries) Fries
_Hygrophorus chrysaspis_ Métrod
_Laccaria amethystea_ (Mérat) Murrill
_Lactarius blennius_ (Fries) Fries
_L. pallidus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. tabidus_ Fries
_Marasmius cohaerens_ (Fries) Cooke & Quélet
_M. wynnei_ Berkeley & Broome
_Mycena capillaris_ (Fries) Kummer (on leaves)
_M. pelianthina_ (Fries) Quélet
_Russula alutacea_ (Fries) Fries
_R. fellea_ (Fries) Fries
_R. lepida_ Fries
_R. mairei_ Singer
_R. virescens_ (Zantedschi) Fries
_Tricholoma ustale_ (Fries) Kummer

_Clavariadelphus pistillaris_ (Fries) Donk
_Geaster triplex_ Jungh
_G. fimbriatum_ Fries

Hypogeous

_Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini
_Tuber aestivum_ Vittadini

On wood

_Oudemansiella mucida_ (Fries) Höhnel
_O. radicata_ (Fries) Singer
_Panus torulosus_ (Fries) Fries
_Pholiota adiposa_ (Fries) Kummer
_Stropharia squamosa_ (Fries) Quélet

_Bjerkandera adusta_ (Fries) Karsten
_Datronia mollis_ (Fries) Donk
_Hiericium coralloides_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Lentinellus cochleatus_ (Fries) Karsten
_Pseudotrametes gibbosa_ (Fries) Bond. & Singer

_Bulgaria inquinans_ Fries (a large dark brown, gelatinous
discomycete)

Several pyrenomycetes are recorded and dealt with by J. Webster in a
popular account published in _The Naturalist_, London 1953, pp. 1-16.

Birch Woods

_Amanita crocea_ (Quélet) Kühner & Romagnesi
_Boletus edulis_ Fries
_Cortinarius armillatus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. crocolitus_ Quélet
_C. hemitrichus_ (Fries) Fries
_Lactarius glaucescens_ Crossland
_L. glyciosmus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. lacunarum_ Hora
_L. torminosus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_L. turpis_ (Weinm.) Fries
_L. uvidus_ (Fries) Fries
_L. vietus_ (Fries) Fries
_Leccinum holopus_ (Rostkovius) Watling
_L. roseofractum_ Watling
_L. scabrum_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_L. variicolor_ Watling
_L. versipellis_ (Fries & Hök) Snell
_Russula aeruginea_ Lindblad ex Fries
_R. betularum_ Hora
_R. claroflava_ Grove
_R. gracillima_ J. Schaeffer
_R. nitida_ (Fries) Fries
_R. pulchella_ Borszczow
_R. versicolor_ J. Schaeffer
_Tricholoma fulvum_ (Fries) Saccardo

On wood

_Fomes fomentarius_ (Fries) Kickx
_Lenzites betulina_ (Fries) Fries
_Piptoporus betulinus_ (Fries) Karsten

Oak Woods

_Amanita phalloides_ (Fries) Secretan
_Boletus albidus_ Rocques
_B. appendiculatus_ Fries
_B. pulverulentus_ Opatowski
_B. reticulatus_ Boudier
_B. versicolor_ Rostkovius
_Gyroporus castaneus_ (Fries) Quélet
_Hygrophorus eburneus_ (Fries) Fries
_Lactarius chrysorheus_ Fries
_L. quietus_ (Fries) Fries
_Leccinum quercinum_ (Pilát) Green & Watling
_Russula vesca_ Fries
_Tricholoma acerbum_ (Fries) Quélet

Hypogeous

_Hymenogaster tener_ Berkeley & Broome

On wood

_Mycena inclinata_ (Fries) Quélet
_Psathyrella obtusata_ (Fries) A. H. Smith

_Daedalea quercina_ Persoon
_Fistulina hepatica_ Fries
_Hymenochaete rubiginosa_ (Fries) Léville
_Peniophora quercina_ (Fries) Cooke
_Inonotus dryadeus_ (Fries) Murrill
_Stereum gausapatum_ (Fries) Fries

Specific Tree Species

Alder

_Lactarius obscuratus_ (Lasch) Fries
_Naucoria escharoides_ (Fries) Kummer
_N. scolecina_ (Fries) Quélet

On wood

_Clavariadelphus fistulosus_ var. _contorta_ (Fries) Corner
_Exidia glandulosa_ (St Amans) Fries
_Inonotus radiatus_ (Fries) Karsten
_Plicaturiopsis crispa_ (Fries) Reid

Ash

On wood

_Inonotus hispidus_ (Fries) Karsten
_Daldinia concentrica_ (Fries) Cesati & de Notaris

Elder

On wood

_Hirneola auricula-judae_ (St Amans) Berkeley
_Hyphodontia sambuci_ (Fries) J. Eriksson

Elm

On wood

_Lyophyllum ulmarius_ (Fries) Kühner
_Rhodotus palmatus_ (Fries) Maire
_Volvariella bombycina_ (Fries) Singer
_Rigidoporus ulmarius_ (Fries) Imaz

Hazel

_Lactarius pyrogalus_ (Fries) Fries
_Leccinum carpini_ (R. Schulzer) Reid

On wood

_Hymenochaete corrugata_ (Fries) Léville

_Sarcoscypha coccinea_ (Fries) Lambotte (red discomycete occurring in
early spring)

Hawthorn

_Entoloma clypeatum_ (Fries) Kummer

On wood

_Pholiota squarrosa_ (Fries) Kummer
_Phellinus pomaceus_ (Persoon) Maire
_Stereum purpureum_ (Fries) Fries

Hornbeam

_Lactarius circellatus_ Fries
_Leccinum carpini_ (R. Schulzer) Reid

Poplar

_Lactarius controversus_ (Fries) Fries
_Leccinum aurantiacum_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_L. duriusculum_ (Schulzer) Singer
_Mitromorpha hybrida_ (Fries) Léville

On wood

_Agrocybe cylindracea_ (Fries) Maire
_Pholiota destruens_ (Brondeau) Gillet
_Bjerkandera fumosa_ (Fries) Karsten
_Oxyporus populinus_ (Fries) Donk

Willow

_Hebeloma leucosarx_ P. D. Orton
_H. mesophaeum_ (Persoon) Quélet
_H. testaceum_ (Fries) Quélet
_Lactarius lacunarum_ Hora

On wood

_Daedaleopsis rubescens_ (Fries) Schroeter
_Pluteus salicinus_ (Fries) Kummer
_Phellinus igniarius_ (Fries) Quélet
_Trametes suaveolens_ (Fries) Fries

Grasslands

_Agaricus arvensis_ Secretan
_A. campestris_ Fries
_A. macrosporus_ (Moëller & Schaeffer) Pilát
_Agrocybe semiorbicularis_ (St Amans) Fayod
_Calocybe gambosum_ (Fries) Singer
_C. carneum_ (Fries) Kummer
_Cantharellula umbonata_ (Fries) Singer
_Clitocybe dealbata_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. ericetorum_ Quélet
_C. rivulosa_ (Fries) Kummer
_Clitopilus prunulus_ (Fries) Kummer
_Dermoloma atrocinereum_ (Fries) P. D. Orton
_D. cuneifolium_ (Fries) Singer
_Entoloma porphyrophaeum_ (Fries) Karsten
_Hygrocybe aurantiosplendens_ R. Haller
_H. berkeleyi_ (P. D. Orton) Orton & Watling
_H. chlorophana_ (Fries) Karsten
_H. coccinea_ (Fries) Kummer
_H. conica_ (Fries) Kummer
_H. calyptraeformis_ (Berkeley & Broome) Fayod
_H. flavescens_ (Kauffman) Singer
_H. marchii_ (Bresadola) Singer
_H. nivea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling
_H. nitrata_ (Pers.) Wunsche
_H. obrussea_ (Fries) Fries
_H. pratensis_ (Fries) Donk
_H. psittacina_ (Fries) Wunsche
_H. punicea_ (Fries) Kummer
_H. reai_ (Maire) J. Lange
_H. russocoriacea_ (Berkeley & Miller) Orton & Watling
_H. splendidissima_ (P. D. Orton) Moser
_H. unguinosa_ (Fries) Karsten
_H. virginea_ (Fries) Orton & Watling
_Lepiota procera_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Lepista luscina_ (Fries) Singer
_L. saeva (Fries)_ P. D. Orton
_Leptonia griseocyanea_ (Fries) P. D. Orton
_L. incana_ (Fries) Gillet
_L. sericella_ (Fries) Barbier
_L. serrulata_ (Fries) Kummer
_Leucoagaricus naucina_ (Fries) Singer
_Melanoleuca strictipes_ (Karsten) J. Schaeffer
_Mycena flavoalba_ (Fries) Quélet
_M. leptocephala_ (Fries) Gillet
_M. fibula_ (Fries) Kühner
_M. swartzii_ (Fries) A. H. Smith
_Nolanea papillata_ Bresadola
_N. sericea_ (Mérat) P. D. Orton
_N. staurospora_ Bresadola
_Psathyrella atomata_ (Fries) Quélet
_Rhodocybe popinalis_ (Fries) Singer

_Clavaria fumosa_ Fries
_C. vermicularis_ Fries
_Clavulinopsis corniculata_ (Fries) Corner
_C. fusiformis_ (Fries) Corner
_C. helvola_ (Fries) Corner

_Bovista nigrescens_ Persoon
_B. plumbea_ Persoon
_Calvatia utriformis_ (Fries) Jaap
_C. excipuliformis_ (Fries) Perdeck
_Corynetes atropurpureus_ (Fries) Durand
_Geoglossum cookeianum_ Nannfeldt
_G. glutinosus_ Fries
_G. nigritun_ Cooke
_Trichoglossum hirsutum_ (Fries) Boudier

Lawns: Wasteland: Hedgerows

_Agaricus hortensis_ (Cooke) Pilát
_A. bisporus_ (J. Lange) Pilát
_A. xanthodermus_ Genevier
_Agrocybe dura_ (Fries) Singer
_A. erebia_ (Fries) Kühner
_A. praecox_ (Fries) Fayod
_Coprinus comatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_C. acuminatus_ (Romagnesi) P. D. Orton
_C. atramentarius_ (Fries) Fries
_C. micaceus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. plicatilis_ (Fries) Fries
_Flammulaster granulosa_ (J. Lange) Watling
_Lacrymaria velutina_ (Fries) Konrad & Maublanc
_Lepiota cristata_ (Fries) Kummer
_L. friesii_ (Lasch) Quélet
_L. rhacodes_ (Vittadini) Quélet
_Lepista nuda_ (Fries) Cooke
_L. sordida_ (Fries) Singer
_Lyophyllum connatum_ (Fries) Singer
_L. decastes_ (Fries) Singer
_Marasmius oreades_ (Fries) Fries
_Melanophyllum echinatum_ (Fries) Singer
_Mycena olivaceomarginata_ (Massee) Massee
_M. fibula_ (Fries) Kühner
_M. swartzii_ (Fries) A. H. Smith
_Panaeolus fimicola_ (Fries) Quélet
_P. foenisecii_ (Fries) Schroeter
_Psathyrella gracilis_ (Fries) Quélet
_P. squamosa_ (Karsten) Moser
_Tubaria furfuracea_ (Fries) Gillet
_T. pellucida_ (Fries) Gillet
_Volvariella speciosa_ (Fries) Singer
_Langermannia gigantea_ (Persoon) Lloyd

_Aleuria aurantia_ (Fries) Fuckel
_Morchella esculenta_ St Amans
_Verpa conica_ Persoon

On herbaceous material

_Coprinus urticicola_ (Berkeley & Broome) Buller
_Panaeolus subbalteatus_ (Berkeley & Broome) Saccardo (in middens)

_Crucibulum laeve_ (de Candolle) Kambly
_Cyathus olla_ Persoon

_Helicobasidium brebissonii_ (Desmazieres) Donk

_Pistillaria micans_ (Persoon) Fries
_P. quisquilliaris_ Fries (on bracken stems)

In greenhouses

_Lepiota rhacodes_ var. _hortensis_ Pilát
_Leucocoprinus cepaestipes_ (Fries) Patouillard
_L. birnbaummii_ (Corda) Singer
_L. brebissonii_ (Godey) Locquin
_L. denudatus_ (Rabenhorst) Singer
_L. lilacinogranulosus_ (Henning) Locquin
_Psilocybe cyanescens_ Wakefield

Near out-buildings, stables, etc.

_Anthurus archeri_ (Berkeley) E. Fischer
_Asteroe ruber_ La Billardiere
_Clathrus ruber_ Persoon
_Lysurus australiensis_ Cooke & Massee
_Queletia mirabilis_ Fries

Specialised habitats

(a) Dung

_Bolbitius vitellinus_ (Fries) Fries
_Conocybe coprophila_ (Kühner) Kühner
_C. pubescens_ (Gillet) Kühner
_C. rickenii_ (J. Schaeffer) Kühner
_Coprinus cinereus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_C. ephemeroides_ (Fries) Fries
_C. macrocephalus_ (Berkeley) Berkeley
_C. patouillardii_ Quélet
_C. narcoticus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. niveus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. pellucidus_ Karsten
_C. pseudoradiatus_ Kühner & Josserand
_C. radiatus_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_Panaeolus semiovatus_ (Fries) Lundell
_P. sphinctrinus_ (Fries) Quélet
_Psathyrella coprobia_ (J. Lange) A. H. Smith
_Psilocybe coprophila_ (Fries) Kummer
_P. merdaria_ (Fries) Quélet
_Stropharia semiglobata_ (Fries) Quélet

Pyrenomycetes: Genera--_Sordaria_; _Podospora_; _Sporormia_;
_Delitschia_.

Discomycetes: Genera--_Cheilymenia_; _Ascobolus_; _Coprobia_.

A key to the common dung fungi is given in _Bull. British Myc.
Society_, 1968 by Watling & Richardson.

(b) Burnt patches

_Aureoboletus cramesinus_ (Secretan) Watling
_Coprinus angulatus_ Peck
_C. lipophilus_ Romagnesi & Heim
_Hebeloma anthracophilum_ Maire
_Mycena leucogala_ (Cooke) Saccardo
_Myxomphalia maura_ (Fries) Hora
_Pholiota highlandensis_ (Peck) A. H. Smith
_Psathyrella pennata_ (Fries) Pearson & Dennis
_Tephrocybe anthracophila_ (Lasch) P. D. Orton
_T. ambusta_ (Fries) Donk
_T. atrata_ (Fries) Donk

_Coltricia perennis_ (Fries) Murrill

_Anthracobia macrocystis_ (Cooke) Boudier
_A. maurilabra_ (Cooke) Boudier
_A. melaloma_ (Fries) Boudier
_Ascobolus carbonarius_ Karsten
_Geopyxis carbonaria_ (Fries) Saccardo
_Lamprospora astroidea_ (Hazslinzky) Boudier
_Peziza echinospora_ Karsten
_P. petersii_ Berkeley & Curtis
_P. praetervisa_ Bresadola
_P. violacea_ Persoon
_Pyronema omphalodes_ (St Amans) Fuckel
_Tricharia gilva_ Boudier
_Trichophaea woolhopeia_ (Cooke & Phillips) Boudier

(c) Sand-dunes

_Agaricus bernardii_ Quélet
_A. devoniensis_ P. D. Orton
_Conocybe dunensis_ P. D. Orton
_Eccilia nigella_ Quélet
_Hygrocybe conicoides_ P. D. Orton
_Inocybe devoniensis_ P. D. Orton
_I. dulcamara_ (Persoon) Kummer
_I. dunensis_ P. D. Orton
_I. halophila_ Heim
_I. serotina_ Peck
_Laccaria maritima_ (Theodowicz) Singer
_Psathyrella ammophila_ (Durieu & Léville) P. D. Orton
_Stropharia albocyanea_ (Desmariezes) Quélet

_Geaster striatum_ de Candolle
_Tulostoma brumale_ Persoon
_Vascellum depressum_ (Bonorden) Smarda
_Phallus hadriani_ Persoon
_Corynetes arenarius_ (Rostrup) Durand
_Peziza ammophila_ Durieu & Montagne

(d) Heathland

_Cystoderma amianthinum_ (Fries) Fayod
_Entoloma helodes_ (Fries) Kummer
_E. madidum_ (Fries) Gillet
_Galerina mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner
_G. praticola_ (Moëller) P. D. Orton
_G. vittaeformis_ (Fries) Moser
_Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca_ (Fries) Maire
_Hygrocybe cantharella_ (Schweintz) Murrill
_H. lacma_ (Fries) Orton & Watling
_H. laeta_ (Fries) Kummer
_H. ovina_ (Fries) Kühner
_H. subradiata_ (Secretan) Orton & Watling
_H. turunda_ (Fries) Karsten
_Hypholoma ericaeum_ (Fries) Kühner
_H. subericaeum_ (Fries) Kühner
_Mycena epipterygia_ (Fries) S. F. Gray
_M. olivaceomarginata_ (Massee) Massee
_Omphalina velutina_ (Quélet) Quélet

_Clavaria argillacea_ (Persoon) Fries

_Lycoperdon foetidum_ Bonorden

(e) Marshes

_Cortinarius uliginosus_ Berkeley
_Coprinus friesii_ Quélet (on grass-stems)
_C. martinii_ P. D. Orton (on _Juncus_)
_Entoloma sericatum_ (Britz.) Saccardo (under birches)
_Galerina jaapii_ Smith & Singer
_G. paludosa_ (Fries) Kühner
_G. sphagnorum_ (Fries) Kühner
_G. tibiicystis_ (Atkinson) Kühner
_Hygrocybe cantharella_ (Schweinitz) Murrill
_H. coccineocrenata_ (P. D. Orton) Moser
_H. turunda_ (Fries) Karsten
_Hypholoma elongatum_ (Fries) Ricken
_H. udum_ (Fries) Kühner
_Laccaria proxima_ (Boudier) Patouillard
_Marasmius menieri_ Boudier on _Typha_
_Mycena belliae_ (Johnston) P. D. Orton on _Phragmites_
_M. bulbosa_ (Cejp) Kühner on _Juncus_
_M. integrella_ (Fries) S. F. Gray on _Cladium_
_Omphalina ericetorum_ (Fries) Quélet Lange
_O. oniscus_ (Fries) Quélet
_O. philonotis_ (Lasch) Quélet
_O. sphagnicola_ (Berkeley) Moser
_Pholiota myosotis_ (Fries) Singer
_Psathyrella sphagnicola_ (Maire) Favre
_Tephrocybe palustris_ (Peck) Donk

_Cudoniella clavus_ (Fries) Dennis
_Mitrula paludosa_ Fries

_Scutellinia scutellata_ (St Amans) Lambotte (with bright red disc and
conspicuous brown hairs at the margin)

_Vibrissea truncorum_ Fries (an orange-capped fungus with a black
stem)

(f) Mountain tops

_Amanita nivalis_ Greville
_Cortinarius anomalus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. cinnamomeus_ (Fries) Fries
_C. tabularis_ (Fries) Fries
_Russula alpina_ (Blytt) Moëller & Schaeffer
_R. xerampelina_ var. _pascua_ Favre

(g) Mossy areas on the ground, rocks or stumps

_Galerina hypnorum_ (Fries) Kühner
_G. mniophila_ (Lasch) Kühner
_G. mycenopsis_ (Fries) Kühner
_G. praticola_ Moëller
_C. unicolor_ (Sommerf.) Singer (often on wood)
_Leptoglossum lobatus_ (Fries) Ricken
_L. retirugis_ (Fries) Kühner & Romagnesi
_Mycena corticola_ (Fries) Ricken (on wood)
_M. hiemalis_ (Fries) Quélet (on wood)
_M. olida_ Bresadola (on wood)
_Omphalina rickenii_ Hora
_Cyphella muscigena_ (Pers.) Fries
_Cyphellostereum levis_ (Fries) Reid
_Neottiella rutilans_ (Fries) Dennis

(h) Hypogeous fungi

_Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini
_Rhizopogon luteolus_ Fries
_R. rubescens_ Tulasne
_Elaphomyces granulatus_ Fries
_E. muricatus_ Fries
_Gyrocratera ploettneriana_ Hennings
_Hydnotrya tulasnei_ Berkeley & Broome
_Melanogaster variegatus_ Vittadini
_Tuber aestivum_ Vittadini
_T. rufum_ Fries

(i) On rotten fungi

_Nyctalis asterophora_ Fries
_N. parasitica_ (Fries) Fries
_Collybia cirrhata_ (Fries) Kummer
_C. cookei_ (Bresadola) J. D. Arnold
_C. tuberosa_ (Fries) Kummer

(ii) Glossary of technical terms

_Specialised colours are placed in capitals_

_Adnate_ (of the gills or tubes), broadly attached to the stem at
least for one quarter of their length. See p. 267.

_Adnexed_ (of the gills or tubes), narrowly attached to the stem by
less than one quarter of their length. See p. 267.

_Amygdaliform_ (of the spore), almond-shaped.

_Amyloid_ (of the spore-walls, spore-ornamentation or hyphal walls),
greyish or bluish or blackish violet in solutions containing iodine.

_Apiculus_ (of the spore), the short peg-like structure at the basal
end of the spore by which it is attached to the basidium. See Fig. 5,
p. 15.

_Arcuate-decurrent_ (of the gills or tubes), curved and extending down
the stem. See p. 267.

_Ascus_, a clavate to cylindrical or subglobose cell in which the
(asco-) spores are borne, usually in eights.

_Basidium_, a clavate or subcylindrical cell on which the (basidio-)
spores are borne, externally on stalks. See Fig. 5, p. 15.

_Cap_ (of the fruit-body), that structure which bears the
spore-bearing layers beneath it (= pileus).

_Caespitose_ (of the fruit-body), aggregated into tufts.

_CINNAMON-BROWN_, the colour of cinnamon powder obtainable from the
grocer.

_Clavate_ (of the stem, or cystidia), club-shaped.

_Convex_ (of the cap), curving outwards. See Plate 9, p. 55.

_Cortex_ (of the cap or stem), outer layers of the tissue.

_Cortina_, a cobweb-like veil at first connecting the margin of the
cap and stem, but at maturity often only present as remnants on the
stem and/or cap-margin. See p. 267.

_Cystidium_, a differentiated terminal cell usually on the surface and
edges of the cap, gill and stem: facial cystidia occurring on the
gill-face: marginal cystidia occurring on the gill-margin. See Fig. 4,
p. 15.

_DATE-BROWN_, the colour of packed dates.

_Decurrent_ (of the gills and tubes), with a part attached to and
descending down the stem. See p. 267.

_Deliquescent_ (of the gills, cap or entire fruit-body), changing into
a liquid at maturity.

_Depauperate_ poorly developed.

_Depressed_ (of the cap), having the central portion sunken, and (of
the tubes) sunken about the apex of the stem. See Plate 1, p. 29.

_Dentate_ see toothed.

_Distant_ (of the gills), greater than their own thickness apart.

_Divergent_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section),
with the hyphae curving downwards and outwards on both sides of a
central zone as if combed. See Fig. 9A, p. 17.

_Ellipsoid_ (of the spores), elliptic in outline in all planes.

_Emarginate_ (of the gills), notched near the stem. See Sinuate, p.
263.

_Excentric_ (of the cap), laterally placed on the stem.

_Expallent_ (of the cap), becoming paler when drying.

_Expanded_ (of the cap), opened out when mature. See Plate 10, p. 61.

_Fibrillose_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), almost smooth but for
distinct parallel longitudinal filaments (fibrils).

_Fleshy_ (of the fruit-body), of a rather soft consistency: readily
decaying.

_Floccose_, with loose, cottony surface; diminutive--flocculose.

_Free_ (of the gills and tubes), not attached to the stem. See p. 267.

_Frondose_ trees, broad-leaved trees.

_Fruit-body_, the whole agaric (toadstool or mushroom, polypore,
etc.), as usually understood.

_Germ-pore_, a differentiated apical, usually thin-walled portion of
the spore. See Fig. 5, p. 15.

_Gill_, the structure on which the reproductive tissue is borne in
agarics, resembling plates.

_Globose_ (of the spore), round in outline in all planes.

_Glutinous_ (of the cap or stem), provided with a sticky jelly-like
coating.

_Heteromerous_ (of the cap and stem-flesh), with discrete nests of
rounded cells in a background of filamentous cells: characterises
members of the Russulaceae. See Fig. 10B, p. 17.

_Homoiomerous_ (of the cap and stem-flesh), not sharply differentiated
into two types of cells, although some may be swollen: characterises
agarics other than members of the Russulaceae. See Fig. 10A, p. 17.

_Hygrophanous_ (of the cap), translucent when wet, opaque and often
paler on drying.

_Hymenium_, the superficial layer of cells in which basidia occur. See
Fig. 9A-D, p. 17.

_Hyaline_, appearing as if clear glass.

_Hypogeous_, growing under ground.

_Hypha_, a fungus filament composed of a chain of several cells;
plural--hyphae; adjective--hyphal.

_Inverse_, (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section),
with the hyphae curving upwards and outwards on both sides of a
central zone. See Fig. 9B, p. 17.

_Irregular_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section),
lacking any clear pattern as to hyphal arrangement. See Fig. 9D, p.
17.

_Mealy_, covered in powdery granules, resembling meal.

_Mycelium_, a mass of fungus-filaments (hyphae).

_Mycorrhiza_, a symbiotic association of a fungus and the roots of a
higher plant.

_Non-amyloid_ (of the spore-wall, spore-ornamentation and hyphal
walls), remaining uncoloured or becoming yellowish in solutions
containing iodine.

_OCHRACEOUS_, bright clay-colour: colour of ochre (yellow-brown).

_OLIVACEOUS BROWN_, a dull clay-brown with an additional but distinct
hint of dirty green.

_Plano-convex_ (of the cap), regularly rounded although almost flat.
See Plate 13, p. 67--adult fruit-body.

_Pruinose_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), finely powdered.

_Pubescent_ (of the cap and stem-surfaces), with short, soft hairs.

_Putrescent_ (of the fruit-body), soft and very easily decaying.

_Pyriform_ (of the spore), pear-shaped.

_Regular_ (of the gill-trama in transverse longitudinal section), with
hyphae showing no distinct curvature and practically parallel to the
gill-surfaces. See Fig. 9C, p. 17.

_Remote_ (of the gills or tubes), separate from the stem by a zone of
cap-flesh. See p. 267.

_Resupinate_ (of the fruit-body), spore-bearing tissue facing outward
and attached to support by what would have been the cap had the fungus
been a normal agaric.

_Ring_, a girdling veil on the stem. See p. 267.

_Rugulose_ (of a surface), covered in small wrinkles.

_RUST-BROWN_, the colour of rusty iron.

_Saprophyte_ (of an organism), using dead material for active growth.

_Scurfy_ (of the cap and stem surfaces), with small irregular loosely
attached scales.

_Sessile_ (of the fruit-bodies), lacking a stem.

_Septate_ (of the structural units of the fruit-body), with
cross-walls; septum--cross-wall.

_Sinuate_ (of the gills), having a concave indentation of that part of
the edge nearest the stem. See Plate 32, p. 111.

_SNUFF-BROWN_, a dull dark clay-brown said to resemble the colour of
snuff.

_Spore-print_ (or deposit), the mass of spores obtained by allowing
the fruit-body to discharge its spores at maturity.

_Stem_ (of the fruit-body), that structure which supports the cap (=
stipe).

_Sterile_, a tissue or structure not involved in the reproductive
process, or failing to take part.

_Sterigma_, the point-like structure at the apex of the basidium
actually bearing the spores.

_Striate_ (of a surface), having minute furrows or lines.

_Subdecurrent_ (of the gills or the tubes), having the gill-attachment
extending slightly down the stem. See p. 267.

_TAWNY_, sand-coloured.

_Tomentose_ (of the cap and stem surfaces), densely matted and woolly.

_Toothed_ (of the gills or cap-margin), as if with teeth (= dentate).

_Trama_ (of the gills), the tissue between the layers bearing basidia
(hymenia).

_Umbilicate_ (of the cap), having a central, small depression. See p.
267.

_Umbonate_ (of the cap), provided with a broad, flattened, raised
centre (the umbo).

_Uncinate_ (of the gills), emarginate, but with a long descending
decurrent tooth because the cap does not expand. See Plate 14, p. 69.

_Veil_, a general term for the tissues which protect the whole or part
of the developing fruit-body.

_Viscid_ (of the cap or stem), very slippery to the touch.

_Volva_, a persistent cup-like structure at the base of the stem. See
p. 267.

_Waxy_ (of the gills), lustrous because they are thick and watery.

_Illustrations_

Text-figures and line-drawings of the greater number of the fungi mentioned in the text have been included in the book. It is impossible to supply colour pictures of a high quality in a book such as this without raising the price of the publication astronomically. The plates in six easily obtainable popular books have been used to represent whenever possible the fungus described in the text, as accurate colour illustrations are very useful in identification. The titles of these books have been abbreviated for clarity.

_Abbreviations for illustrations used throughout the text_

F--Findlay, W. P. K. (1967), _Wayside and Woodland Fungi_, London.

Hvass--Hvass, E. & H. (1961), _Mushrooms and Toadstools in Colour_,
London.

LH--Lange, M. & Hora, F. B. (1963), _Collins Guide to Mushrooms and
Toadstools_, London.

NB--Nicholson, B. E. & Brightman, F. H. (1966), _Oxford Book of
Flowerless Plants_, Oxford.

WD--Wakefield, E. & Dennis, R. W. G. (1950), _Common British Fungi_,
London.

Z--Zeitlmayr, L. (1968), _Wild Mushrooms_, London.

(iii) Fairy rings

_Object_: To assess the annual radial growth of fairy-rings and to
correlate this with any obvious environmental change.

_Materials_: Graph and tracing papers, tape-measures, note-book,
pencil and rule, small pieces of cane about four inches long and
coloured dye (e.g. Eosin solution, Janus Green).

_Method_: Select a fairy-ring on the school cricket pitch or hockey
pitch, school lawn, local golf course or park at a time when the
fruit-bodies are first visible. Carefully mark the centre of the ring
by driving into the soil a piece of cane until the top is only just
visible. Plot this point on graph paper and relate it to any prominent
feature nearby, e.g. post, tree or hedge.

Carry out weekly observations throughout the fruiting season plotting
the individual fruit-bodies on tracing paper, which is trimmed so as
to make a replica of the original graph-sheet. A small dab of coloured
dye placed on a fruit-body will assist one in recognising fruit-bodies
from previous observations. During the fruiting season observe and
plot the zones of differently coloured vegetation--devise some method
of describing (and measuring) these colours perhaps by comparison with
a colour-chart, printed or hand prepared. Continue observations on the
ring at monthly or fortnightly intervals after the disappearance of
the fruit-bodies, and record subsequent changes in the vegetation for
twelve months.

This project can be continued for several years and for different
species of fungus. Weather conditions may be noted simultaneously with
the growth observations, or obtained from a reliable source of similar
information close by. In this way not only is the increase in ring
size measured but the results can be considered in the light of
climatic data; fungal growth appears to be dependent on favourable
weather conditions.

_Further experiments_:

(i) Compare the effect that different species of agaric have on the
same type of vegetation.

(ii) Observe selected fairy-rings for several seasons then either
apply fertilisers, particularly calcium-based fertilisers to the
ring-area, or mow the vegetation. Note increase in fruit-body
production, if any, changes in period of fructification or increase in
rate of ring development.

(iii) Prepare transects across the fairy-ring and observe the species
of flowering plants and mosses present, the differences between
species in the two stimulated zones, and the colonisation of the dead
zone by annuals and later perennial grasses and herbs.

(iv) To the soil from each zone apply simple soil-dilution
plate-methods for the culture and isolation of soil fungi and
bacteria. Compare the results with those obtained by similar methods
from soil without the fairy-ring.

(iv) Development of the agaric fruit-body