Chapter I: =General Differentiation=

294. Some faults are inherent; they are a part of the pupil’s individuality. Others have sprung up in the course of time; and of these, again, some have been influenced by the factor of individuality more than others. Faults that the pupil commits are left out of account for the present. With increasing years some of the inherent faults grow, others diminish. For there is a continual change of relation between that which man derives from experience,--between those ideas which rise spontaneously, and those masses of ideas which approach stability. There is, besides, an ever varying succession of diverse reproductions. All this change is pervaded throughout by the consciousness of one’s own body (the original base of support for self-consciousness) with respect not merely to its needs, but also to its powers of motion and fitness for use. Again, the apprehension of the similar is being multiplied; the ideas of things approximate to general concepts. In addition, the process of judging is shaping more and more the material presented; accordingly the manner in which the individual analyzes and puts in order his knowledge becomes gradually determined. On the one hand there is a growing confidence of affirmation; on the other, questions remain, the answer to which is given over to the future. In part they become transformed into longing expectation.

Upon all that has been enumerated, the physical organization of the individual exerts retarding and furthering influences. The effect of the body is seen in a certain physiological resistance to psychical processes, and in strong physical impulses far more complex, no doubt, than ordinary experience shows.

295. Very frequently the fact forces itself upon us, that persons who have passed through many vicissitudes of fortune can nevertheless be recognized by individual traits that were already noticeable in youth. Here a certain uniformity reveals itself in the characteristic way and manner in which such persons involuntarily seize upon and work up various impressions. In order to arrive at a just estimate of his pupils, the teacher should observe this permanent element as early as possible.

Some always know the right moment and whither it calls them; they always perform the nearest duty, and have their stock of knowledge uniformly well in hand. Others bury themselves in thought, and give themselves up to hopes and fears, to plans and projects: they live in the past or in the future, resent being disturbed by the present, and require time and effort to bring themselves back to it. Between the former and the latter are found others, who do indeed note the given and the present, not, however, to take it as it appears, but rather to look beyond, for the purpose of spying what lies concealed behind, or in order to move, displace, interfere, perhaps to distort, ridicule, and caricature. With many the tendency described is merely superficial. They play and tease--a common manifestation of youthful animal spirits. Now the question arises: how much seriousness lies back of the playfulness. How much depth beneath the animated surface? Here temperament enters as a factor. The play of one with a sanguine temperament comes to an end; but where sourness of temper is habitual, there danger threatens, if, as commonly happens, sport turns to earnest. Self-assertion plays a part also, manifesting itself in various ways. It assumes one form in him who has confidence in his strength, physical or mental, and another form in those who know their weakness--with or without the mental reservation as to the future employment of artifice or cunning, and so also with more or less acknowledgment of the superior power or authority. Passionate playing, on the whole, implies little seriousness; but may well indicate sensitiveness and a propensity to freedom from restraint. Prudence in sport is a sign of ability to take the opponent’s point of view, and to foresee his plans. Love of play is far more welcome to the teacher than indolence, or languid curiosity, or gloomy seriousness; it is one of the minor faults, if now and then work is forgotten over a game and time wasted; the situation is more grave, sometimes very grave indeed, where extravagance, or greed of gain, or secretiveness, or bad company is involved. In such cases decided interference on the part of the teacher is necessary.

296. Since courage and rationality grow with increasing years, the faults of mere weakness leave room for hope of improvement, although there is need of an invigorating mode of life, invigorating physically and mentally, and of counsel and reproof in particular instances. Under continued watchful care weak natures improve much more than at first thought would seem to be likely.

297. Unsteadiness, continual restlessness, where they accompany good health without being the result of external stimulation, are doubtful indications. Here it will be well to look to the sequence of thoughts. Where, in spite of variableness in general, thoughts are sound and well connected, this restlessness is not a serious matter. The case is worse when the opposite is true, especially when the vascular system appears very irritable, and dreamlike reveries occur. Here the danger of insanity is seen lurking in the distance.

The appropriate treatment for such pupils consists in holding them strictly to definite tasks, especially to those occupations that compel a close observation of the external world, and in exacting the performance of the work assigned, without failing to encourage whatever is undertaken from choice.

298. Sensual impulses and violence of temper are apt to go from bad to worse as pupils grow older. Against these, careful supervision, earnest censure, and the whole rigor of moral principles must be brought to bear. Momentary ebullitions of passion, however, unless persistently obstinate attempts are made to justify them, need to be handled gently, that is, as evils calling for precaution and vigilance.

299. The faults hitherto noted lie for the most part on the surface. Others have to be studied as occasion offers in instruction.

There are minds so dull that even the attempt merely to secure connection with definite portions of such thoughts as they have does not succeed. Easy questions intended to raise their ideas into consciousness only increase the resistance to be overcome. They are seized with embarrassment from which they seek to escape, sometimes by a simple, “I don’t know,” sometimes by the first wrong answer that comes to hand. Mental activity has to be enforced, yet remains feeble at best, and it is only in after years, under pressure of necessity, that they acquire some facility for a limited sphere. Others, whom one would be inclined to call contracted rather than generally limited, because by them reproduction is performed successfully but within a narrow compass, exhibit a lively endeavor to learn, but they learn mechanically, and what cannot be learned in that way they apprehend incorrectly. These undertake, nevertheless, to form and express judgments, but their judgments turn out to be erroneous; hence they become first discouraged and then obstinate. Again, there are those whose ideas cannot be dislodged, and still others whose ideas cannot be brought to a halt. These two classes call for a more detailed consideration.

300. Among the various masses of ideas (29) some necessarily acquire permanent predominance, others come and go. But if this relation reaches full development and becomes fixed too early, the controlling ideas no longer admit of being arrested to the extent necessary for the reception of the new material offered by instruction. This fact explains the experience that clever boys, notwithstanding the best intentions to receive instruction, yet frequently appear very unreceptive, and that a certain rigidity of mind, which in later manhood would not occasion surprise, seems to have strayed, as it were, into boyhood. No one should allow himself to be betrayed into encouraging such narrowness by commendatory terms such as pertain to strength and energy; just as little, however, should clumsy teaching and its sequel, listless learning, be left out of account, as having no bearing on this state of affairs.

For, rather may it be assumed that the fault mentioned might have been largely forestalled by very early instruction of all kinds, provided such instruction had been combined with a variety of attractive rather than of too difficult tasks. Where, on the other hand, mental nervousness has once taken root, it cannot be eradicated by all the art and painstaking effort of a multitude of teachers. When the questions of a child, six years old let us say, give rise to the apprehension that they proceed from a too contracted mental horizon, there should be no delay about resorting to manifold forms of stimulation, especially in the way of widening the pupil’s experience to the greatest practicable extent.

301. On the other hand, it is not rare to find boys, and even young men, in whose minds no one thought-mass attains to any very prominent activity. Such boys are always open to every impression and ready for any change of thought. They are wont to chat pleasantly, and to form hasty attachments. Here belong those who learn easily and forget as quickly.

This defect, too, when once confirmed, resists all skill and good intentions; strength of purpose, from the very nature of the case, is out of the question. The situation varies in gravity, however, according to the influences of the earliest environment. If these proved distracting, the fault mentioned assumes alarming proportions even in minds otherwise well endowed. But where some form or other of necessary respect has been steadily at work, the youth will raise himself to a higher plane than the boy gave promise of doing. Least of all, however, can the teacher allow himself to be betrayed into hoping for a future development of talent by superficial alertness, combined, it may be, with droll fancies, bold pranks, and the like. Talent reveals itself through persistent endeavor, sustained even under circumstances little favorable to it, and not until such endeavor clearly manifests itself is the thought of giving it support to be entertained.

The two faults under discussion may indeed come to light only in the course of time; nevertheless, they are inherent faults, and can be mitigated, to be sure, but not completely cured.

302. Far easier to deal with are the erratic movements of energetic characters capable of ardent enthusiasm. The mere thoroughness and many-sidedness of good instruction, which emphasizes and aims to effect rational connection and balance of mind, obviously supply the corrective.

303. Originally it would have been easier to have prevented those faults which are due to the mismanagement or to the omission of early government, instruction, or training. But with time, the difficulties of a cure grow in a very rapid ratio. In general, it is well to note that the teacher has every reason to congratulate himself, if, after early neglect, there appear under improved treatment some belated traces of those questions which belong to the sixth or seventh year of childhood (213).