Chapter II: =The Aim of Instruction=

62. The ultimate purpose of instruction is contained in the notion, virtue. But in order to realize the final aim, another and nearer one must be set up. We may term it, _many-sidedness of interest_. The word _interest_ stands in general for that kind of mental activity which it is the business of instruction to incite. Mere information does not suffice; for this we think of as a supply or store of facts, which a person might possess or lack, and still remain the same being. But he who lays hold of his information and reaches out for more, takes an interest in it. Since, however, this mental activity, is varied (60), we need to add the further determination supplied by the term _many-sidedness_.

It has been pointed out[3] what the content of the word _virtue_
must be, if this word is to be an adequate expression for the
ultimate purpose of instruction. Virtue must embrace not only what
is purely individual, or subjective, such as piety and humaneness
of disposition, but it must likewise include what is objective,
or social, in conduct. This fact lends a new significance to the
doctrine of interest, for though a normal child is not naturally
interested in introspective analysis of his feelings, he is
spontaneously interested in what is objective and within the range
of his experience. The enterprises of his mates, the regulations of
his school or home, the erection of houses, the introduction of new
machinery, the social doings of the neighborhood, the havoc created
by the elements, the prominent features of the changing year--all
these claim his closest attention. The common school studies deal
with these very things. Literature (reading) and history reveal
to him the conduct of men; the one considering it ideally, the
other historically. Mathematics teaches the mastery of material
when considered quantitatively, whether in trade or manufacture or
construction. Nature studies bring the child into intimate touch with
the significant in his natural environment. Geography shows him the
most obvious features of the industrial activity about him. It shows
him the chief conditions of production in crops and manufactures; it
also gives him hints of the great business of commerce. In all these
studies, the natural inclinations of the mind are directly appealed
to. Not a little of the importance of the doctrine of interest in
instruction depends upon these facts; for both the insight and the
disposition that instruction is capable of imparting to the pupil
relates specifically to the objective side of his character, the one
most in need of development and most susceptible of it.

[3] Paragraphs 8–15.

63. We may speak also of indirect as distinguished from direct interest. But a predominance of indirect interest tends to one-sidedness, if not to selfishness. The interest of the selfish man in anything extends only so far as he can see advantages or disadvantages to himself. In this respect the one-sided man approximates the selfish man, although the fact may escape his own observation; since he relates everything to the narrow sphere for which he lives and thinks. Here lies his intellectual power, and whatever does not interest him as means to his limited ends, becomes an impediment.

It is important for the teacher to see the full scope of the doctrine
of interest in its relation to effort. In Herbart’s psychology it
assumes a most important place, since the primacy of mental life is,
in this system, ascribed to _ideas_. In other systems, notably those
of Kant, Schopenhauer, Von Hartmann, Paulsen, primacy is ascribed to
the will, first in unconscious or subconscious striving, later in
conscious volition. This fundamental difference in standpoint will
account for the emphasis laid now upon _interest_, now upon _effort_.
Herbart conceives that conscious feelings, desires, motives, and the
like have their source in ideas, and that volition in turn arises
from the various emotional states aroused by the ideas. Interest
with him thus becomes a permanent or ever renewed, ever changing,
ever growing desire for the accomplishment of certain ends. It is,
consequently, a direct, necessary stimulus to the will. Systems,
however, that regard the will as the primary factor in mental life,
conceiving of ideas only as a means for revealing more clearly the
ends of volition, together with the best methods of reaching them,
are naturally prone to place the emphasis upon _effort_, leaving to
interest but a secondary or quite incidental function. Dr. John Dewey
has attempted to reconcile these two views.[4] Interest and effort
are complementary, not opposing ideas. To emphasize one at the
expense of the other, is to assume that the ends for which we act lie
quite outside of our personality, so that these ends would, on the
one hand, have to be _made_ interesting, or, on the other, struggled
for without regard to interest. This assumption is an error. The ends
for which we strive must be conceived as internal, our efforts being
regarded as attempts at self-realization in definite directions. The
purpose of our action is therefore an end desired. In this we have
an interest surely. As an educational doctrine, however, interest
concerns chiefly the means of reaching these ends. If interest in
the means is wanting, the child works with a _divided attention_. He
gives only so much to the means as he must; the remainder is devoted
to his own affairs,--the past or coming ball-game, the picnic, the
walk in the woods, the private enterprises of home or school. But if
a lively interest is felt in the means to the end, then the whole
self is actively employed for the time being in the accomplishment of
the purpose of the hour. The attention is no longer divided, it is
concentrated upon the matter in hand. This in the school is _work_.
When the attention is divided we have drudgery. This signifies that
the interest felt in the end, say a dollar, is not felt in the means
of attaining it, say a day’s labor. However inevitable drudgery may
be in life, it should have no place in the schoolroom. The teacher
must so present the studies that the pupil can perceive at least a
fraction of their bearing upon life. This awakens an interest in them
as ends. He must, then, by conformity to the psychological order of
learning, by enthusiasm and ingenuity, so teach the subjects that
the natural interest in the end will be constantly enhanced through
a lively interest in the daily lesson as the means of reaching it.
The result is unified attention, zeal in the pursuit of knowledge,
hospitality for ethical ideals.

[4] “Interest as Related to the Will,” second supplement to the Herbart Year Book, revised and reprinted, Chicago University Press, 1899.

64. As regards the bearings of interest on virtue, we need to remember that many-sidedness of interest alone, even of direct interest such as instruction is to engender, is yet far from being identical with virtue itself; also that, conversely, the weaker the original mental activity, the less likelihood that virtue will be realized at all, not to speak of the variety of manifestation possible in action. Imbeciles cannot be virtuous. Virtue involves an awakening of mind.

The conception, that by awakening many-sided direct interest in the
studies we can powerfully affect character, is perhaps peculiar to
the thought of Herbart. Yet when we consider that the knowledge
taught in the school goes to the root of every vital human relation,
that, in other words, the studies may be made instruments for
progressively revealing to the child his place and function in the
world, it follows as a necessary consequence, that to interest the
pupil thoroughly in these branches of learning, is to work at the
foundation of his character, so far, at least, as insight into duty
and disposition to do it are concerned. Even if interest in ethical
things is not of itself virtue, it is an important means for securing
virtue. This idea adds to the teacher’s resources for the development
of character. It also opens up to him a new realm for research. All
literature, history, science, mathematics, geography, language, may
be examined from this new standpoint, both with respect to selection
and to methods of presentation. Select the portions that pertain
intimately to life; teach them so that their important bearing upon
it may be seen.

=Note.=--As has been stated already (17), the most immediate of
the practical ideas demanding recognition from the teacher is the
idea of perfection. Now, with reference to this idea, three factors
are to be considered: the intensity, the range, the unification of
intellectual effort. Intensity is implied in the word _interest_;
extension is connoted by many-sidedness; what is meant by
unification will be briefly indicated in the next paragraph.

65. Scattering no less than one-sidedness forms an antithesis to many-sidedness. Many-sidedness is to be the basis of virtue; but the latter is an attribute of personality, hence it is evident that the unity of self-consciousness must not be impaired. The business of instruction is to form the person on many sides, and accordingly to avoid a distracting or dissipating effect. And instruction has successfully avoided this in the case of one who with ease surveys his well-arranged knowledge _in all of its unifying relations_ and holds it together as _his very own_.

This section points to the correlation of studies, a subject to
be considered hereafter in detail. It also throws light upon the
modern system of elective courses or elective studies in secondary
and higher education. The teachable subjects have now become so
numerous that election is imperative unless what is to be taught is
determined arbitrarily without regard to the needs or inclinations of
students. Furthermore, election is made imperative by the fact that
the higher education is now open to all minds of all social classes,
and that differentiated industry calls for many kinds of education.
But the need for mental symmetry, no less imperative now than in the
past, is reinforced by the need for social symmetry. Education must
put the student into sympathetic touch with the whole of life, not
a mere segment of it. Since many-sidedness cannot be interpreted
to mean knowledge of all subjects, this being impossible, it must
be interpreted to mean knowledge of all departments of learning.
Election may be permitted to emphasize departments of study, but
not to ignore them entirely. There are four or more languages worth
teaching, many departments of history, numerous sciences, and various
branches of mathematics, not to speak of the economic, political,
and social sciences. Enough of each department being given to insure
intelligent sympathy with the aspect of civilization it presents,
the student may be allowed to place the emphasis upon such groups of
studies as best conserve his tastes, his ability, and his destination
in life.