Chapter XXXVI: Appendix: Study of the American Buzzard and the “john Crow” (4)

Launching speed (‹see also› velocity) … 135, 161, 162

Law of the cube … 129, 130

Lewis, Captain I. N. … 250

Lift of propellers (‹see also› pendulum tests) … 61, 62, 66, 69, 77, 94, 99, 102, 105, 107, 151, 189, 192

Lilienthal, Otto, on efficiency of curves … 44

Lineal velocity … 1, 43, 110, 166

Liquid air … 154

Longitudinal stability … 45–52

Lubrication … 113, 177, 234, 239, 240

M

McDonald, Mr. … 266, 271, 272

McKinley, President William … 123, 124

Macomb, Major M. M., report of … 276–278

Maltby, Mr., machinist … 93–95, 102, 106

Man-carrying machine … 123, 125, 129, 130, 151, 153, 156–187, 234–250, 255–282

Manly, C. M., assistant in charge of experiments … 123, 129, 218–224, 265, 266, 268, 272, 276, 278

― ― ― engine … 219–225

― ― ― formula … 51

― John M., description of flight, by … 260–261

Maxim’s formula for horse-power … 15

Mechanical flight … 2–4

― ― theory of … 1

― ― Dr. Bell on … 4

― ― Mr. Langley on … 3–4

Mica, use of … 63, 72, 115, 257

Models (‹see also› aerodrome model description and trials).

― experiments with … 1, 133–155

― ― ― small … 6–14, 17, 19

― flight of (‹see› trials).

― launching of (‹see also› launching apparatus) … 92–122, 133, 134

― rubber-driven … 5, 8–24, 76

― steam-driven (‹see also› Nos. 4, 5, 6) … 134, 135

― steam, motor, and other … 30–40

Motive power (‹see also› engines, electricity, and fuel) … 8, 11, 21–29, 118

― discussion of … 11

Motors, available (‹see also› engines) … 11, 21–29, 278

― carbonic acid gas … 11, 24, 26, 28, 29, 39, 53, 54

― compressed air … 11, 24, 25, 26, 68, 112, 113

― construction of early types of … 30–40

― electrical … 24, 26, 27, 212, 262, 263

― gas … 26, 28, 37, 131, 137

― gasoline … 24, 37, 65, 125, 131, 179, 210, 218, 219, 224, 277

― gunpowder … 24, 25

― hot-water … 24, 25, 68

― rubber … 5, 8–24, 76

― steam … 24, 25, 30–40

― weight of (‹see also› weight of engines) … 116, 126, 130, 209, 247, 250

Mount Whitney, observations on … 123

N

Nash, Dr. F. S. … 276

National Museum, models in … 282

Needle-valve … 56, 57, 113

Nitric acid, use of … 71

Nomenclature of parts of aerodrome … 14, 15

O

Oiling systems … 113, 177, 234, 239, 240

Open wind, experiments in … 42, 99, 257, 271, 272

Ordinance and Fortification (‹see› Board of).

Oxygen, necessity of … 72

P

Paper covering for rudder … 86, 103

Pénaud, Alphonse, toy aeroplane designed by … 7–9, 21, 22, 40

― tail or rudder … 8, 12, 13, 50, 51, 79, 82, 107, 122, 139–147, 151, 152, 153, 209, 211, 213, 214, 216, 253, 264, 270–272

“Pendulum” test for lift … 60, 61, 66, 94, 131, 135, 211, 212, 214, 232

Percaline for wing covering … 194, 195

Pinion (‹see› gears).

Piston (‹see› engines and cylinders).

Pitch of propellers … 63, 69, 76, 94, 181

Plane (‹see also› wings and surfaces).

― dropper … 150

― surface, angle of inclination of … 6, 8, 41–45, 61, 83, 97, 99, 100

― velocity required to sustain … 1, 43, 110, 166

Pocketing of wings … 84, 86, 100, 195, 203

Potomac River, location of tests on … 93

Power (‹see also› steam, fuel, and electricity).

― development of … 8, 39

― formula for … 62

― generating apparatus … 112, 125

― relation to area and weight … 43

Power-gauge (‹see› dynamometer).

Powell, Major G. H., recorder … 250, 267, 276

Press, attitude of … 127, 268

― report to, Mr. Langley’s … 280

― ― ― Mr. Manly’s … 266–267

Pressure, center of … 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 45–52, 64, 78, 80, 84, 87, 88, 90, 91, 200, 209, 210

― ― ― rules for locating … 49, 87, 88, 90, 101

― ― ― and center of gravity … 10, 11, 15, 46, 48, 64, 98–101, 103

― steam … 24, 30–40, 53–59, 63–75, 101, 114, 117, 134, 135, 137, 141, 142, 149, 150

Pressure-gauge … 114

Prony-brake … 38, 61, 65, 66, 117, 179, 222, 228, 233, 249

Propellers … 7, 8, 11, 13, 22, 40, 68, 69, 94, 95, 102, 103, 108, 109, 118, 119, 136, 139, 143, 145, 149, 178–184, 258, 261, 262, 268, 272, 277

― construction of … 63, 76, 98, 100, 178–184

― early forms of … 7, 8, 11, 22, 33

― lift of … 61, 62, 66, 69, 77, 94, 102, 105, 107, 131, 148, 151, 189, 192

― pitch of … 63, 69, 76, 118, 181

― position of … 39, 63

― shafts of … 39, 117, 175–177, 242

― slip of … 107, 109

― speed of (‹see also› revolutions per minute) … 61, 91, 94, 99, 107, 114, 134, 264, 272

― tests of (‹see› pendulum, lift, and thrust).

― thrust of … 47, 62, 94, 119, 148, 154, 161, 174

― toy … 7, 8, 9, 21, 22

Pumps … 36, 37, 57, 59, 65, 68, 71, 75, 114, 115, 141, 241

― centrifugal … 241, 248

― circulating … 114, 244

― double-acting … 68, 114

― force … 57

Q

Quantico, Va., flights at … 64, 66, 79, 93, 147, 255, 269

Quarter-size model … 158, 159, 170, 226–233, 243, 255, 257–261, 281

Quill, eagle’s, and spruce rib compared … 200, 201

R

Radiator (‹see also› engine, water-cooled) … 252

Randolph, Gen. W. F. … 276, 277

Record of flights (‹see also› data sheets) … 2, 3, 17, 107, 117, 135–155, 255–282

Reed, R. L., chief carpenter … 93–95, 102, 106, 266, 271, 272, 275

Reel attached to float … 119, 120

Relation of area to weight and power … 43, 44, 64, 81, 89, 90, 99

Reservoir (‹see› air-chamber and tank).

Resistance, air … 6, 8, 9, 142

― of frame and guy-wires … 165–167

Revolutions of engine and propellers per minute (‹see also› speed) … 33, 58, 63, 65, 66, 102, 109, 115, 249, 252

Rib, spruce and eagle’s quill, compared … 200, 201

Ribs, construction of … 37, 80, 81, 86, 89, 188, 194–206, 263, 264

Ridgway, Robert, on American Buzzard … 301

Root-angle of wings … 82, 83, 91, 98, 100, 101, 103

Rotation, angle of … 61

― center of … 62

Rubber as a source of power … 5, 8–24, 44, 76

― elastic limit of … 9, 22

― “fatigue” of … 23

― horse-power produced by … 9, 22, 23

― springs … 2, 185

― insulation … 144, 241

Rubber-driven models … 5, 8–22

Rubber-pull and rubber-twisted models … 16–24

Rudder (‹see also› tail) … 8, 9, 77, 80–91, 122, 136, 207–217, 255, 272, 275

― horizontal … 8

― Pénaud’s … 8, 12, 13, 50, 79, 87, 107, 122, 139–147, 151, 209, 211, 213, 214, 216, 253, 270–272, 275

― vertical evolution of … 81, 82, 86, 97, 101, 106

Rudder-tail (‹see› tail-rudder).

S

Sanding-tests of wings … 84, 85, 89, 99, 190–204

“Separator,” evolution of, for dry steam … 58, 59, 65, 68, 114, 142

Serpollet-type boilers … 56, 57

Shafts, main, construction of … 117

― propeller … 39, 117, 175–177, 242

Sharp, Archibald, on balancing of engines … 246

Sheathing, aluminum … 69

― mica … 63, 72, 115

Shop tests … 40, 218, 251–254

Silk wing-covering … 54, 63, 81, 86–88, 90, 148, 194, 195, 205

Sliding tail designed … 16, 84

Smillie, Thomas W., photographer … 260, 267, 271, 273

Smithsonian Institution … 1, 6, 17, 18, 31, 42, 124–126, 171, 174, 176, 179, 257, 260, 271, 276, 280–281

Smoke-stack … 60, 67, 74, 78

Soaring birds, study of (‹see also› appendix) … 7, 9, 88

Soaring-speed … 32, 41, 69

Sparking devices (‹see› electric batteries and circuits).

Specific gravity … 120

Speed attained (‹see also› velocity) … 31, 32, 41, 55, 61, 91, 99, 107, 114, 134, 161, 264

Speed-counter … 62, 120, 185, 243, 249, 252

Spokes, wire … 243

Spruce guy-sticks and frames … 85–87, 90

― ribs compared with quills … 200, 201

St. Louis Exposition tests … 249

Stability, lateral and longitudinal … 45–52, 77

Starter on launching-car … 94, 95

Starting-crank on launching-car … 243, 244

Steam, dry, production of … 58

Steam-chest … 117

Steam-engine … 24, 30–40, 64, 69, 116, 120

Steam-gauge … 114

― construction of frames and … 53–80

Steam-generating apparatus … 114–116

Steam-motors and other models … 30–40, 134, 135

Steam-pressure … 24, 30–40, 53–59, 63–70, 101, 102, 114, 117, 134, 135, 137, 141, 142, 149, 150

Steel, use of … 69, 112, 116, 119, 121, 172, 174, 234, 277

― tubes, for hull … 39, 69, 75, 112, 118, 120

Steering apparatus (‹see also› equilibrium and control) … 214–216, 265, 266, 272

― ― automatic … 30, 77, 211, 216

Steering wheel … 214, 216, 265, 266, 272

Storage batteries (‹see› batteries, electrical).

Stringfellow engine … 30, 31

Superposed wings … 13, 14, 17, 138, 153, 193, 231

Supporting surfaces … 11, 44, 77, 81, 99, 188–206

Supports for propellers … 112

― ― wings and tails … 36, 69

Surfaces (‹see also› planes and wings).

― covering for … 77, 81, 86, 87, 90, 148, 194, 195

― curved … 44, 46

― plane, observations on velocity of … 1

― rigid … 6, 46

― supporting … 11 44, 77, 93, 99 188–206

― sustaining … 1, 5, 41–44, 80–91, 99

― ― and guiding … 5, 80–91

Surgeons’ tape, used for mending ribs … 264

Sustaining surface … 1, 5, 41–44, 80–91, 99

― ― de Lucy on … 19

Symbols … 14, 15

Synchronizing mechanism … 108, 121, 136, 137

T

Table, turn … 156, 165, 166

― whirling … 1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 31, 42, 165, 166, 178, 189–194

Tachometer … 62, 120, 185, 243, 249, 252

Tail … 8, 9, 70, 77, 80, 91, 99, 207–217

― adjustment of … 16, 84

― connections of … 84, 213–216

― covering … 86 103

― Pénaud … 12, 13, 50, 79, 107, 122, 139–147, 151–153, 209, 211, 213, 214, 215

― sliding … 16, 84

― use as guiding and sustaining surface … 80

Tail-rudder … 77, 86, 87, 119, 152, 153

― Langley … 77, 86

Tank, air … 64, 68, 69, 112, 114

― fuel … 36, 65–68, 112, 113

― water … 252

Telephoto camera … 260, 261, 273

Tests (‹see also› engine tests, trials, and flights).

― boilers … 70–75, 135

― construction and … 234–250

― cylinder … 55

― engine … 37, 55, 61, 69, 102, 133, 135, 148, 234–250, 251–254, 281

― experimental engine … 1902–1904 … 250

― frame … 79

― power … 61, 62, 69, 102

― resistance … 165–167

― sanding, of wings … 84, 85, 89, 90, 190–204

― shop, of large machine … 40, 218, 251–254

― St. Louis Exposition … 249

― whirling-table … 1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 31, 42, 165–166, 178, 189–194

― wing … 84, 85, 89, 99, 190–204

Testing ground (‹see also› Quantico) … 64, 66, 92, 93, 255, 256, 277, 280

Thrust, center of … 62

― propeller … 47, 62, 94, 119, 148, 154, 161, 174

Thrust-recording devices … 229, 230

Thurston, R. H. … 128, 129

Time of flights … 103, 107, 108, 109, 137, 145, 148, 258

Torque … 222, 242

Toy aeroplanes … 7, 9, 21, 22, 40

Transmission (‹see also› shaft and gears) … 117, 175–177, 242

Transverse frame … 77, 165, 174–178

Trials, first … 97

― (1891) … 17

― (1892) … 53, 92

― (1893) … 65, 93–96

― (1894) … 65, 96–100

― (1895) … 101–106

― (1896) … 2, 79, 106–109

― (1897) … 123–125

― (1898) … 61

― (1899) … 79, 135–155

― (1903) … 126, 181, 255–282

Tubes in hull construction … 69, 112, 116, 119, 120, 172, 174, 234, 277

Turn-table … 156, 165, 166

Turnbuckle (‹see also› guying) … 170, 171, 172

V

Valve-chest … 114, 213

Valves … 114, 117, 213

― exhaust … 237

― mechanically operated … 114, 213

― motion … 112, 114, 115, 213

― needle … 56, 57, 113, 212

Vaporization … 37, 67, 148, 149

Varnish, collodion … 192

― not affected by ammonia … 198

― pyroxelene … 86

― water-proof … 263, 264

Velocity … 18, 31, 32, 55, 91, 99, 107, 109, 114, 134, 150, 161, 166, 185, 264, 265

― initial … 100, 110, 150, 163

― required to sustain plane … 1, 43, 110, 166

Vertical rudder … 81, 82, 86, 97, 101, 106

Vulcanite, use of … 257

W

War Department, allotment … 124–126, 132, 278, 279

― ― Board of Ordnance and Fortification … 124–126

― ― ― ― ― ― ― Report of … 276–280

Washington Evening Star, report of … 274

Watches, stop, for timing flight … 109

Water, cooling, for engine … 235, 236, 241, 247, 248, 252

Water-engine, hot … 24, 25

Water-jacket … 220, 234, 236

Water-proof varnish … 263, 264

Water-tank … 252

Watkins J. E. … 39

Weight (‹see also› data sheets).

― flying, of aerodrome … 15, 38, 62, 63, 76, 77, 81, 89, 90, 91, 101, 109, 116, 148, 206, 247, 250, 256, 277

― of aerodrome … 31, 38, 40, 53, 62, 63, 116, 126, 130, 206, 256

― ― covering for wings … 194

― ― parts of aerodrome … 31, 63, 116, 190, 250

― ― engine … 116, 117, 126, 130, 156, 209, 247, 250, 277

― per horse-power … 31, 126

― relation to area and power … 43, 44, 64, 81, 89, 90, 96

― total, with aviator … 256

Wellner, Georg … 44, 47

Wheel, fly … 242, 243, 247, 252

― steering … 214–216, 265, 266, 272

Whirling-table … 1, 5, 6, 7, 11, 13, 31, 42, 165–166, 178, 189–194

Widewater, Va., experimental grounds (1903) … 255, 256, 277, 280

Wind, artificial … 42, 61

― difficulties of launching in … 94, 99, 265, 271, 272, 276, 282

― experiments in … 42, 61, 99, 257, 271

― internal work of the … 6, 42

― open … 42, 99, 257, 271, 272

Wind-shield for burners … 60, 67, 95, 115

Wind-vane rudder … 136

Wing-clamps … 82, 89, 145, 183

Wings, adjustment of, for center of gravity … 16

― angle of … 45, 61, 82, 83, 89, 91, 97, 98, 100, 101, 103

― arrangement of … 45–47, 77, 86, 89, 194, 255

― bagging of … 84, 86, 100, 195, 203

― bird, construction of … 7, 188, 200, 201

― boxes for … 263, 264

― construction of … 7, 70, 80, 81, 87, 90, 91, 99, 105, 119, 121, 138, 188–206

― covering of, cloth … 195, 199, 204, 205

― ― ― goldbeater’s skin … 77

― ― ― paper … 86

― ― ― silk … 54, 63, 81, 86–88, 90, 148, 194, 195, 205

― ― ― weight of … 194

― curvature of … 18, 44, 46, 47, 86, 87, 90, 99, 112

― distortion of … 82, 83, 84, 91, 98, 105

― double tier … 13, 14, 17, 138, 193, 231

― efficiency of … 46, 87, 89, 91, 144, 192, 193

― flexure of (‹see› distortion of).

― pocketing of … 84, 86, 100, 195 203

― quills and spruce ribs compared … 200, 201

― ribs of … 37, 80, 81, 86, 89, 188, 194–206

― single tier … 17, 142, 146, 147–151, 153, 192, 193, 231

― superposed … 13, 14, 17, 138, 153, 193, 231

― surface of … 9, 69, 81, 99

― tandem efficiency of … 46, 87

― two sets of … 13, 77, 106, 138, 231

― weight of … 190, 196

Wire guying … 81, 84–91, 99, 164–173, 189, 191, 195, 196, 199, 264, 266

― resistance … 165–167

― spokes … 243

Wooden guy sticks … 63, 81, 85

― ribs … 37, 80, 81, 86, 89, 188, 194–206, 263, 264

Wrecking of large machine … 126, 184, 265–281

Z

Zinc, energy developed from … 27, 241

Zoological Park cameras … 260, 261, 273

TRANSCRIBER'S ENDNOTE

Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some exceptions noted below.

Illustrations are moved from inside paragraphs to between paragraphs.

Footnotes have been renumbered and moved from the ends of pages to the to the ends of the appropriate sections, which are: Advertisement (page iii); Part I; and Part II, up to just ahead of the DATA SHEETS, which have their own footnotes, which were neither moved nor renumbered.

Pages 16–18. Page 16 ended at "with another one, No. 31, also shown", followed by Plates 1–4, followed by page 17, which contained two data tables, followed by page 18, which continued the original paragraph. The transcriber has closed the paragraph, and moved the Plates and tables to follow it.

Pages 31–32. The footnote on page 31 said only "See footnote on page 32." The footnote on page 32 had no anchor in the text. Therefore, to simplify, the page 31 footnote has been eliminated, and its anchor is linked directly to the page 32 footnote. Pages 46–47. The footnote on page 47 had no anchor in the text. However, the footnote on page 46 said only "See Footnote page 47". Therefore, the footnote anchor on page 46 has been linked directly to the footnote on page 47, eliminating the page 46 footnote.

Page 63. The large table was split into two tables, repeating the first column in each part. Large curly brackets "}", "{", indicating combination of information on two or more lines, have been replaced by Unicode box drawing characters, e.g. "│┌┘└┐". Tables in general, and these box characters in particular, may not line up properly unless the user is employing a monospaced font.

Page 140. The paragraph for June 23 originally ended "dotted line in Plate". The transcriber has inserted " 34.", as a guess.

Pages 190–192. The wide tables were split into two, repeating the first column in each part.

Page 193. The wide tables were transposed, row for column.

Page 201. The wide table was split into two.

Pages 297–308, Data Sheets. Remarks originally situated in the tables are appended below each Data Sheet. The units of measurement were originally spelled out—‹m.›=‹Metres›; ‹ft.›=‹Feet›; ‹gr.›=‹Grammes›; and ‹lbs.›=‹Pounds›. In the footnotes to the Data Sheets, in the phrases "curved wings 2-5 the way", and "rear wings have 2-3 of the efficiency", the hyphen seems to mean division, like "/". This usage occurs also in the caption to Plate 85, in "SCALE 1 1-16 INCH TO STATUTE MILE".

Page 299. Item 41, "7 75" changed to "7.75".

INDEX. The original index was structured in a way not suitable for this ebook. The white space on the printed page substituted for words not repeated. Thus, under "Balancing of aerodrome, [ ... ]", were indented entries for "engine", "wings and rudder", &c. This spacing has been rendered herein as a horizontal bar "―", one for each word to be understood as repeated. So in this case, two bars, meaning "Balancing of". Moreover, page numbers referenced by index entries were right-justified and preceded by dotted leaders. Herein, the leaders have been indicated by horizontal ellipsis "…". The leaders in the Table of Contents have also been replaced by ellipses.

Estimating from Internet Archive's stated scanning rate of 400 ppi, the pages were about 6.2 by 9.2 inches. Body text was printed in 9 point type, with 3 point leading, and footnotes were printed in 5.4 point type.