Chapter XI: Introduction (1)

Much has been written by scholars in recent times on the Asiatic extraction of the American peoples; and the attempt has been made, particularly in the United States, to prove such a relationship. This exceedingly interesting subject opens to the investigator a boundless field; but one whose paths are dark and difficult to make clear. Many good reasons can be given for an Asiatic descent of the Americans; on the other hand, objections can be made which cannot easily be set aside. In either case strikingly similar traits have been found in the peoples of the two continents, as may be seen from Delafield's new work, where everything that can be said on the subject has been brought together.[222]

As the traveller stands in front of the long lines of the old Indian burial mound near St. Louis, he can easily believe that he has before him one of the south Russian kurgans. Moreover, surprising correspondences are found from a comparison of the works of art, as well as the intellectual and moral characteristics, of the peoples of Mexico and Peru with those of India and Egypt. But we search in vain for Mongols in North America. When one has seen the Hindoos, Kalmucks, Bashkirs, and Chinese, he will find that the features and complexion of the type of man now inhabiting North America are very different from those of the Asiatic peoples; and will feel justified in regarding the Americans as a distinct race.

The most firmly-grounded objections to the theory of the Asiatic extraction of the Americans seems to lie in the difference in the color of the skin and in the slight relationship of the languages; for the few words related to American, which have so far been sought out with great difficulty in the Asiatic languages, do not appear to have much weight.

D'Orbigny[223] assumes that there are different races among the peoples of America. But even if it is necessary, for the sake of clearness, to make various subdivisions in such an extended and varied population, on the basis of distinguishing characteristics, nevertheless such a division is difficult and arbitrary. If representatives of all these peoples could be brought together, a classification would present fewer difficulties; but great distances often separate related tribes, and memory rarely suffices for making these exact comparisons. I cannot render a decision on D'Orbigny's supposition that in the American branch of humanity the North Americans form a different race from the South Americans, since I have become acquainted with only a small number of the South American nations.

One claim, which seems to me to have decided probability, is that the ancient Mexicans migrated from the more northern parts of the continent of America. There are many indications of this. The hieroglyphic painting of the migration of the people, which later rose to a higher culture in Mexico, which was discovered by Boturini and brought out by Delafield, is, from this standpoint, a highly interesting document.[224] The drawings of the present North American Indians still show many similarities to those of old Mexican pictures, although it must be said that they are much rougher, cruder, and more childish.[225] Therein, also, foot prints are represented when it is desired to show a continued movement of the figures; and other correspondences have already been pointed out. In various places in the account of my travels, I have sought to call attention to them and to the conjectured southward migration of the Americans. The skulls, however, which have been taken from the old burial grounds on the Wabash, do not show that flattening of the heads that is portrayed on Delafield's first plate; but their crowns are rounded just as nature formed them.

All conjectures over the origin and relationship of these peoples must await the more trustworthy conclusions which it will be justifiable to draw from the relationship of their languages; only through more exact knowledge of them can we hope to make progress in this broad and obscure field. Several of the North American dialects are already fairly well known to philologists; for a majority of the rest there are, at least, vocabularies which allow a superficial classification according to relationship. Distinguished American philologists, Duponceau, Pickering,[226] Edwin James, Gallatin, and several others have accumulated much material, but there has been no comprehensive work on the subject. This lack has in part been filled by Mr. Albert Gallatin, whose learned work is in the hands of the publishers.[227] Since at the present time the attention of travellers is being directed more and more to this highly interesting subject, these materials are likely to be largely increased in the near future, and to give American scholars the chance of constantly perfecting their work. Some authors, among them McKenney, in his _History of the Indian Tribes of North America_,[228] do not seem to attach much value to vocabularies collected by travellers. To be sure, these often are handled in a thoughtless and superficial manner; but it must be remembered that in the interior of North America excellent interpreters of the Indian languages may now be found, and that the Indians themselves often fluently speak several languages. Through these agencies interesting contributions to our knowledge of the dialects referred to may always be expected.

In an examination of the tribes of America, the multiplicity of their languages is very striking. These languages are often confined to quite small tribes; their origin is quite correctly explained by Mr. Gallatin.[229] From the interesting work of this scholar it appears, however, that a certain similarity of character belongs to this multitude of tongues--a circumstance that testifies to their common origin as well as to the antiquity of the American population.[230] All this material thus gains value in the eyes of the philologist; and in this connection it is with pleasure to be noticed, that with the extension of these investigations the interest in them in America constantly brings forward diligent co-operators.

Such work would be far easier and much more useful if all the vocabularies were compiled and copied on the same principles. Most of those in existence have been written down by Englishmen, or Anglo-Americans; and as a rule they, like the French, cannot, as Gallatin admits, correctly reproduce the Indian gutturals;[231] yet it is characteristic of all these languages that they abound in gutturals. Another defect in the usual vocabularies, lies in the omission of accents; for these, also, are peculiarly characteristic of the American languages. One of the dialects which I investigated is so difficult to write, that even after the greatest effort I could reproduce but a few words--I refer to that of the Grosventres of the prairies, sometimes called by the English Fall Indians.[232] For this tongue, even the fur trade company had not been able to find an interpreter; and was compelled to carry on all business with those Indians in the Blackfoot language. Most of the other languages of the Missouri Valley can more easily be reproduced by the Germans and Dutch than by other nations; because, as has already been explained, their own speech abounds in gutturals and regularly has hard endings. Consequently the English vocabularies for these tribes are always more or less defective. Pickering felt this very decidedly, and has consequently proposed for his countrymen a notation of tones which is analogous to the German, and which, if it comes into use, will produce most beneficial results. Pickering's scheme requires that the vowels be pronounced in America as follows:

_a_ as in the word _father_,
_e_ as in _there_,
_i_ as in _machine_,
_o_ as in _note_,
_u_ as in _rule_,
_y_ as in _you_ (or as _ee_ in English).

In short, he adopts the German system, completely. In place of the German _æ_ and _œ_, or _ä_ and _ö_, he proposes to write in English _aᵉ_ and _oᵉ_; in place of _c_ to use _k_, a change that will avoid many misunderstandings; and when the pronunciation is hard, to use _z_, etc. If this system had been used earlier, a smaller number of errors would have crept into the works on this subject, and into the translations from one language to another. For instance, my vocabularies of the Brazilian peoples have in places been very incorrectly reproduced by French translators.

Another defect in the usual English system, for such vocabularies, arises from the division of all words into syllables, a method which Duponceau very rightly censured; for in this way the correct pronunciation of the words is generally lost. When the word with its accents has been written as a whole, the division into syllables is the next task, in order thus to reach conclusions regarding its inflection and derivation--something quite indispensable for the philologist. A word divided in the English style into its component parts, could be correctly pronounced neither by a German nor by a Frenchman; besides, every language has its own intonation, not common to others. I have, therefore, held it to be the surest way of making the Indian words intelligible to all my readers, to call to my aid the pronunciation of several nations. For instance, _on_ and _an_, in the Indian languages are spoken, sometimes as in German, sometimes as in French; in such cases I have noted in a parenthesis the system according to which the word or syllable is to be pronounced. Other notes of this character have seemed necessary, and these require the following explanations:--

(1) Sharp _c_ is designated as in French by _ç_.

(2) Guttur. denotes guttural, _i.e._, the German or Dutch
pronunciation.

(3) _aº_ or _oª_ denotes full _a_ or _o_, somewhat like _aw_
in English. Here I might have written _o͡a_; but by using _aº_
and _oª_, I also indicate that the sound of the lower letter
predominates.

(4) d. d. N. (durch die Nase) denotes through the nose: _i.e._,
a nasal sound.

(5) When the sign ½ follows a letter, it means that it is to
be only half pronounced, somewhat as the first _e_ in the
German word _gegangen_, or the second _e_ in the English word
_achievement_.

(6) I have tried to indicate the length of a syllable by adding
an _h_, a plan which I preferred to the ordinary signs ∽ or ⏝,
since these might easily be confused in printing.

(7) A _g_ is often heard at the end of the syllables _on_ and
_an_; consequently I have written them _ong_ and _ang_. This is
the German system, as I have indicated by the word "German."
It is assumed that the philologist will be familiar, at least
in general, with German as well as with French and English
pronunciation.

(8) As the French acute accent seemed to me entirely adequate
for indicating the correct intonation of the Indian words, I
have chosen it to show on what letter or syllable the emphasis
is to be placed. Occasionally, owing to haste or lack of time,
it may have been forgotten or omitted.

(9) In the case of the letter _j_, I have not followed Mr.
Pickering's scheme, for everyone knows how it is pronounced in
French and in German. When it has the former value--as very
often in the American languages--I have noted "French:" _i.e._,
pronounce as in French. In no other way, it seems to me, can
the soft French _j_ be clearly indicated.

(10) The German guttural sound _ch_, as in the syllables _ach_,
_och_, or _uch_, is, as Gallatin observes, difficult for
Englishmen and Frenchmen;[233] but it occurs everywhere in the
American languages, and the reader must learn it if he wishes
to pronounce such words correctly.

(11) The _r_ is never pronounced by these peoples as a
guttural, but always with the point of the tongue against
the roof of the mouth; _d_ and _r_, as well as _r_, _l_,
and _n_,[234] are quite often interchanged, or indistinctly
pronounced.

(12) On the syllable _in_, I have often noted that _n_ is to
be pronounced as in French: _i.e._, the syllable _in_ does not
sound like _ain_ in French, but merely the _n_ is pronounced as
in French; the whole sound is, therefore, almost _i_ nasal, and
only a little at the end sinks to _n_.

It is the duty of every traveller in distant, little-known lands to make contributions, according to his ability, to the knowledge of their languages; hence I have brought together in the following pages my own notes, however insignificant and incomplete they may be, under the difficulties which stand in the way of such work. The ignorance of the interpreters, their lack of sympathy with any kind of scientific investigation, the frequent unwillingness of the Indians to assist, superstitious and unintelligible ideas, and lack of time and leisure--these usually combine to make such examinations difficult. When, here and there, I detected some deviations from Mr. Gallatin's vocabularies, it was my duty to record them in order to aid investigation and come nearer the truth. The fault-finding spirit would certainly never prompt me to this, since we are concerned here, not with the use of the material, but with the former method of collecting it.

I have written these vocabularies, in part from the pronunciation of the Indians themselves; in part, from that of interpreters, who are usually half-breeds, and therefore thoroughly acquainted with the Indian as well as with the French or English languages--they have, at least, lived for a long time with those nations; finally, in part from the pronunciation and with the kind assistance of the Indian agent, Major Dougherty,[235] who speaks several of these languages fluently. From some tribes, owing to lack of time or interpreters, I have obtained but few words; from others, more; the most complete vocabularies are in the Mandan and Minnitarri languages, because I passed the winter among them. While I was living with the Mandans I undertook something of a grammatical study of their language; but unfortunately its continuation and completion were interrupted by illness.

Since but a moment was sometimes at my disposal for collecting a few words, I chose a list of twenty of those that frequently occur, and asked for them first, in order to make a comparison and draw conclusions regarding the relationship of the tribes. These words were as follows:

sun
moon
star
god
fire
water
earth
man
woman
child
head
arm
hand
hair
eye
mouth
bow
arrow
tobacco pipe
tomahawk

In each of the vocabularies I have noted the source from which it was obtained. The order in which the tribes are arranged is not according to linguistic relationship, but alphabetical for the sake of easier reference.

From an examination of the following examples of the languages of twenty-three peoples it appears, as is observed by the Rev. Dr. Reck, a philologist,[236] that the Sauki, Musquake, Kickapuh, Ojibua, and Krih tribes belong together--a circumstance that has long been known. The speech of the Wasaji [Osage], Konsa, Oto, Omaha, Punca, Dacota, Assiniboin, and Mandan tribes appear to be only dialects of the Dacota (Sioux) linguistic group, of which the last, which I can give most completely, has been but little known. The ten remaining tribes seem to be more foreign to one another--only between the Blackfoot and Snake (Shoshone) dialects, do we find word relationships. There are likewise many similarities between the Mandan and Minnitarri languages; but these, as I was repeatedly assured, arose only after the two peoples had lived near each other, as I have already related elsewhere in the account of my travels. The name of the deity is "manito" among the Musquake [Fox], Sauki, Kickapuh, Ojibua, and Krih tribes, all of which belong to the Algonkin, or Algic linguistic group; among the seven tribes of the Dacota group, it is "wakonda," or "wakanda," which has the same or a similar meaning in half of the tribes mentioned. The word for water is very similar among most of these people, and the name of the tobacco pipe is the same or similar in half of the dialects.

First and last, various corrections have been made in these lists; yet they remain incomplete, and further observation will add many new corrections. I must, therefore, as always, request consideration from learned critics. Finally, I must note that if in the body of my narrative some words are not written as in the vocabularies, the spelling of the latter is to be preferred.[237]

FOOTNOTES:

[222] S. Delafield, _Inquiry into the origin of the antiquities of America_. Cincinnati, 1836.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ The author is John Delafield, Jr., and the work bears the imprint of New York, London, and Paris, 1839. A few copies are also marked Cincinnati, 1839.

[223] For d'Orbigny, see our volume xxiii, p. 300, note 273.--ED.

[224] Chevalier Lorenzo Boturini Beneduci was an Italian scholar who came to Mexico in 1736 on a mission for a descendant of Montezuma. Becoming interested in Mexican antiquities, Boturini spent eight years in making a valuable collection of aboriginal manuscripts; but having incurred the suspicion of the government, he was imprisoned and his collection confiscated (1745). On his return voyage to Spain, whither he was sent for trial, the galley was captured by the English, and the last vestiges of his antiquities disappeared. In Spain he sought redress, which was granted him, but this of course did not restore his collection. While in Spain he published _Idea de una nueva historia general de la America septentrionale_ (Madrid, 1746), in which appears a catalogue of this collection. A portion was recovered, and is now in the museum in the City of Mexico. The manuscript seen by Delafield was the property of William Bullock (for whom see our volume xix, preface), who was also a specialist in Mexican antiquities.--ED.

[225] Consult Plate 55, in the accompanying atlas, our volume xxv; also the authorities quoted in note 53, p. 184, of Brackenridge's _Journal_, in our volume vi.--ED.

[226] For Duponceau, see our volume xxii, p. 29, note 3.

John, eldest son of Timothy Pickering, the Massachusetts statesman, was born at Salem in 1777; being graduated from Harvard (1796), he began the study of law at Philadelphia, where his father was in residence as a member of the federal cabinet. The following year, however, John went to Portugal as legation secretary, being transferred to the embassy at London, where he remained until 1801. Returning to Salem, he again devoted himself to the legal profession, also to linguistic studies which he had diligently pursued abroad, making contributions to Greek philology, and publishing a lexicon of that language. He was offered chairs of both Hebrew and Greek at Harvard, but declined, preferring to live in Boston, whither he removed in 1829. His interest in North American linguistics was awakened (1819) by Duponceau's work, and the following year he published an "Essay on a Uniform Orthography for the Indian Languages of North America," in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences _Transactions_, iv. He also edited, with copious notes, John Eliot's _Indian Grammar_, Jonathan Edwards's _Observations on the Mohegan Language_, and Father Sebastian Rasle's _Dictionary of the Abnaki Tongue_; and prepared the article on North American languages for the _Encyclopædia Americana_. Pickering was a member of many learned societies, at one time being president of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and was granted the degree of LL. D. by both Bowdoin (1822) and Harvard (1835). His death occurred at Boston in 1846.--ED.

[227] See _Archaeologia Americana_, vol. 2. Cambridge, 1836. In this volume is Mr. Gallatin's _Synopsis of the Indian tribes within the United States east of the Rocky mountains_.--MAXIMILIAN.

[228] See our volume xxii, p. 29, note 3.--ED.

[229] Mr. Gallatin (p. 151) expresses himself on this subject as follows:--"on the other hand, the great extent of ground necessary to sustain game sufficient for the subsistence of a very moderate population, compels them (the Indians) to separate and to form a number of small independent communities. It may easily be perceived that the perpetual state of warfare, in which neighboring tribes are engaged, had its origin in the same cause which has produced the great diversity of American languages or dialects. We may also understand how the affections of the Indian became so exclusively concentrated in his own tribe, the intensity of that natural feeling, how it degenerated into deadly hatred of hostile nations, and the excesses of more than savage ferocity, in which he indulged under the influence of his unrestrained vindictive passions."--MAXIMILIAN.

[230] Gallatin, _Ibid._, p. 142.--MAXIMILIAN.

[231] _Ibid._, p. 4.--MAXIMILIAN.

[232] See on these Indians, Franchère's _Narrative_, in our volume vi, p. 371, note 183.--ED.

[233] Gallatin, _Ibid._, p. 4.--MAXIMILIAN.

[234] _Ibid._, p. 45.--MAXIMILIAN.

[235] For Dougherty, see our volume xiv, p. 126, note 92.--ED.

[236] Johann Friedrich von Recke, born at Mitau, in Livonia, in 1764, early turned his attention to historical and linguistic pursuits. Educated under a brother of Emanuel Kant, he studied at Göttingen with Professor Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, who later gave an impetus to Maximilian's investigations. About 1785 Recke retired to Mitau where for over forty years he was state archivist, with leisure to pursue his special investigations. As a philologist his fame rests on his _Allgemeinen Schriftsteller und gelehrten Lexikons der provinzen Livland, Esthland, und Kurland_ (Mitau, 1827-32). It would appear that Maximilian consulted Dr. Recke upon the analogies of his Indian vocabularies.--ED.

[237] In transcribing the Indian words of these vocabularies, the word divisions and diacritical marks of the German edition have been copied exactly as they stand, save when the division of a word at the end of a line has necessitated an additional hyphen. Most of the diacritical marks are explained by the author in his introduction. The vertical accent seems to be used to indicate secondary, or less emphatic stress; the horizontal superior ° appears, likewise, to be used to show that the sound is less prominent than when the usual superior ° is used.

Exact translation of the German words has been very difficult in some cases, owing to the entire absence of context. The parentheses following the English contain alternative or explanatory words. Some of these are given by Maximilian himself, some lie in the form of the German word, and some are supplied by the translator.--TRANSLATOR.

ARIKKARAS (Rikkaras; French, Ris)[238]

=American= (an), Nehsikuss (Long Knife, the name which the
Americans have among all Indian nations).

=Arm=, ui̍hnu (_uih_ very long; _nu_ very short and low).

=Arrow=, ni̍h-schu (_nih_ with strong accent; _sch_ very short
and falling in tone).

=Autumn=, niskútsch.

=Beans= (the fruit), a̍ttika-hunáhn.

=Beard=, hakaráhnuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Bird=, nix.

=Black=, tecati̍h.

=Blind=, tschirikarúch (_uch_ guttural).

=Blood=, páhtu (_u_ barely audible).

=Blue=, tischidanáhuisch.

=Bone=, dje̍h-schu (_schu_ short and low; _je_ French).

=Bow=, náhtsch (_sch_ hissed softly at the end; German
throughout).

=Bow-lance=, na̍hts-saha̍hn.

=Brave=, ui̍hta-nakóh.

=Brave= (n), ui̍hta-ti.

=Bridle= (horse), hah-karachkóhku (_ach_ guttural; _koh_ with
strong emphasis).

=Brook=, taháhneni-kaki̍rihu.

=Brother=, ináhn (_i_ barely audible).

=Chief= (leader), däscháhn.

=Child=, pi̍hrau (German throughout; _r_ with the point of the
tongue).

=Cold=, tipsi̍h.

=Come here=, schi-schá (both short); or, schi-schá-pisch, come
here quickly.

=Dance= (v), tiráhnaui̍sch-uischu (very short; run together).

=Day=, tiuëne-sáhkaritsch (second _e_ ½; the last word low and
short).

=Deaf=, kaketschiesch (first _e_ ½; otherwise German throughout).

=Devil= (evil spirit), sziri̍tsch (same word as for wolf).

=Die= (v), necksáhn.

=Door=, hihuattóhnin (_nin_ short and low; _hih_ together).

=Dream= (v), itcháhn (_it_ barely audible; _ch_ guttural).

=Drink=, metetschi̍hka.

=Dumb=, wakárru (_u_ barely audible).

=Ear=, atkaha̍hn (_at_ barely audible).

=Earth=, honáhnin (_n_ barely audible; _nah_ very long; German
pronunciation throughout).

=Enemy=, páh-tu (like word for blood).

=Englishman=, Sáhnisch-takapsia (_a_ low and short; _i_ and _a_
separated).

=Evening=, hinách (_ach_ guttural).

=Eye=, tschiri̍hko (_ko_ short and low).

=Father=, hiáchti (_ti_ low and short; _ach_ guttural).

=Feather=, hi̍h-tu (_u_ barely audible; the whole run together).

=Fire=, ha-ni̍h-tu (_ha_ short; _tu_ barely audible; the whole
run together).

=Fish=, tschiuátsch (_t_ indistinct; _ua_ like _wa_).

=Flesh=, sászsch.

=Fog=, uettetara̍nsa (_e_ full value).

=Forehead=, nikakinn.

=Forest=, waráhkt (_t_ barely audible; _r_ with the point of the
tongue).

=Frenchman=, Sáhnisch-táhka.

=Friend=, sih-nánn (German, run together).

=Go= (v), tiuáhwanuck.

=God=, pachkátsch (_ach_ German guttural).

=Good=, tunahä.

=Great=, teüitschähs.

=Green=, same word as for blue.

=Gun=, tnáhku (_t_ and _u_ barely audible), or nahku.

=Hair=, u̍hchu (_ch_ guttural; _uh_ guttural sound; final _u_
very short).

=Hand=, éschu (_u_ barely audible).

=Head=, pá-chu (_ch_ guttural; the whole run together).

=Heart=, ui̍ssu (_u_ indistinct).

=Heat=, tah-weri̍stu (_u_ short; the whole run together).

=Horns= (of stag), warikaráhn.

=House= (hut), akáhn.

=Hunger=, tiriuatä̍.

=Hunt= (v), tiráhuisch-kaë̍hsch (_a_ and _e_ separated; _e_ and
_h_ together).

=I=, náh-tu (_tu_ short; run together).

=Ice=, nachéhtu (_ch_ guttural; _u_ short and low).

=Island=, auáhk (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Jar= (pot), kószsch.

=Knife=, nisi̍tsch.

=Laugh= (v), täwa̍chko (_ko_ short and low).

=Lead= (ball), nischtiúidu.

=Leg=, káhchu (_u_ barely audible).

=Life=, ti̍hko (_ko_ short and low).

=Lightning=, hunachtschipsch.

=Maize=, nä̍hschü (_schu_ very low and short).

=Man=, ui̍t-h (_h_ prolonged as an aspiration).

=Meal= (to eat?), teuah (_e_ and _u_ separated).

=Medicine=, tiua̍hruchi (_i_ and _u_ separated; _ti_ short; _ah_
with strong accent; _uch_ guttural).

=Medicine drum=, akadéhwuchnahch (_ch_ guttural; _wuch_ and
_ahch_ very indistinct).

=Medicine pipe=, napàhruchti (_uch_ guttural).

=Moon=, pa̍.

=Morning=, hina̍chtit.

=Mother=, scha̍chti (German; _i_ indistinct).

=Mountain=, wáo-tiri̍huh.

=Mouth=, hah-ka̍u (_kau_ together, with the accent).

=Much=, tiráhnehun (_e_ full value; _un_ like _oun_ in French).

=Negro=, sa̍hnisch-kahtitt.

=Night=, uettekattih-si̍ha (_e_ full value; final _a_ short and
low).

=Nose=, sini̍ht.

=One-eyed=, tschirikak-cho (_ch_ like a guttural breath).

=Partizan= (leader of a war party), däschtschi̍ta (German
throughout).

=People= (folk), sa̍hnisch.

=Pipe= (tobacco), nauschkatsch (German throughout).

=Pouch= (for ammunition), ischtachkóhku (_ach_ guttural).

=Powder= (gun-powder), it-ka̍hn (_it_ barely audible; otherwise
German).

=Pumpkin= (the fruit), neka̍hse (first _e_ full value; final _e_
½).

=Quick=, pi̍sch.

=Quiver=, uachtáss (_ach_ low; _uach_ very low, in the throat).

=Rain=, uettasuhe (_e_ ½).

=Rattle= (sysyquoy, or gourd-rattle), atschihikúchtsch (_uch_
guttural).

=Red= (color), tippaha̍ht (_t_ barely audible).

=Red= (to paint red), tippaha̍hnu (_u_ barely audible).

=Revenge= (v), uëuittetut-kaui̍ht (_aui_ separated; likewise
_ue_).

=River=, sahá-nin (German throughout).

=Saddle=, anari̍tschi-tauï (the whole low; _ta_ together; _a_,
_u_, and _i_ separated).

=Scalp=, uittirah-hunnu (_nu_ very short and barely audible; _u_
and _it_ separated).

=Sick=, tenáhchehu (_ch_ guttural; _e_ full value).

=Small= (short), kakirihuh.

=Smoke=, tira̍h-uchschka̍ (_uch_ very short guttural; _schka_
very strong emphasis).

=Snow=, huna̍ho (_o_ short and low).

=Speak=, tihuáhwachtéhku (_u_ short and low; _ach_ guttural).

=Spirits= (distilled), séh-sannach (_ach_ guttural as in German).

=Star=, sakka̍h.

=Stingy=, tähui̍ss-ch (_ch_ guttural prolonged).

=Stirrup=, achkatatáu (_ach_ merely a guttural sound, nearly
_ch_).

=Stone=, kanéh-tsch (_tsch_ merely hissed at end).

=Strong=, tetárach-tschisch (last word loud with emphasis; _ach_
guttural).

=Sun=, schakúhn (German).

=Sunflower= (helianthus), stschüpünáh-núhchu (_ch_ guttural).

=Sweet=, uettáh.

=Teeth=, a̍hna (_a_ barely audible, thus nearly _ahn_).

=Thunder=, uaruchte-teuachnáho (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Tobacco=, nahuischkáhn (_nah_ together; _uisch_ like _wisch_,
merely a hiss).

=Tobacco-pouch=, nanochkóhku (_och_ guttural; _koh_ rather
indistinct).

=Tomahawk= (with the pipe), katarátsch-nauschkatsch (German
throughout).

=Tomahawk= (without the pipe), katarátsch.

=Tongue=, háhtu (_u_ barely audible).

=Toothache=, tikuchkaráhnu (_uch_ guttural; _nu_ short and low).

=Trail=, hatúhn.

=Ugly=, kakúchne (_ch_ rather indistinct; _e_ ½).

=Village=, etúhn.

=War=, na̍minakohn, i.e., to fight.

=War-club= (with the iron head), akachtáhka (_ach_ guttural).

=Wash=, tani̍h-karúhku (final _u_ short and low).

=Water=, stóh-cho (_st_ with the point of the tongue; _ch_
guttural).

=Weep= (v), titschi̍ck.

=White= (the color), tetschéh-schauatá (together).

=White-man=, sáhnisch-thaka.

=Wind=, tihútt.

=Winter=, hunáhka (_a_ merely a guttural aspirate).

=Wood=, náh-ku (_u_ low and short; run together).

=Wood= (piece of), natsch (German throughout; same word as for
bow, but pronounced shorter).

=Yellow=, tirachkatáh (_ach_ German guttural).

=Yes=, haa (nasal).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope= (general term), nanonatsch; the buck, arikatoch (_och_
guttural); doe, achkahuahtaesch.

=Bat=, wa̍hch.

=Bear= (black), mató.

=Bear= (grizzly), kúhnuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Beaver=, tschi̍ttuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Bighorn=, arikússu; usually arikúss.

=Buffalo= (bull), hoh-kúss; the cow, watahésch.

=Deer= (black-tailed), tahkati̍tt.

=Deer= (common), nochnuna̍hts (_noch_ barely audible).

=Dog=, chahtsch (_ch_ guttural, German throughout).

=Duck=, kúh-ha (_ha_ merely a breathing).

=Eagle= (bald-headed), ari̍chta (_ich_ German, with the point of
the tongue).

=Eagle= (war), dä̍htach-ka̍ss (_ach_ guttural).

=Elk= (general term), ua̍; the stag, ua̍-nukúss; the doe,
uaua̍taesch.

=Fox= (gray), tschiwakóh-kussohtara̍huisch (_rah_ together; _u_
and _i_ separated).

=Fox= (prairie), tschiua̍hk (_ua_ separated, accent on _uahk_,
abruptly ended).

=Fox= (red), tschiwakúh-kuss.

=Horse=, chawa̍hruchtä (_ch_ and _uch_ guttural).

=Moose=, wah-sucha̍rut (_ch_ guttural).

=Mule=, chawaka̍du (_du_ barely audible; _ch_ guttural).

=Otter=, tschita̍hpat, or tschittahpatte (_e_ ½).

=Skunk=, nimbi̍tt.

=Swan=, scha̍htu (_tu_ very short).

=Turtle=, tschi̍u-ha̍hn (_i_ and _u_ separated: _i_ accented;
_hah_ very strong emphasis; the whole run together).

=Wolf= (gray), sziri̍tsch-tehunéhnoch (_e_ full value).

=Wolf= (prairie), pachka̍tsch (_ach_ guttural; same word as for
god).

=Wolf= (white), sziri̍tsch-sta̍hka.

_Articles of Dress and Implements_

=Breechcloth=, mischa̍ch-kaë̍htu (_ach_ guttural; _ka_ and _eh_
separated; _tu_ short).

=Buffalo-robe=, sahóhtsch (German throughout).

=Hair-ornament= (the crow), nachkúch-katóch (_ch_ guttural).

=Head-dress= (the long hood of feathers), pachta̍hruka-wüe (_ach_
guttural; _wu_ and _e_ separated; _e_ ½).

=Leggings=, gógutsch (_go_ guttural; _o_ full; German throughout).

=Moccasins=, chútsch (_ch_ guttural).

=Necklace= (of bear's claws), kunúch-chwü̍tu (_ch_ guttural).

=Powder-horn=, pah-ri̍h-ku (_ku_ short).

=Sledge=, ta̍ruch-ta̍hsch (_uch_ guttural).

=Whip=, pi̍nnuch (_uch_ a strongly hissed, low guttural sound).

=Wolf-tail= (ornament for heel), ha̍chtit-kutawö̍ (_hach_ merely
a guttural sound like _ch_).

_Numerals_

=One=, a̍chku (_u_ barely audible; _ku_ merely a guttural
aspirate).

=Two=, pi̍ttcho (_o_ barely audible; _cho_ merely a guttural
aspirate).

=Three=, ta̍h-uitt (_uitt_ very short and low; _tt_ barely
audible).

=Four=, tschetéhsch (_e_ full value).

=Five=, si̍-huch (_huch_ low and short; an aspirate).

=Six=, tscha̍hpis (_pis_ short and low).

=Seven=, taui-scha̍hpis-uahn (the last two words run together;
_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Eight=, tauischa̍hpis (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Nine=, nochenéh-uahn (_ch_ guttural; first _e_ ½).

=Ten=, nochén (_ch_ guttural).

=Eleven=, pitkóche-nëuahn (first _e_ ½; _ne_ and _u_ separated;
_ch_ guttural).

=Twelve=, pitchóchin (_ch_ guttural; _in_ German).

=Twenty=, uïta̍.

=Thirty=, sauï (_a_ and _u_ separated).

=Forty=, pitkonane-nonchen (_on_ French; _chen_ as above).

=Fifty=, here they begin again with ten and count to one hundred
by tens; fifty is thus five times ten.

=Hundred=, schucktahn; i.e., all the tens.

_Names of Rivers_

=Bighorn=, Arikúss-okaháhn.

=Cannonball=, Natschi̍o-háu (_i_ accented; _i_ and _o_ separated;
_hau_ pronounced together as in German).

=Grand=, Sáchkau-waháhn (_ach_ guttural; _au_ together as in
German, but barely audible).

=Heart=, Tostschi̍ta.

=Knife=, Ésitsch-kaháhn.

=Little Bighorn=, Ariksúh (really Arikússu)-kaháh-schiripáss.

=Little Missouri= (upper), Okaháh-tschiripáss.

=Missouri=, Swarúchti (_uch_ guttural); or Hokaháh-ninn (_nin_
German), i.e., Medicine-water.

=Muddy= (upper), Hohrutschítt (_r_ with the point of the tongue;
German throughout).

=Musselshell=, Skápedoch-saháhn (_och_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=Powder=, Kanáchtu-suhukaháhn (_ach_ guttural; German throughout).

=Rivière à Moreau=, Kadi̍h-kahi̍tt.

=Rivière au castor=, Zitech-saháhn (_zi_ German; _ech_ guttural;
_e_ nearly the same as ü, and barely audible).

=Rivière au rempart=, Laráh-páhwi.

=Rocky Mountains=, Wagátti-stáhga (_ga_ German; _sta_ with point
of the tongue).

=Square Butte creek= (Butte-carrée) Tschi̍h-issu (emphasis on the
first word; the second word low; German throughout).

=Teton=, Sih-sawi̍h-tii; i.e., the stagnant water.

=Tongue=, Hatúhu-kaháhn (German, run together).

=White= (lower), Hokahach-kúss (_ach_ guttural).

=White-earth=, Horúss-tuhusscháhn (German throughout; _ch_
guttural).

=Yellowstone=, Wáh-hukaháhn.

_Names of Neighboring Tribes_

=Arrapahos=, Schahä̍.

=Assiniboins=, Pa̍hoak-sa̍.

=Blackfeet=, Chochkátit (_ch_ guttural; last _t_ barely audible).

=Crows=, Tuch-káh-ka (_uch_ guttural; _ka_ low and short).

=Dacotas=, Schaónn.

=Minnitarris=, Uïtatt-saháhn.

=Pahnis=, Tschi̍hrim (_ri_ very short).

FOOTNOTES:

[238] Written from the pronunciation of the Arikkara Indians themselves. The words are pronounced exactly as in German; _ch_ has almost always a guttural sound; _r_ is spoken with the point of the tongue. Mr. Gallatin remarks (_ibid._, p. 129) that up to this time there has been no vocabulary of this tribe; it is, therefore, gratifying to me to be able to fill this gap, at least to some extent.--MAXIMILIAN.

ASSINIBOIN[239]

=American= (an), Mi̍na-haske (_e_ ½; run together); i.e., Long
Knife.

=Arm=, nistó.

=Arrow=, uahi̍ntepä (_pa_ short; _e_ ½).

=Bird=, sittekanne (_e_ only ½ in both cases).

=Black=, sáhpa.

=Blind=, chóncha (_ch_ guttural; _on_ French).

=Blood=, uä̍.

=Blue=, schunktóh (_o_ full).

=Bone=, hóh.

=Bow=, nta̍sipa (_n_ barely audible).

=Brave= (adj), uïuktschasch (German).

=Brook=, kachä̍ (_ch_ guttural).

=Brother=, mitschi̍nna.

=Child=, hokschinn.

=Cold= (adj), osni̍h.

=Dance= (v), uatschi̍we.

=Day=, ampa (_am_ French).

=Deaf=, nóge-wanintsche (_ge_ guttural; second word low).

=Devil= (evil spirit), uakan-schi̍dja (_an_ and _dj_ French and
soft).

=Die= (v), ti̍nktä (_t_ separated from _i_, and barely indicated).

=Door=, tióhpa.

=Dream= (v), ui̍-hamana (_hamana_ short and low).

=Drink= (v), me̍nat-ki̍nte (first _e_ ½; _te_ short and low).

=Dumb=, non-chäk-kpah (_on_ French; _ch_ guttural).

=Ear=, nóhge (_g_ guttural).

=Earth=, manká.

=Enemy=, toͣge (_o_ between _a_ and _o_; _e_ ½).

=Englishman=, Uasiáh-maschidju (_j_ French; second word low and
without emphasis).

=Evening=, chtaiétu (_ch_ guttural).

=Eye=, nischta̍.

=Father=, atä̍.

=Feather=, hen (_n_ French; the whole nasal).

=Fire=, pähte (_e_ barely audible).

=Fish=, hogan (_an_ French; _g_ guttural).

=Flesh=, tanó (_o_ short).

=Forest=, tschon-tanke (_on_ French; _tanke_ German; _e_ ½).

=Frenchman=, Uaschi̍dju (_j_ French and soft; final _u_ short).

=Friend=, koná (_a_ short).

=Go= (v), honktáu (_au_ pronounced together).

=God= (the creator), uakán-tang-e (_an_ French; _e_ ½; the whole
pronounced together; _tange_ lower than the first word).

=Good=, uaschtä̍ (_ta_ cut short with emphasis).

=Great= (tall), hanska (_an_ French).

=Green=, tóh (_o_ full).

=Gun=, tschótange (German throughout; _e_ ½).

=Hair=, pahá.

=Hand=, nampä̍.

=Head=, páh.

=Healthy=, tä̍hdja (_dj_ French; _a_ short).

=Heart=, tschantä̍.

=Heat=, oni̍nitta.

=Horns=, tahä̍; the name of the animal is added, e.g.,
tatánka-tahä̍, buffalo horns.

=House= (of the white-man), uaschi̍-dutti (_dutti_ without
emphasis).

=Hunger=, oah-tink-täch (_ach_ guttural; the whole pronounced
together).

=Hunt= (v), eiámeia (_ia_ together; the whole short).

=I=, meiä̍ (_ia_ together).

=Ice=, tscháh.

=Island=, uï̍ta (_ta_ short).

=Jar= (pot), wóhan-pe-ä (_an_ French; the whole pronounced
together).

=Knife=, mi̍hna (_na_ short).

=Laugh= (v), ncháh (_ch_ guttural).

=Lead= (ball), mandassú (_an_ French).

=Leg=, hussänn.

=Life= (n), uintschone (German throughout; _e_ ½).

=Lightning=, uaki̍än-tua̍mpi (_n_ and _am_ French; _pi_ short).

=Man=, uïtschá (_ui_ separated).

=Meal= (to eat?), wótinkä (_o_ full; _ta_ short and low).

=Moon=, hayétu-hiáye (_e_ ½).

=Morning=, háhkena (_kena_ even and rather low).

=Mother=, iná (_a_ short).

=Mountain=, chä̍ (guttural).

=Mouth=, ih.

=Much=, o̍hta (_oh_ full).

=Negro=, hatsáhpa.

=Night=, kpása.

=Nose=, póhge (_o_ full; _g_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=One-eyed=, schtakeba (_e_ ½).

=Pipe= (tobacco), tschanú-hupa (_hupa_ low).

=Powder= (gun-powder), tschachni̍.

=Quick=, kontschüe (_on_ French; _schue_ short and rapid).

=Red=, scháh.

=Revenge= (v), aóin-tsï̍a (_in_ German; _i_ and _a_ separated).

=River=, sih-uatpáh-tanga (_tanga_ low; the whole pronounced
rapidly together).

=Sick=, uaiasa.

=Small= (short?), tschihk-at.

=Smoke= (n), schóhta.

=Snow=, uáh.

=Speak= (v), i-á.

=Spirits= (distilled; i.e., literally fire-water), meni̍h-pä̍ht
(run together).

=Star=, uitschachpe (_ch_ guttural; _e_ ½).

=Stingy=, uate̍china (_ch_ guttural; _china_ short).

=Stone=, i̍ng-a (run together and nasal).

=Strong=, menih-han (_an_ French).

=Sun=, hanuï (_an_ French; _u_ and _i_ separated).

=Teeth=, hi̍h.

=Thunder=, uaki̍an (_i_ and _a_ separated; _n_ French).

=Tobacco=, tschandi̍.

=Tomahawk=, tschanúpa-tschachpä (_ach_ guttural).

=Tongue=, tschä-ji̍ (_ji_ short and French).

=Trail=, tskankú.

=Ugly=, schi̍djä (_j_ French; _e_ short).

=Village= (camp), uïntschóti (_ti_ short).

=War=, ketschi̍sawe (_awe_ short and low).

=Warmth=, tschäki̍.

=Wash= (v), jujaje (_jaje_ French; _e_ ½).

=Water=, meni̍h (_e_ ½).

=Weep= (v), tschä̍a (_tscha_ together).

=White= (the color), ska̍la (_sk_ with the point of the tongue).

=Widow=, uïtaschnau (nasal; _nau_ pronounced together).

=Wind=, katä̍.

=Winter=, uaniä̍to.

=Woman=, huï̍na (_hui_ nasal; _na_ short).

=Wood=, tschán (_an_ French).

=Yellow=, si̍h (soft).

=Yes=, hán (French).

_Numerals_

=One=, ua̍ntscha (_an_ French).

=Two=, nompa (_om_ French).

=Three=, ja̍mene (_ne_ short).

=Four=, tópa (_o_ full).

=Five=, sa̍hpta.

=Six=, schahkpe (_e_ ½).

=Seven=, schagoë.

=Eight=, schaknóga (_a_ short).

=Nine=, namptschúnak (_n_ French).

=Ten=, uïktschemane (final _e_ ½).

=Eleven=, akéhuaji (_ji_ French; short).

=Twelve=, akéh-nómpa (_om_ French).

=Twenty=, tschimna-nómpa.

=Twenty-one=, tschimna-nómpa akéh-uaji: and so on in the same way.

=Hundred=, opan-uache (_an_ French; _e_ full value; _opan_ with
emphasis and loud; the whole indistinct and rapid).

* * * * *

=I eat=, woáht-atsch (_woa_ almost like _uoa_).

=You eat=, uaiáta.

=He eats=, juht-atsch.

=We eat=, wóh-untáhpi (_untahpi_ without emphasis).

=You eat=, uitáta-hetsch (together).

=They eat=, wóht-atsch (together).

=I shall eat=, héianko-toh-uauat-atsch (the whole pronounced
together).

=I would eat=, jenk-uaua-tschinkte.

=I have eaten=, uauáht-atsch.

=Eating=, uanóh-uóhmantucke (_e_ ½).

=Eat= (imperative) uóhtam (_o_ full).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, tatógana.

=Bear= (black), ui̍nketschenna (_ke_ barely audible; _na_
likewise).

=Bear= (grizzly), mató.

=Beaver=, tsápe (_e_ ½).

=Bighorn=, hä̍hktschischka.

=Buffalo=, tatánga.

=Dog=, schónka (_on_ French).

=Elk=, choiá (_ch_ guttural).

=Fox= (gray), tohk-hanne (_e_ short).

=Fox= (red), schonga-schanne (_e_ ½).

=Horse=, schón-atanga (_schon_ with emphasis; _n_ French;
_atanga_ low).

=Mountain goat= (white), schunkä̍-ukänne (_e_ ½).

=Otter=, peta̍n (_an_ French; _e_ short and ½).

=Skunk=, manka̍h.

=Wolf=, schunk-tógitsche (_e_ ½).

FOOTNOTES:

[239] Written from the pronunciation of the half-breed interpreter, Halcro.--MAXIMILIAN.

BLACKFOOT[240]

=American= (an), Omakstoä; i.e., Long Knife.

=Arm=, ot-tiss.

=Arrow=, a̍pse (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Bird=, pehkseü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Black=, sicksinámm.

=Blind=, náh-pesti (_e_ ½; _pesti_ short).

=Blood=, ahah-pane (_pane_ short; _e_ ½).

=Bone=, ochkinn (_och_ guttural).

=Bow=, spikenn-áhmai (_mai_ German and together; _sp_ with the
point of the tongue).

=Boy= (small boy), sa-kú-man-pö (_an_ French; _o_ distinctly
pronounced); usually pronounced sachkó-ma-pö (_ach_ guttural).

=Brave= (a trusty man), iehkitappeh (_ie_ German).

=Brook=, asséh-tachtay (_tach_ guttural and very short).

=Brother= (elder), nehs.

=Brother= (younger), niskánn.

=Chief= (n), nachkóhzis (_ach_ guttural; _zis_ low); or ninau
(_au_ together, and German).

=Child=, póh-ka.

=Dance= (n), paskáhn.

=Day=, kristikui (_kui_ together).

=Deaf=, sanastóke (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Die= (v), ä̍nih (accent on _a_); i.e., he is dead.

=Door=, kitsi̍mm.

=Dream= (v), papokahn.

=Drink= (v), simih.

=Drink= (imperative), simii̍tt.

=Dumb=, katä̍h-puie; i.e., one who does not speak.

=Ear=, ochtóhkiss (_och_ guttural).

=Earth=, ksáchkum (_ach_ guttural; the whole German).

=Eat this=, auáttoht (_au_ together).

=Enemy=, kachtumm.

=Englishman=, Suiápä.

=Evening= (towards evening), attakui (_ui_ together).

=Eye=, o-abs-pih (_oabs_ together; German).

=Father=, ninnah.

=Feather=, mami̍nn.

=Fire=, sti̍h (_st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Fish=, mami̍h.

=Flesh=, ehksakuy (German; _uy_ together).

=Forehead=, oh-niss.

=Forest=, atsoahskoi (_koi_ German and together).

=Frenchman=, Náhpi-kuäcks.

=Friend=, this word is wanting; my kinsman, nézichkáoah (_zich_
guttural; _kaoah_ short).

=Girl= (small girl), ah-ké-kuann (German).

=Go=, ätapoh; i.e., he has gone; the infinitive is wanting.

=Go= (imperative), estapóht (_e_ barely audible).

=God=, their god is the sun.

=Good=, achséh (_ach_ guttural).

=Great= (tall, used of men), espitáh.

=Green=, kómonä.

=Gun=, náhmay (German).

=Hair=, same word as for head.

=Hand=, o̍h-ke-ti̍ss (_i_ almost like _u_ umlaut).

=Head=, oh-tu-kuáhn (_kua_ together).

=Healthy=, katäkiuaht; i.e., he has no sickness.

=Heart=, uskitsi-pachpé (second _i_ barely audible; _ach_
guttural).

=Heat= (it is hot), kristotisséh (_tis_ very short).

=Horn=, ohtsihkinnah; the name of the animal is always added.

=House= (their lodges), moiéhs.

=Hunger=, nitóh-nontsi (_on_ French).

=Hunt= (v), sáhme (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=I=, nistó.

=Ice=, sahkukotoh.

=Kettle= (iron), äski̍.

=Knife=, stoa̍nn (_st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Laugh= (v), ajimih (_ji_ German).

=Lead= (musket ball), uaksopánn (_uak_ together).

=Leg=, ohchkatt (_ohch_ guttural).

=Live= (he still lives), sa̍keh-tapéh; i.e., he is still in the
world.

=Man=, nahpe (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Meal= (to eat?), oyé-ü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Moon=, kokui-éta-úawakah (_ui_ pronounced together).

=Morning=, skonna̍h-tonni̍h.

=Mother=, nikrist.

=Mountain=, messtäck.

=Mouth=, ma-å-ih (pronounced together).

=Much=, akajimm (German).

=Negro=, siksahpä-kuä̍nn; i.e., a black Frenchman.

=Night=, kohkui (_ui_ together).

=Nose=, ohkrississ.

=Old= (an old man), náhpe, or nahpi (final _e_ or _i_ short).

=One-eyed=, apa̍u (_au_ together as in German).

=People= (two young people in love), neta̍kka.

=Pipe= (tobacco), akuï-nima̍hn (German).

=Powder= (gun-powder), satsóhpats (German).

=Quick= (go quickly; hasten), kipanétsit.

=Red=, ahsa̍hn.

=Revenge= (I have taken revenge), nitäht-skitáh.

=River=, omachkéh-táchtay (German throughout; _ach_ guttural);
i.e., a large river.

=Sick=, pastimmä̍hsi, or aiochtokúh (_och_ guttural).

=Small=, enakutsi (_kutsi_ very short, almost _tsi_).

=Smoke= (n), sahtsi̍h.

=Snow=, kóhn.

=Speak= (v), äpuiéh (_ieh_ pronounced together).

=Spirits= (distilled), sti̍och-keh (_och_ guttural; _st_ with the
point of the tongue).

=Star=, kakatóhs (German throughout).

=Stingy=, sickimisi̍h.

=Stone= (rock, or cliff), o̍hkotock.

=Strong=, miskapéh; i.e., a strong man; miss, a strong horse.

=Sun=, nantóhs (_an_ French; otherwise German).

=Sweet=, the word does not occur; they say, good to eat, achséh
(_ach_ guttural).

=Teeth=, ochpéhkinn (_och_ guttural).

=Thunder=, kristikúmm.

=Tobacco=, pistáchkan (_ach_ together).

=Tomahawk=, kaksáhkin (German).

=Tongue=, matsinnih.

=Track= (trail), ochsokui (_och_ guttural; _ui_ together); a word
is added to tell whether of men or a certain animal.

=Trail=, ochsokui (_och_ guttural; _ui_ together).

=Ugly= (not good), pachkápe (_ach_ guttural; _e_ full value).

=War= (to go out to war), sohóh.

=Wash= (v), siskiochsatis (German; _och_ guttural).

=Water=, ochkéh (_och_ German guttural).

=Weep=, auáhsann.

=Widow=, this word is wanting; they say in general, a woman who
has no husband, náhmakeü (final _u_ barely audible).

=Wind=, suppúy (_sup_ almost like _sep_; the whole German).

=Winter=, this word is wanting; they say, the cold, stuyä̍h
(German; _st_ with the point of the tongue).

=Woman=, ah-ké.

=Wood=, mehsti̍ss.

=Yellow=, otachkui (_ach_ guttural; _ui_ together).

=Yes=, a̍h.

_Numerals_

=One=, séh.

=Two=, náhtoka.

=Three=, nohóka.

=Four=, nehsohúi (_ui_ together).

=Five=, nehsitó.

=Six=, nau (_u_ and _a_ separated; _u_ indistinct).

=Seven=, äkitsikkům.

=Eight=, nahnisuji̍m (German throughout).

=Nine=, pehksúh.

=Ten=, kehpúh.

=Twenty=, náhtsipo.

=Thirty=, nehépu (_e_ distinctly pronounced).

=Forty=, nehsi̍ppu.

=Fifty=, nehsitsi̍ppu.

=Sixty=, nä̍hpu.

=Seventy=, äkitsikki̍ppu.

=Eighty=, nahnisi̍ppu.

=Ninety=, pähksi̍ppu.

=Hundred=, käpippu.

=Thousand=, kipipi̍ppi.

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, auokáhs (_au_ short and together).

=Bear= (black), si̍ku-kiä̍yu (German throughout).

=Bear= (grizzly), a̍poch-kiäyu (_och_ guttural).

=Beaver=, kéhstake (_e_ pronounced distinctly).

=Bighorn=, ä̍mach-ki̍kinägs; plural, ä̍mach-ki̍kinä; from ämach,
meaning large horns.

=Buffalo= (bull), stomi̍ck.

=Dog=, emitá.

=Elk=, purnokä̍hstomick.

=Horse=, purnakö̍mitä (_mita_ short).

=Moose=, sikitisuh.

=Mountain goat= (white), apumachkikiná (_mach_ German guttural).

=Otter=, emonä̍hs.

=Skunk=, a̍hpikaieh (_ah_ accented; _pi_ short).

=Wolf= (common gray), sikkapéhs.

=Wolf= (prairie), sehnipa̍h.[241]

FOOTNOTES:

[240] Written from the pronunciation of the interpreter Berger, and several Blackfoot Indians.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ For Berger, see our volume xxiii, p. 23, note 11.

[241] The words from the Blackfoot language given by Gallatin (_ibid._, p. 373), are for the most part, incorrectly written. We find, for instance, that in the word _pistachkan_ the copyist avoided the guttural sound and wrote _pistarkan_. I must also remark here that Townsend in his _Narrative of a Journey across the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia River_, speaks in very exaggerated terms of the Blackfoot Indians. This is due to the fact that his information came from trappers and fur hunters who usually have the greatest respect for those Indians who are their bitterest enemies. On the other hand, what Townsend says of the injustice of the fur hunters towards these Indians is thoroughly justified.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Townsend's Narrative is published in our volume xxi.

CHAYENNE (Shyenne of the Anglo-Americans)[242]

=Arrow=, mah-hóss.

=Axe=, jóh-ie-wúch (German throughout; _uch_ guttural).

=Bad=, iháwa-süwa (very short).

=Bow=, máh-tachk (run together; _ch_ guttural).

=Bullet=, wihóh-imáh-husch (the last three syllables are run
together).

=Cherries=, máhmenuss.

=Chief= (leader), wi̍h-hu (_hu_ short; _u_ between _o_ umlaut and
_u_).

=Child=, kaichkúnn (_ich_ guttural).

=Day=, wawóhn.

=Far= (distant), háh-iss.

=Father=, ni̍ho-ä̍h.

=Fire=, hoi̍sta.

=Fire= (to kindle a fire), dä̍cho-ihä̍s (_ch_ guttural).

=God=, okúhme (_e_ ½).

=Good=, ipáua (_a_ and _u_ separated; final _e_ very short).

=Great= (of bodies), hiáh-est (_hi_ together; _ah_ together;
_est_ distinctly pronounced).

=Gun=, mah-ah-tán (run together; _ma_ short).

=Head=, mi̍hk (_k_ with a peculiar breathing).

=Kettle= (of metal), máï-taï-tó.

=Knife=, wó-tach-ke (_ach_ guttural; _ke_ very short).

=Left-handed person=, náhbuchs (_uch_ guttural; _s_ audible).

=Little=, o̍ch-kumm (_och_ guttural).

=Man=, itán.

=Man= (old), waháhkis (_kis_ low).

=Man= (young), cassuáhä.

=Mother=, nachkuä̍ (_ach_ guttural).

=Much=, iháhstuch (_uch_ guttural).

=Near=, kách-kiss (German; _ach_ guttural).

=On that side= (of the river), o̍hhä-hohúmm.

=On this side= (of the river), o̍hhä-hastó.

=One-eyed= (a one-eyed man), o̍kinn.

=Pipe= (tobacco), hióchko (_och_ guttural; _ko_ almost like _ke_,
_e_ ½).

=Poor= (to be poor), staminóhha (_st_ with the point of the
tongue; _ha_ very short; the whole run together).

=Powder= (gun-powder), páï.

=River=, o̍h-hä (pronounced as if _oh-o-a_).

=Rocky Mountains=, Húh-hunáu (_nau_ together).

=Small= (of bodies), i̍kokesta (all syllables equal).

=Sun=, ischä̍.

=Water=, má-pe (_ma_ nasal; _pe_ short; _e_ full value; the two
syllables run together).

=Weep= (v), i̍h-acháh (_ih_ with emphasis; _ch_ guttural).

=Wife=, hi-i̍h-u (run together).

=Woman= (old), machta-máh-hä (_ach_ guttural; the whole run
together).

* * * * *

=Comrade, I am going to sleep=, húa-manna-aus (German throughout;
_u_ and _a_ separated; accent on _u_; _aus_ together).

=Comrade, let us smoke=, húa-hi̍hputt.

=Comrade, take care of the kettle=, hóa-niomů̈st-nomostetúnn.

=Give to me=, ni̍sta (_ta_ short).

=I have finished=, ihi̍hs (with strong emphasis; abruptly ended).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, wóh-ka (run together; _ka_ lower).

=Bear= (grizzly), náchku (_ach_ guttural).

=Buffalo= (bull), hottúe (_u_ and _e_ separated).

=Buffalo= (calf), wohksá (_sa_ short).

=Buffalo= (cow), issiwóhn.

=Dog=, chotónn (_ch_ guttural).

=Elk=, mo-úi (_ui_ together).

=Hedge-hog=, ichtú-messi̍mm (_ich_ German with the point of the
tongue; _e_ ½).

=Horse=, woindohámm (_oi_ separated).

=Mule=, akéhm.

=Wolf=, hoh-ni̍ (_ni_ short).

_Names of Indian Tribes_

=Arikkaras=, O̱̤̠̍hnunnu (short).

=Awatichay= (village) [Minnitarri], Amatsichá.

=Crows=, Hóh-otann.

=Dacotas=, O̱̤̠̍hohma.

=Mandans=, Wi̍hwatann.

=Minnitarris=, Honúhn.

=Minnitarris= (the small village) [Ahwahnaway], Hahpeiu (_e_ full
value; _peiu_ short and separated into two syllables).

=Pahnis=, Hóh-ni-tánn.

=Ruhptare= [Mandan village], Wóh-ah (run together).

FOOTNOTES:

[242] Written from the pronunciation of a Mandan Indian. The Chayennes call their nation Istayú (German pronunciation). Gallatin says (_ibid._, p. 124) that they formerly lived on the Red River near Lake Winipik [Winnipeg]. They were driven out by the Sioux, according to Mc Kenzie, and now live at the sources of Chayenne River, a branch of the Missouri. What Gallatin states regarding the signatures of the treaty in the Dacóta language is something which repeatedly occurs, since there are frequently no interpreters for little-known nations, and recourse must be had to the translation of other Indians. I shall instance a similar case in connection with the Mandan language, where the signatures of a treaty were translated into the Minnitarri language by Charbonneau.--MAXIMILIAN.

CROW (Corbeau)[243]

=Arm=, a̍hdä.

=Arrow=, annúhtä.

=Bow=, mannáchi-iahsä (the last word even and lowered in tone).

=Child=, wah-káh-tä (run together).

=Eye=, ischtä̍.

=Fire=, biddä̍ (short).

=God= (the ruler of life), búattä (_u_ and _a_ separated; _ta_
short).

=Hair=, ichsi̍e (_ich_ German with the point of the tongue; _si_
and _e_ separated; _e_ ½ and short; _i_ with strong accent).

=Hand=, ischsä̍.

=Head=, a̍nschua (_an_ French; _sch_ and _u_ separated; _a_
short).[244]

=Man=, matsä̍.

=Moon=, minitásia (_sia_ short and low; _i_ and _a_ a little
separated).

=Mouth=, i̍h-a (_a_ very short and ½; pronounced together).

=Pipe= (tobacco), i̍impsä (accent on the first _i_; separated
from the second _i_).

=Star=, ichkä̍.

=Sun=, achá-se (run together; _se_ distinctly pronounced but
short).

=Tomahawk=, mani̍htsip-ihpse (_an_ French; _e_ distinctly
pronounced).

=Water=, minä̍.

=White-man=, máeste-schi̍hrä; literally yellow-eye.

=Woman= (wife), mi̍a (_mi_ run together; _a_ separated; the whole
short).

FOOTNOTES:

[243] Written from the pronunciation of a Crow Indian. They pronounce the words in the manner of the Minnitarri; _ch_ is guttural, _r_ is spoken with the point of the tongue unless there is an exception noted. According to Donald Mc Kenzie who lived among the Crows (Gallatin, _ibid._, p. 125), they number some three hundred lodges and three thousand souls. This seems to me to be a correct estimate.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ Gallatin doubtless intends Kenneth (not Donald) Mc Kenzie, for whom see our volume xxi, p. 45, note 25.

[244] According to Captain Bonneville, it is called _popo_ in the Crow language; this does not agree with my experience.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ This refers to Washington Irving, _Rocky Mountains; or Scenes, Incidents and Adventures in the Far West_ (Philadelphia, 1837).

DACOTA (Sioux) of the band of the Yanktonans[245]

=American=, Mi̍na-haska (_haska_ nasal); i.e., Long Knife.

=Arm=, istó.

=Arrow=, uahi̍tpe (_ua_ nasal).

=Beard=, putä-hin (_n_ French; _hin_ nasal).

=Bird=, sitká (_s_ soft).

=Black=, sáhpa.

=Blind=, ischtá-chon-gä (_ch_ guttural; _on_ French; _g_ in the
roof of the mouth; _chonga_ nasal and without emphasis).

=Blood=, uä̍h.

=Blue= (also green), tóh.

=Bone=, huh-huh.

=Bow=, itáh-sipa (_itah_ with emphasis; _si_ very short; _pa_
without emphasis).

=Brave= (adj), uadi̍take (_uadi_ with emphasis; _e_ ½ or a little
more; _take_ lower and without emphasis).

=Brook=, uathpanne (_e_ short).

=Brother=, tschi̍-ä (emphasis on the first syllable).

=Child=, okschiókapa.

=Cold=, sni̍h.

=Dance= (v), uatschi̍.

=Day=, hanposka (_an_ French).

=Deaf=, nóchät-pá.

=Die= (dead), táh.

=Door=, thiópa (_i_ and _o_ somewhat separated).

=Dumb= (v), ihéschni (_ni_ short).

=Dream= (v), uihamana (_ui_ together; _hamana_ short and rapid).

=Drink= (v), uatkan (_an_ French).

=Ear=, nónchä (_on_ French; emphasis on _non_; _ch_ guttural; low
and short).

=Earth=, manká (_an_ French).

=Enemy=, tohk-ha.

=Englishman=, Sakedaschi (_e_ short; _i_ barely audible).

=Evening=, chta-ié-tu (_chta_ guttural; _ie_ together; _tu_
short).

=Eye=, ischtá; one-eyed, pschtat-pä̍.

=Father=, atä̍; i.e., my father.

=Feather=, uï̍-iak-ha (_ha_ guttural; _iakha_ low and short).

=Fight= (n), ketschehsap (first _e_ short).

=Fire=, pä̍hta.

=Fish=, rochan (very guttural; _an_ French).

=Flesh=, tadó.

=Fog=, pó (_o_ full).

=Forest=, tchán (_an_ French).

=Frenchman=, Uaschi̍djo (_jo_ French and very short).

=Friend= (comrade), koͣdá (great friend); or ketschi̍uah (friend).

=Go= (v), máhni (_ni_ short).

=God= (the creator), uakán-tanka (_an_ French nasal); i.e., great
spirit.[246]

=Good=, uaschtä̍ (_ua_ almost like _wa_; run together).

=Great=, hánska (_an_ French).

=Green=, tóh (_o_ rather full).

=Gun=, mansak-han (_an_ French; the whole run together).

=Hair=, pihi̍.

=Hand=, napä.

=Head=, páh.

=Healthy=, uaschtä̍; or uaiá-saschni (last word short and low);
i.e., not sick.

=Heart=, tschåtä̍.

=Heat=, didi̍tach (_ach_ German guttural).

=Horns= (antlers; and horns of all animals in general), hä; the
name of the animal is added.

=House= (lodge), tihpi.

=Hunger=, wóta-wacheda (all syllables of second word even).

=Hunt= (v), uïheni (_e_ short; the whole indistinct, short,
nasal, and run together).

=I=, miä̍.

=Ice=, tschága (_g_ in the roof of the mouth).

=Island=, uï̍hta (_u_ and _i_ separated; _ta_ short).

=Jar= (pot), tschä̍ga (_g_ guttural; _ga_ short).

=Knife=, mi̍hna (_na_ short).

=Laugh= (v), icháh (_ch_ guttural).

=Lead= (metal), mansassuh (_an_ French).

=Leg=, húh.

=Lightning=, uakán-hädi̍(_an_ French; _hadi_ short).

=Live= (life?), uanickt.

=Lodge or tent= (of leather), wakä̍a.

=Man=, uïtscha.[247]

=Meal=(to eat?), wóhta (_ta_ short).

=Moccasin=, hánpa (French).

=Moon=, hahépi-uïh (first word rather nasal).

=Morning=, hi̍h-hanna (emphasis on _hih_; _hanna_ low and short).

=Mother=, inan (_an_ French).

=Mountain=, chä (_ch_ guttural).

=Mouth=, ih.

=Much=, ö̍hta (_o_ full; _ta_ short).

=Negro=, uaschi̍tschu-sáhpa (run together).

=Night=, hanhöp (_an_ French).

=Nose=, póhchä (_ch_ guttural; _a_ short).

=Pipe= (tobacco), schandúh-hupa (_hupa_ short and low, without
emphasis).

=Powder=, tschachedi̍ (_ch_ guttural).

=Quick=, kohán (_an_ French).

=Red=, duhta.

=Revenge= (v), itoh-kidjuh (emphasis on first word; _j_ French;
second word lower).

=River=, uathpá; the Missouri, Uathpá-mnischoschá; i.e., the
river with muddy water.

=Sick=, uaiasa (short).

=Small=, tihstina.

=Smoke= (n), schóhta (_o_ full; _ta_ short).

=Snow=, uáh.

=Speak= (v), jáh (_i_ and _a_ separated).

=Spirits= (distilled), meni̍h-uakán (_an_ French); i.e. divine,
or medicine water.

=Star=, tscháchpi (_ach_ guttural).

=Stingy=, ocha̍n-schitscha (_ochan_ with emphasis; second word
without emphasis; the whole short and run together).

=Stone=, ihia (emphasis on _i_; nasal).

=Strong=, waschahke (_e_ ½; _ke_ short).

=Sun=, uï̍h.

=Sweet=, skúia (_sk_ with the point of the tongue).

=Teeth=, i̍h.

=Thunder=, uaki̍n-a (_n_ French, nasal; _a_ short).

=Tobacco=, tschandi̍h (_an_ French).

=Tomahawk=, onspä̍-tschanupa (final word without emphasis and
lower).

=Toothache=, ih-asan (_asan_ French).

=Trader=, wópäton-uïtschásta (_o_ full; _on_ French; last word
short).

=Trail=, tschankuh.

=Ugly=, schi̍dja (_ja_ French).

=Village=, otón-a (_on_ French; _a_ short; the whole nasal).

=War=, suiá (_s_ soft).

=Warmth=, päti̍schka.

=Wash= (v), waiújaja (_jaja_ French, without emphasis, and low;
_iu_ German).

=Water=, meni̍h.

=Weep= (v), tschä̍a (final _a_ short).

=White=, skáh.

=Widow=, juá-sitscha (_j_ and _u_ separated).

=Wind=, tatä̍h.

=Winter=, uani̍ete (_u_ and _a_ separated; _e_ very short in both
cases).

=Woman=, uïïa (_ui_ nasal).

=Wood=, tschan (_an_ French).

=Yellow=, si̍h (softly pronounced).

=Yes=, ha̍n (French nasal).

_Numerals_

=One=, wántscha (_an_ French).

=Two=, nómpa (_om_ French).

=Three=, jámen (_men_ German and low).

=Four=, tópa (_o_ full).

=Five=, sáhptan (_s_ very soft; _an_ French).

=Six=, scháhkpe (_pe_ short; _e_ ½).

=Seven=, schakoï (_o_ and _i_ separated).

=Eight=, schákedoch (German).

=Nine=, nahptschi̍-uanká (_uan_ nasal; _n_ French; last word
without emphasis, nasal, and low; the whole run together and
short).

=Ten=, uïktschémna (_u_ and _i_ separated; _na_ short).

=Twenty=, numm.

=Twenty-one=, uïktschemna-nom-sommuaji (the whole run together
and short; _ji_ French).

=Thirty=, jamen.

=Forty=, toop; or toom.

=Fifty=, sáhpta.

=Sixty=, scháhkpe.

=Seventy=, schakoï.

=Eighty=, schakedoch.

=Ninety=, nahptschiuanká.

=Hundred=, opánuachä (_an_ French; _u_ and _a_ separated; _ch_
guttural; the whole run together and short; _uacha_ nasal).

=Thousand=, iktó-panuachä (_an_ French; the whole run together
and short).

* * * * *

=I eat=, uauáhta (_u_ and _a_ separated).

=You eat=, uayáta (German).

=He eats=, uóhtä (_u_ and _o_ like _w_; _o_ full; _ta_ short).

=We eat=, o̍ntape (in pronouncing _tape_ the voice falls; _pe_
distinctly pronounced).

=They eat=, uóhtapä (_o_ full).

=I shall eat=, uauáhtäkta (_u_ and _a_ separated; _takta_ low and
without emphasis).

=I have eaten=, uauáhta.

=I had eaten=, hähan-uauáhta (_an_ French).

=I would eat=, hähan-uauáhta-net-schetscha (last word short and
rapid).

=Eat= (imperative), uóhta-io (together; _o_ full).

=Eating=, uóh-tä-sa (_sa_ short).

_Names of Animals_

=Antelope=, tatóhka; or tatókana (_na_ rather inaudible).

=Bear=, (black), uachánk-sitscha (emphasis on _chank_; _sitscha_
low).

=Bear= (grizzly), mantó (_an_ French).

=Beaver=, tscháhpa (_pa_ short).

=Bighorn=, kihská.

=Buffalo= (bull), tatánka; cow, ptäh; calf, ptäh-sidja (_j_
French); the general word is that for cow.

=Dog=, schónka (_on_ French).

=Elk=, upán (_pan_ nasal; _an_ French); this is the general word.

=Elk= (stag), acháhka (_ch_ guttural).

=Horse=, schónka-uakán (_on_ and _an_ French): erratum says read
i̍hia.

=Otter=, ptán (_an_ French).

=Skunk=, mankáh (_an_ French, very short, and barely audible;
_kah_ loud and with emphasis).

=Turkey= (wild), sisitscha-kanka (_s_ soft; _kan_ in the throat).

=Wolf=, schuk-tóketscha-tanka.

=Wolf= (prairie), mi̍htschak-si̍h.

FOOTNOTES:

[245] Gallatin writes "Dahcota;" but I think that it is more correct to write Dacóta. He divides the Sioux into a northern and a southern group; and includes in the latter division eight tribes, the Quappas, or Arkansas at the mouth of the Arkansa river, the Osages, the Kansas, the Ayowäs (Jowas), the Missouris, Otos, Omáhas, and Puncas, since they speak dialects of the Dacóta language (Gallatin, _ibid._, p. 127).--MAXIMILIAN.

[246] Not _wakatunka_, as Vail says. This name is composed of two words; and, therefore, is not to be written as one. The first word, _uakan_, less correctly _wakan_, is the expression for god, divine, supernatural; the second, _tanka_, not _tunka_, means great. Vail and others also very often write _uakan_, incorrectly _wah-kon_. The Dacóta words which I give here are written from the pronunciation of the half-breed interpreter, Ortubize.--MAXIMILIAN.

_Comment by Ed._ This reference is to Eugene A. Vail, _Notice sur les Indiens de l'Amerique du Nord_ (Paris, 1840).

[247] Mr. Gallatin (_ibid._, p. 195) thinks that the word _uitschá_ is an abbreviation of _uitschasta_. I cannot decide the question with certainty. The singular number, man, was always given to me as _uitscha_; _uitschasta_ seems to me to be the plural, or a general term, as for instance, in the word _uitschasta-iuta_, man eater.--MAXIMILIAN.