Chapter LXIII: Section 3: Significance of Tattoo

Tattooing proper is a permanent marking of the skin accomplished by the introduction of coloring matter under the cutaneous epidermis. In popular expression and often in literature it includes penetration of the skin by cuts, gashes, or sometimes burns, without the insertion of coloring matter, the cicatrix being generally whiter than the sound skin of the people, most frequently of the dark races, among whom the practice is found. This form of figuration is distinguished as scarification and some examples of it are given below. The two varieties of tattoo may, however, for the purpose of this paper, be considered together and also in relation to painting the human body, which in its early use differs from them only in duration.

Mr. Herbert Spencer (_a_) considers all forms of tattoo to be originally tribal marks, and draws from that assumption additional evidence for his favorite theory of the deification of a dead tribal chief. Miss A. W. Buckland (_a_), in her essay on tattooing, follows in the same track, although recognizing modern deviations from the rule. A valuable article in the literature of the subject entitled “Tattooing among civilized people,” by Dr. Robert Fletcher should be consulted. Also A tatuagem em Portugal, by Rocha Peixoto.

Dr. C. N. Starcke (_a_) lays down the law still more distinctly, thus:

The tattoo-marks make it possible to discover the remote
connection between clans, and this token has such a powerful
influence on the mind that there is no feud between tribes which
are tattooed in the same way. * * * Tattooing may also lead to the
formation of a group within the tribe.

Prof. Frederick Starr (_a_) makes these remarks:

As a sign of war prowess the gash of the Kaffir warrior may be
described. After an act of bravery the priest cuts a deep gash in
the hero’s thigh. This heals blue and is a prized honor. To realize
the value of a tribal mark think for a moment of the savage man’s
relation to the world outside. He is a very Ishmaelite. So long as
he remains on his own tribal territory he is safe; when on the land
of another tribe his life is the legitimate prey of the first man he
meets. To men in such social relations the tribal mark is the only
safety at home; without it he would be slain unrecognized by his own
tribesmen. There must have been a time when the old Hebrews knew all
about this matter of tribe marks. By this custom only can we fully
understand the story of Cain (Gen. IV, 14, 15), who fears to be sent
from his own territory lest he be slain by the first stranger he
meets, but is protected by the tribal mark of those among whom he is
to wander being put upon him. But in scarring, as in so many other
cases, the original idea is often lost and the mark becomes merely
ornamental. This is particularly true among women. Among men it more
frequently retains its tribal significance.

After careful study of the topic, less positive and conclusive authority is found for this explanation of tattooing than was expected, considering its general admission.

The great antiquity of tattooing is shown by reference to it in the Old Testament, and in Herodotus, Xenophon, Tacitus, Ammianus, and Herodian. The publications on the topic are so numerous that the notes now to be presented are by no means exhaustive. They mainly refer to the Indian tribes of North America with only such comparatively recent reports from other lands as seem to afford elucidation.

TATTOO IN NORTH AMERICA.

G. Holm (_b_) says of the Greenland Innuit that geometric figures consisting of streaks and points, are used in tattooing on the breasts, arms, and legs of the females.

H. H. Bancroft (_b_) says:

The Eskimo females tattoo lines on their chins; the plebeian
female of certain bands has one vertical line in the center and one
parallel to it on either side. The higher classes mark two vertical
lines from each corner of the mouth. * * * Young Kadiak wives tattoo
the breast and adorn the face with black lines. The Kuskoquim women
sew into their chin two parallel blue lines.

William H. Gilder (_a_) reports:

The Esquimau wife has her face tattooed with lampblack and is
regarded as a matron in society. * * * The forehead is decorated
with the letter V in double lines, the angle very acute, passing
down between the eyes almost to the bridge of the nose, and sloping
gracefully to the right and left before reaching the roots of the
hair. Each cheek is adorned with an egg-shaped pattern, commencing
near the wing of the nose and sloping upward toward the corner of
the eye; these lines are also double. The most ornamented part,
however, is the chin, which receives a gridiron pattern; the lines
double from the edge of the lower lip, and reaching to the throat
toward the corners of the mouth, sloping outward to the angle of the
lower jaw. This is all that is required by custom, but some of the
belles do not stop here. * * * None of the men are tattooed.

An early notice of tattooing in the territory now occupied by the United States, mentioned in Hakluyt (_d_), is in the visit of the Florida chief, Satouriona, in 1564, to Réné Laudonnière. His tattooed figure was drawn by Le Moyne, Tabulæ VIII, IX.

Capt. John Smith (_a_) is made to say of the Virginia Indians:

They adorne themselues most with copper beads and paintings.
Their women, some haue their legs, hands, breasts and face cunningly
imbrodered with divers workes, as beasts, serpents, artificially
wrought into their flesh with blacke spots.

Thomas Hariot (_a_), in Pl. XXIII, here reproduced as Fig. 516, Discoveries of 1585, discussing “The Marckes of sundrye of the Chief mene of Virginia,” says:

The inhabitats of all the cuntrie for the most parte haue marks
rased on their backs, wherby yt may be knowen what Princes subiects
they bee, or of what place they haue their originall. For which
cause we haue set downe those marks in this figure, and haue annexed
the names of the places, that they might more easelye be discerned.
Which industrie hath god indued them withal although they be verye
simple, and rude. And to confesse a truthe I cannot remember, that
euer I saw a better or quietter people than they.

The marks which I observed amonge them, are heere put downe in
order folowinge.

The marke which is expressed by A. belongeth tho Wingino, the
cheefe lorde of Roanoac.

That which hath B. is the marke of Wingino his sisters husbande.

Those which be noted with the letters of C. and D. belonge vnto
diverse chefe lordes in Secotan.

Those which haue the letters E. F. G. are certaine cheefe men of
Pomeiooc, and Aquascogoc.

Frère Gabriel Sagard (_b_) says (about 1636) of the Hurons that they tattooed by scratching with a bone of bird or fish, a black powder being applied to the bleeding wounds. The operation was not completed at once, but required several renewals. The object was to show bravery by supporting great pain as well as to terrify enemies.

In the Jesuit Relation for 1641, p. 75, it is said of the Neuter Nation that on their bodies from head to foot they marked a thousand diverse figures with charcoal pricked into the flesh on which beforehand they have traced lines for them.

Lemoyne D’Iberville, in 1649, Margry (_b_), remarked among the Bayogoulas that some of the young women had their faces and breasts pricked and marked with black.

In the Jesuit Relation for 1663, p. 28, there is an account that the head chief of the Iroquois, called by the French Nero, had killed sixty enemies with his own hand, the marks of which he bears printed on his thigh, which, therefore, appears covered over with black characters.

Joutel, in Margry (_c_), speaks of tattooing among the Texas Indians in 1687. Some women make a streak from the top of the forehead to chin, some make a triangle at the corners of their eyes, others on the breast and shoulders, others prick the lips. The marks are indelible.

Bacqueville de la Potherie (_b_) says of the Iroquois:

They paint several colors on the face, as black, white, yellow,
blue, and vermillion. Men paint snakes from the forehead to the
nose, but they prick the greater part of the body with a needle to
draw blood. Bruised gunpowder makes the first coat to receive the
other colors, of which they make such figures as they desire and
they are never effaced.

M. Bossu (_a_) says of tatooing among the Osages in 1756:

It is a kind of knighthood to which they are only entitled by
great actions; they suffer with pleasure in order to pass for men of
courage.

If one of them should get himself marked without having
previously distinguished himself in battle he would be degraded, and
looked upon as a coward, unworthy of an honor. * * *

I saw an Indian, who, though he had never signalized himself
in defense of the nation, got a mark made on his body in order to
deceive those who only judged from appearance. The council agreed
that, to obviate such an abuse, which would confound brave men with
cowards, he who had wrongfully adorned himself with the figure of a
club on his skin, without ever having struck a blow at war, should
have the mark torn off; that is, the place should be flayed, and
that the same should be done to all who would offend in the same
case.

The Indian women are allowed to make marks all over their body,
without any bad consequences; they endure it firmly, like the men,
in order to please them, and to appear handsomer to them.

James Adair (_a_) says of the Chikasas in 1720:

They readily know achievements in war by the blue marks over
their breasts and arms, they being as legible as our alphabetical
characters are to us. Their ink is made of the root of pitch
pine, which sticks to the inside of a greased earthen pot; then
delineating the parts, they break through the skin with gairfish
teeth, and rub over them that dark composition, to register them
among the brave, and the impression is lasting. I have been told
by the Chikasah that they formerly erased any false marks their
warriors proudly and privately gave themselves, in order to engage
them to give real proofs of their martial virtue, being surrounded
by the French and their red allies; and that they degraded them in
a public manner, by stretching the marked parts, and rubbing them
with the juice of green corn, which in a great degree took out the
impression.

Sir Alex. Mackenzie (_b_) tells that the Slave and Dog Rib Indians of the Athabaskan stock practiced tatooing. The men had two double lines, either black or blue, tattooed upon each cheek from the ear to the nose.

In James’s Long (_c_) it is reported that--

The Omahas are often neatly tattooed in straight lines, and in
angles on the breast, neck, and arms. The daughters of chiefs and
those of wealthy Indians generally are denoted by a small round spot
tattooed on the forehead. The process of tattooing is performed by
persons who make it a business of profit.

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey (_a_) says:

In order that the ghost may travel the ghost-road in safety it
is necessary for each Dakota, during his life, to be tattooed either
in the middle of the forehead or on the wrists. In that event his
spirit will go directly to the “Many Lodges.”

The female Midē' of the Ojibwa frequently tattoo the temples, forehead, or cheeks of sufferers from headache or toothache, which varieties of pain are believed to be caused by some malevolent manido or spirit. By this operation such demons are expelled, the ceremony being also accompanied by songs and gesticulations of exorcism. Relief is sometimes actually obtained through the counterirritant action of the tattooing, which is effected by using a small bunch of needles, though formerly several spicules of bone were tied together or used singly.

One old Ojibwa woman who was observed in 1887 had a round spot over each temple, made there to cure headache. The spots were of a bluish-black color, and about five-eighths of an inch in diameter. Another had a similar spot upon the nasal eminence, and a line of small dots running from the nostrils, horizontally outward over either cheek, two-thirds of the distance to the ears.

The men of the Wichita wore tattoo lines from the lips downward, and it is a significant fact that their tribal sign means “tattooed people,” the same expression being used to designate them in the language of several neighboring tribes. This would imply that tattooing was not common in that region. The Kaiowa women, however, frequently had small circles tattooed on their foreheads, and the Sixtown Choctaws still are distinguished by perpendicular lines tatooed on the chin.

Mr. John Murdoch (_b_) reports of the Eskimo:

The custom of tattooing is almost universal among the women, but
the marks are confined almost exclusively to the chin, and form a
very simple pattern. This consists of one, three, five, or perhaps
as many as seven vertical lines from the under lip to the tip of the
chin, slightly radiating when there are more than one. When there
is a single line, which is rather rare, it is generally broad, and
the middle line is sometimes broader than the others. The women,
as a rule, are not tattooed until they reach a marriageable age,
though there were a few little girls in the two villages who had a
single line on the chin. I remember seeing but one married woman in
either village who was not tattooed, and she had come from a distant
settlement, from Point Hope, as well as we could understand.

Tattooing on a man is a mark of distinction. Those men who
are, or have been, captains of whaling umiaks that have taken
whales have marks to indicate this tattooed somewhere on their
persons, sometimes forming a definite tally. For instance, An̄oru
had a broad band across each cheek from the corners of the mouth,
made up of many indistinct lines, which was said to indicate
“many whales.” Amaiyuna had the “flukes” of seven whales in a line
across his chest, and Mû'n̄ialu had a couple of small marks on
one forearm. Niăksára, the wife of An̄oru, also had a little mark
tattooed in each corner of her mouth, which she said were “whale
marks,” indicating that she was the wife of a successful whaleman.
Such marks, according to Petitot (Monographie, etc., p. 15), are a
part of the usual pattern in the Mackenzie district--“deux traits
aux commissures de la bouche.” One or two men at Nuwŭk had each a
narrow line across the face over the bridge of the nose, which were
probably also “whale marks,” though we never could get a definite
answer concerning them.

The tattooing is done with a needle and thread, smeared with
soot or gunpowder, giving a peculiar pitted appearance to the
lines. It is rather a painful operation, producing considerable
inflammation and swelling, which lasts several days. The practice
of tattooing the women is almost universal among the Eskimo from
Greenland to Kadiak, including the Eskimo of Siberia, the only
exception being the natives of Smith sound, though the custom is
falling into disuse among the Eskimo who have much intercourse with
the whites.

The simple pattern of straight, slightly diverging lines on the
chin seems to prevail from the Mackenzie district to Kadiak, and
similar chin lines appear always to form part of the more elaborate
patterns, sometimes extending to the arms and other parts of the
body, in fashion among the eastern Eskimo and those of Siberia, St.
Lawrence island, and the Diomedes.

TATTOO ON THE PACIFIC COAST.

During the summer of 1884 Dr. Hoffman met, at Port Townsend, Washington, a party of Haida Indians from Queen Charlottes island, who were encamped there for a short time. Most of them were tattooed after the manner of the Haidas, the breast, back, forearm, and legs bearing partial or complete designs of animate forms relating to totems or myths. Some of the persons had been tattooed only in part, the figures upon the forearms, for instance, being incomplete, because the operation at a previous “potlatch” or festival had to be suspended on account of the great length of time required, or on account of an extra inflammatory condition of the affected parts.

Among this party of Haidas was Makdē'gos, the tattooer of the tribe, whose work is truly remarkable. The designs made by him are symmetrical, while the lines are uniform in width and regular and graceful in every respect. In persons tattooed upon the breast or back the part operated upon is first divided into halves by an imaginary vertical line upon the breast through the middle of the sternum and upon the back along the middle of the vertebral column. Such designs are drawn double, facing outward from this imaginary line. One side is first drawn and completed, while the other is merely a reverse transfer, made immediately afterwards or at such future time as the operation of tattooing may be renewed.

The colors are black and red, the former consisting of finely powdered charcoal, gunpowder, or India ink, while the latter is Chinese vermilion. The operation was formerly performed with sharp thorns, spines of certain fishes, or spicules of bone; but recently a small bunch of needles is used, which serves the purpose to better effect.

As is well known, the black pigments, when picked into the human skin, become rather bluish, which tint, when beneath the yellowish tinge of the Indian’s cuticle, appears of an olive or sometimes a greenish-blue shade. The colors, immediately after being tattooed upon the skin, retain more or less of the blue-black shade; but by absorption of the pigment and the persistence of the coloring matter of the pigmentary membrane the greenish tint soon appears, becoming gradually less conspicuous as time progresses, so that in some of the oldest tattooed Indians the designs are greatly weakened in coloration.

Upon the bodies of some persons examined the results of ulceration are conspicuous. This destruction of tissue is the result of inflammation caused by the tattooing and the introduction under the skin of so great a quantity of irritating foreign matter that, instead of designs in color, there are distinct, sharply defined figures in white or nearly white cicatrices, the pigmentary membrane having been totally destroyed by the ulceration.

The figures represented upon the several Indians met with, as above-mentioned, were not all of totemic signification, one arm, for instance, bearing the figure of the totem of which the person is a member, while the other arm presents the outline of a mythic being, as shown in Fig. 517, copied from the arms of a woman. The left device is taken from the left forearm, and represents kul, the skulpin, a totemic animal, whereas the right hand device, taken from the right arm of the same subject, represents mamathlóna, the dragon fly, a mythic insect.

In Fig. 518 two forms of the thunderbird are presented, copied from the right and left forearms and hands, respectively, of a Haida woman. The right hand device is complete, but that on the left, copied from the opposite forearm and hand, is incomplete, and it was expected that the design would be entirely finished at the “potlatch” which was to be held in the autumn of 1884. In the completed design the transverse curve in the body of the tail was red, as also the three diagonal lines upon the body of the bird running outward from the central vertical toward the radial side of the hand. The brace-shaped lines within the head ornament had also been tattooed in red.

In some instances the totem and mythic character are shown upon the same member, as is represented in Fig. 519. This tattooing was copied from the left arm of a woman, the complete figure upon the forearm and hand being that of a thunder bird, while the four heads upon the fingers represent that of the tshimō's, a mythic animal. The thunder-bird had been tattooed upon the arms a number of years before the heads were added, probably because the protracted and painful operation of tattooing so large a figure deterred the sufferer from further sitting. Sometimes, however, such, postponement or noncompletion of an operation is the result of inability on the part of the subject to defray the expense.

Another instance of the interrupted condition of tattooed designs is presented in Fig. 520. The figure upon the forearm and hand is that of the bear totem, and was made first. At a subsequent festival the bear heads were tattooed upon the fingers, and, last of all, the body was tattoed upon the middle finger, leaving three yet to be completed.

Fig. 521 shows tattoo designs upon the leg. These represent mēt, the mountain goat.

It is seldom that double designs occur on the extremities, such being reserved for the breast and back, but an instance was noted, represented in Fig. 522, which is a representation of hélinga, the thunder-bird, and was on the left arm of a man.

One of the most conspicuous examples of the art observed among the party of traveling Haidas mentioned, was that of a double raven tattooed upon the breast of Makdē'gos, copied here as Fig. 523.

Upon the back of this Indian is also the figure of kahátta, the dog-fish, Fig. 524. In addition to these marks he bears also upon his extremities totemic and mythic animals.

HAIDA DOUBLE THUNDERBIRD.]

Sometimes the simple outline designs employed in tattooing are painted upon property belonging to various persons, such as boats, housefronts, etc. In such instances colors are employed that could not be used in tattooing. One fine example of such is presented in Pl. XXIV and another of more elaborate design in Pl. XXV.

HAIDA DOG-FISH.]

Mr. James G. Swan made a valuable contribution on tattoo marks of the Haida Indians of Queen Charlotte islands, British Columbia, and the Prince of Wales archipelago, Alaska, published in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, which, much condensed, is reproduced as follows:

Among all the tribes or bands belonging to the Haida family,
the practice of tattooing the person in some manner is common; but
the most marked are the Haidas proper, or those living on Queen
Charlotte islands, and the Kaiganis, of Prince of Wales archipelago,
Alaska.

I am of the opinion, judging from my own observation of over
twenty years among the coast tribes, that but few females can
be found among the Indians, not only on Vancouvers island, but
all along the coast to the Columbia river, and perhaps even to
California, that are _not_ marked with some device tattooed on their
hands, arms, or ankles, either dots or straight lines; but of all
of the tribes mentioned, the Haidas stand preeminent for tattooing,
and seem to be excelled only by the natives of the Fiji islands or
the King’s Mills group in the south seas. The tattoo marks of the
Haidas are heraldic designs or the family totem, or crests of the
wearers, and are similar to the carvings depicted on the pillars and
monuments around the homes of the chiefs, which casual observers
have thought were idols.

These designs are invariably placed on the men between the
shoulders just below the back of the neck, on the breast, on the
front part of both thighs, and on the legs below the knee. On the
women they are marked on the breast, on both shoulders, on both
forearms, from the elbow down over the back of the hands to the
knuckles, and on both legs below the knee to the ankle.

Almost all of the Indian women of the northwest coast have
tattoo marks on their hands and arms, and some on the face; but as
a general thing these marks are mere dots or straight lines having
no particular significance. With the Haidas, however, every mark has
its meaning; those on the hands and arms of the women indicate the
family name, whether they belong to the bear, beaver, wolf, or eagle
totems, or any of the family of fishes. As one of them quaintly
remarked to me, “If you were tattooed with the design of a swan, the
Indians would know your family name.”

In order to illustrate this tattooing as correctly as possible I
inclose herewith sketches of the tattoo marks on two women and their
husbands, taken by me at Port Townsend.

The man on the left hand of Fig. 525 is a tattooed Haida. On his breast is the cod (kahátta), split from the head to the tail and laid open; on each thigh is the octopus (noo), and below each knee is the frog (flkamkostan).

The woman in the same figure has on her breast the head and forepaws of the beaver (tsching); on each shoulder is the head of the eagle or thunder-bird (skamskwin); on each arm, extending to and covering the back of the hand, is the halibut (hargo); on the right leg is the skulpin (kull); on the left leg is the frog (flkamkostan).

The woman in Fig. 526 has a bear’s head (hoorts) on her breast. On each shoulder is the eagle’s head, and on her arms and legs are figures of the bear.

The back of the man in the same figure has the wolf (wasko), split in halves and tattooed between his shoulders, which is shown enlarged in Fig. 531. Wasko is a mythological being of the wolf species, similar to the chu-chu-hmexl of the Makah Indians, an antediluvian demon supposed to live in the mountains.

The skulpin, on the right leg of the woman in Fig. 525, is shown enlarged in Fig. 527; the frog on the left leg in Fig. 528. The codfish on the man in Fig. 525 is shown enlarged in Fig. 529; the octopus or squid in Fig. 530.

As the Haidas, both men and women, are very light-colored, some of the latter--full blooded Indians, too--having their skins as fair as Europeans, the tattoo marks show very distinct.

The same author continues:

This tattooing is not all done at one time, nor is it everyone
who can tattoo. Certain ones, almost always men, have a natural gift
which enables them to excel in this kind of work. One of the young
chiefs, named Geneskelos, was the best designer I knew, and ranked
among his tribe as a tattooer.

He told me the plan he adopted was first to draw the design
carefully on the person with some dark pigment, then prick it in
with needles, and then rub over the wound with some more coloring
matter till it acquired the proper hue. He had a variety of
instruments composed of needles tied neatly to sticks. His favorite
one was a flat strip of ivory or bone, to which he had firmly tied
five or six needles, with their points projecting beyond the end
just far enough to raise the skin without inflicting a dangerous
wound, but these needle points stuck out quite sufficiently to make
the operation very painful, and although he applied some substance
to deaden the sensation of the skin, yet the effect was on some to
make them quite sick for a few days; consequently, the whole process
of tattooing was not done at one time. As this tattooing is a mark
of honor, it is generally done at or just prior to a Tomanawos
performance and at the time of raising the heraldic columns in front
of the chief’s houses. The tattooing is done in open lodge and is
witnessed by the company assembled. Sometimes it takes several years
before all the tattooing is done, but when completed and the person
well ornamented, then they are happy and can take their seats among
the elders.

Other notices about the tattooing of the Indians of the Pacific slope of North America are subjoined.

Stephen Powers (_c_) says the Karok (California) squaws tattoo in blue three narrow fern leaves perpendicularly on the chin, one falling from each corner of the mouth and one in the middle.

The same author reports, page 76:

Nearly every (Hupâ, California) man has ten lines tattooed
across the inside of the left arm about halfway between the wrist
and the elbow; and in measuring shell money he takes the string in
his right hand, draws one end over his left thumb nail, and if the
other end reaches to the uppermost of the tattoo lines the five
shells are worth $25 in gold, or $5 a shell. Of course, it is only
one in ten thousand that is long enough to reach this high value.

Also on page 96:

The Pátawāt (California) squaws tattoo in blue three narrow
pinnate leaves perpendicularly on their chins, and also lines of
small dots on the backs of their hands.

On page 148, of the Kástel Pomo:

The women of this and other tribes of the Coast range frequently
tattoo a rude representation of a tree or other object covering
nearly the whole abdomen and breast.

Of the Wintūns he says, page 233: “The squaws all tattoo three narrow lines, one falling from each corner of the mouth and one between.”

The same author says, on page 109:

The Mattoal, of California, differ from other tribes in that
the men tattoo. Their distinctive mark is a round blue spot in the
center of the forehead. The women tattoo pretty much all over their
faces.

In respect to this matter of tattooing there is a theory
entertained by some old pioneers which may be worth the mention.
They hold that the reason why the women alone tattoo in all other
tribes is that in case they are taken captives their own people may
be able to recognize them when there comes an opportunity of ransom.
There are two facts which give some color of probability to this
reasoning. One is that the California Indians are rent into such
infinitesimal divisions, any one of which may be arrayed in deadly
feud against another at any moment, that the slight differences in
their dialects would not suffice to distinguish the captive squaws.
The second is that the squaws almost never attempt any ornamental
tattooing, but adhere closely to the plain regulation mark of the
tribe.

Blue marks tattooed upon a Mohave woman’s chin denote that she is married. See Whipple (_f_).

Mr. Gatschet reports that very few Klamath men now tattoo their faces, but such as are still observed have but a single line of black running from the middle of the lower lip to the chin. Half-breed girls appear to have but one perpendicular line tattooed down over the chin while the full-blood women have four perpendicular lines on the chin.

In Bancroft’s Native Races (_c_), it is stated that the Modoc women tattoo three blue lines, extending perpendicularly from the center and corners of the lower lip to the chin.

The same author on pages 117 and 127 of the same volume says:

The Chippewas have tattooed cheeks and foreheads. Both sexes
have blue or black bars or from one to four straight lines to
distinguish the tribe to which they belong. They tattoo by entering
an awl or needle under the skin and drawing it out, immediately
rubbing powdered charcoal into the wounds. * * * On the Yukon river
among the Kutchins, the men draw a black stripe down the forehead
and the nose, frequently crossing the forehead and cheeks with red
lines and streaking the chin alternately with red and black, and the
women tattoo the chin with a black pigment.

Stephen Powers, in Overland Monthly, XII, 537, 1874, says of the Normocs:

I saw a squaw who had executed on her cheeks the only
representation of a living object which I ever saw done in
tattooing. It was a couple of bird’s wings, one on each cheek, done
in blue, bottom-edge up, the butt of the wing at the corner of the
mouth, and the tip near the ear. It was quite well wrought, both
in correctness of form and in delicateness of execution, not only
separate feathers but even the filaments of the vane, being finely
pricked in.

Dr. Franz Boas (_c_) says:

Tattooings are found on arms, breast, back, legs, and feet among
the Haida; on arms and feet among the Tshimshian, Kwakiutl and
Bilqula; on breast and arms among the Nootka; on the jaw among the
Coast Salish women.

Among the Nootka scars may frequently be seen running at regular
intervals from the shoulder down the breast to the belly, and in the
same way down the legs and arms. * * *

Members of tribes practicing the Hamats'a ceremonies show
remarkable scars produced by biting. At certain festivals it is the
duty of the Hamats'a to bite a piece of flesh out of the arms, leg,
or breast of a man.

TATTOO IN SOUTH AMERICA.

Dr. im Thurn (_c_) says:

Tattooing or any other permanent interference with the surface
of the skin by way of ornament is practiced only to a very limited
extent by the Indians; is used, in fact, only to produce the small
distinctive tribal mark which many of them bear at the corners of
their mouths or on their arms. It is true that an adult Indian is
hardly to be found on whose thighs and arms, or on other parts of
whose body are not a greater or less number of indelibly incised
straight lines; but these are scars originally made for surgical,
not ornamental purposes.

Herndon and Gibbon (_a_), p. 319, report:

Following the example of the other nations of Brazil (who tattoo
themselves with thorns, or pierce their nose, the lips, and the
ears,) and obeying an ancient law which commands these different
tortures, this baptism of blood, * * * the Mahués have preserved * *
* the great festival of the Tocandeira.

Paul Marcoy (_b_) says of the Passés, Yuris, Barrés, and Chumanas, of Brazil, that they mark their faces (in tattoo) with the totem, or emblem of the nation to which they belong. It is possible at a few steps distant to distinguish one nation from another.

EXTRA-LIMITAL TATTOO.

Ancient monarchs adopted special marks to distinguish slaves; likewise for vengeance as an indelible and humiliating brand, a certain tattoo denounced him who had fallen into disgrace with a sovereign. Two monks having censured the iconoclastic frenzy of the emperor Theophilus, he ordered to be imprinted on their foreheads eleven iambic verses; Philip of Macedon, from whom a soldier had solicited the possession of a man saved by him from shipwreck, ordered that on his forehead should be drawn signs indicative of his base greed; Caligula, without any object, commanded the tattooing of the Roman nobles.

In the period of the decline of Rome, tattooing was extensively practiced. Regulative laws prescribed the adopted symbols which were a proof of enlistment in the ranks and on which the military oath was taken. The purpose of this ordinance, which continued in force for a long time, was similar to that which authorized the marking of the slaves, since, the spirit of the people having become degenerated, the army was composed of mercenaries who, if they should run away, must be recognized, pursued, and captured. Until recently the practice, though more as a mark of manhood, was followed by the soldiers of the Piedmontese army.

Élisée Reclus (_a_) says:

Tattooing was in Polynesia widespread, and so highly developed
that the artistic designs covering the body served also to clothe
it. In certain islands the operation lasted so long that it had to
be begun before the children were six years old, and the pattern was
largely left to the skill and cunning of the professional tattooers.
Still traditional motives recurred in the ornamental devices of the
several tribes, who could usually be recognized by their special
tracings, curved or parallel lines, diamond forms and the like. The
artists were grouped in schools like the old masters in Europe, and
they worked not by incision as in most Melanesian islands, but by
punctures with a small comb-like instrument slightly tapped with a
mallet. The pigment used in the painful and even dangerous operation
was usually the fine charcoal yielded by the nut of Aleurites
triloba, an oleaginous plant used for illuminating purposes
throughout eastern Polynesia.

The following is from Rev. Richard Taylor (_c_) about the New Zealanders, Te Ika a Maui:

Before they went to fight, the youth were accustomed to mark
their countenances with charcoal in different lines, and their
traditions state that this was the beginning of the tattoo, for
their wars became so continuous, that to save the trouble of thus
constantly painting the face, they made the lines permanent by the
moko; it is, however, a question whether it did not arise from a
different cause; formerly the grand mass of men who went to fight
were the black slaves, and when they fought side by side with their
lighter colored masters, the latter on those occasions used charcoal
to make it appear they were all one.

Whilst the males had every part of the face tattooed, and
the thighs as well, the females had chiefly the chin and the
lips, although occasionally they also had their thighs and
breasts, with a few smaller marks on different parts of the body
as well. There were regular rules for tattooing, and the artist
always went systematically to work, beginning at one spot and
gradually proceeding to another, each particular part having its
distinguishing name.

Fig. 532 is an illustration from the same work, facing page 378. It shows the “grave of an Australian native, with his name, rank, tribe, etc., cut in hieroglyphics on the trees,” which “hieroglyphics” are supposed to be connected with his tattoo marks.

Fig. 533 is a copy of a tattooed head carved by Hongi, and also of the tattooing on a woman’s chin, taken from the work last cited.

The accompanying illustration, Fig. 534, is taken from a bone obtained from a mound in New Zealand, by Prof. I. C. Russell, formerly of the U. S. Geological Survey. He says that the Maori formerly tattooed the bones of enemies, though the custom now seems to have been abandoned. The work consists of sharp, shallow lines, as if made with a sharp-pointed steel instrument, into which some blackish pigment has been rubbed, filling up some of the markings, while in others scarcely a trace remains.

In connection with the use of the tattoo marks as reproduced on artificial objects see Fig. 734.

Fig. 535 is a copy of a photograph obtained in New Zealand by Prof. Russell. It shows tattooing upon the chin.

Prof. Russell, in his sketch of New Zealand, published in the Am. Naturalist, XIII, 72, Feb., 1879, remarks, that the desire of the Maori for ornament is so great that they covered their features with tattooing, transferring indelibly to their faces complicated patterns of curved and spiral lines, similar to the designs with which they decorated their canoes and their houses.

E. J. Wakefield (_a_) reports of a man observed in New Zealand that he was a tangata tabu or sacred personage, and consequently was not adorned with tatu. He adds, p. 155, that the deeds of the natives are signed with elaborate drawings of the moko or tatu on the chiefs’ faces.

Dr. George Turner (_b_) says:

Herodotus found among the Thracians that the man who was not
tattooed was not respected. It was the same in Samoa. Until a young
man was tattooed he was considered in his minority. He could not
think of marriage, and he was constantly exposed to taunts and
ridicule, as being poor and of low birth, and as having no right
to speak in the society of men. But as soon as he was tattooed he
passed into his majority, and considered himself entitled to the
respect and privileges of mature years. When a youth, therefore,
reached the age of 16, he and his friends were all anxiety that he
should be tattooed. He was then on the outlook for the tattooing of
some young chief with whom he might unite. On these occasions six or
a dozen young men would be tattooed at one time, and for these there
might be four or five tattooers employed. Tattooing is still kept up
to some extent and is a regular profession, just as house-building,
and well paid. The custom is traced to mythologic times and has its
presiding deities.

In Révue d’Ethnographie (_a_) (translated) it is published that--

Tattoo marks of Papuan men in New Guinea can be worn on the
chest only when the man has killed an enemy. Fig. 26, p. 101, shows
the marks upon the chest of Waara, who had killed five men.

Tattoo marks upon parts other than the chest of the bodies
of men and women do not seem to have significance. They are made
according to the fancy of the designer. Frequently the professional
tattooers have styles of their own, which, being popular and
generally applied, become customary to a tribe.

The illustration above mentioned is reproduced as Fig. 536.

In the same article, p. 112, is the following, referring to Fig. 537:

Among the Papuans of New Guinea tattooing the chest of females
denotes that they are married, though all other parts of the body,
including the face and legs, may be tattooed long before; indeed the
tattooing of girls may begin at 5 years of age. Fig. 39, p. 112,
gives an illustration of a married woman. * * * The different forms
of tattoo depend upon the style of the several artists. Family marks
are not recognizable, but exist.

De Clercq (_a_) gives further particulars about tattooing among the Papuans of New Guinea. Among the Sègèt it is only on women. They call it “fadjan,” and the figures consist of two rows of little circles, on each side of the abdomen toward the region of the arm-pit, with a few cross strokes on the outer edge; it is done by pricking with a needle and afterwards the spots are fumigated with the smoke of burning resin. It is said to be intended as an ornament instead of dress, and that young girls do it because young men like to see it.

At Roembati tattooing is called “gomanroeri” and at Sĕkar “béti.” They do it there with bones of fish, with which they prick many holes in the skin until the blood flows, and then smear on it in spots the soot from pans and pots, which, after the staunching of the blood, leaves an ineffaceable bluish spot or streak. Besides the breast and upper arm they also tattoo in the same way the calf of the leg, and in some cases the forehead, as a mere ornamentation, both of men and women--children only in very exceptional cases.

The Bonggose and Sirito are much tattooed over the breast and shoulder. At Saoekorèm, a Doré settlement, a few women were seen tattooed on the breast and in the face. At Doré it is called “pa,” and is done with thorns, and charcoal is rubbed over the bloody spots; only here and at Mansinam is it a sign of mourning; everywhere else it merely serves as ornamentation.

At Ansoes it does not occur much, and is principally in the face; it is there called “toi.” It is found somewhat more commonly on Noord-Japèn, and then on shoulder and upper arm. In Tarfia, Tana-mérah, and Humboldt bay but few persons were tattooed, mostly on the forehead.

The tattooing is always the work of women, generally members of the family, both on men and on women. First the figure is drawn with charcoal, and if it suits the taste then begins the pricking with the thorn of a citrus or a fine bone of some animal. It is very painful and only a small spot can be pricked at one time, so long as the tattooee can stand it. If the pain is too violent, the wounds are gently pressed with a certain leaf that has been warmed, in order to soothe the pain, and the work is continued only after three or four days. No special names are given to the figures; those are chosen which suit the taste. Children are never tattooed at the wish of the parents; it is entirely a matter of individual choice.

Mr. Forbes, in Journ. Anthrop. Inst. G. B. and I., August, 1883, p. 10, says that in Timor Laut, an island of the Malay archipelago--

Both sexes tattoo a few simple devices, circles, stars, and
pointed crosses, on the breast, on the brow, on the cheek, and on
the wrists, and scar themselves on the arms and shoulders with
red-hot stones, in imitation of immense smallpox marks, in order
to ward off that disease. * * * I have, however, seen no one
variola-marked, nor can I learn of any epidemic of this disease
among them.

Prof. Brauns, of Halle, reports, Science, III, No. 50, p. 69, that among the Ainos of Yazo the women tattoo their chins to imitate the beards of the men.

Carl Bock (_a_) says:

All the married women here are tattooed on the hands and feet
and sometimes on the thighs. The decoration is one of the privileges
of matrimony and is not permitted to unmarried girls.

In Myths and Songs from the South Pacific, London, 1876, p. 94, it is said that in Mangaia, of the Hervey group, the tattoo is in imitation of the stripes on the two kinds of fish, avini and paoro, the color of which is blue. The legend of this is kept in the song of Iná.

Elisée Reclus (_b_) says:

Most of the Dayaks tattoo the arms, hands, feet, and thighs;
occasionally also breast and temples. The designs, generally of a
beautiful blue color on the coppery ground of the body, display
great taste, and are nearly always disposed in odd numbers, which,
as among so many other peoples, are supposed to be lucky.

In L’Anthropologie (_a_), 1890, T. I, No. 6, p. 693, it is thus reported:

Tradition tells that the Giao chi, the alleged ancestors of the
Annamites, were fishermen and in danger from marine monsters. To
prevent disasters from the genii of the waters the king directed
the people to tattoo their bodies with the forms of the marine
monsters, and afterwards the dragons, crocodiles, etc., ceased
their persecution. The custom became universal, and even the kings
tattooed a dragon on their thighs as a sign of power and nobility.
The same idea was in the painting of eyes, etc., on the prows of
Annamite boats, which strongly resembled the sea monsters.

Mr. O’Reilly, the professional tattooer of New York, in a letter, says that he is familiar with the tattoo system of Burmah, and that, besides the ruling principle of ordeal, the Burmese use special tattoo marks to charm and to bring love. They also believe that tattooing the whole person renders the skin impenetrable to weapons.

In Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (_a_) it is recounted of the Badagas in the Nilgiri mountains, India:

All the women are tattooed on the forehead. The following [Fig.
538] _a_ is the most usual form:

Besides this there occur the following (same Fig., _b_, _c_,
_d_, and _e_):

Besides the forehead, the tattooing of which is obligatory for
women, other parts of the body are often tattooed thus (same Fig.,
_f_)

on each shoulder. Other forms not infrequently found are
variously grouped dots, also those shown in the same Fig., _g_, on
the forearm and the back of the hand.

Nordenskiöld (_a_) gives the following account of tattooing among the Chukchis of Siberia:

It is principally the women that tattoo. The operation is
performed by means of pins and soot; perhaps also graphite is
employed, which the Chukchis gather. The tattooing of the women
seems to be the same along the whole Chukchi coast from Cape
Shelagskoy to Bering strait. The usual mode of tattooing is found
represented in Nordenskiöld’s “Voyage of the Vega around Asia and
Europe,” second part, p. 104. Still the tattooing on the cheek is
not rarely more compound than is there shown. The picture given
below [Fig. 539] represents a design of tattooing on the cheek.

Girls under nine or ten years are never tattooed. On reaching
that age they gradually receive the two streaks running from the
point of the nose to the root of the hair; next follow the vertical
chin streaks and lastly the tattooing on the cheeks, of which the
anterior arches are first formed and the posterior part of the
design last. The last named in fact is the part of the design which
is oftenest wanting.

The accompanying picture (the left hand of the same Fig.)
represents the tattooing of the arms of a woman from the town of
T’ápka. The design of the tattooing extends from the shoulder joint,
where the upper triple ring is situated, to the hand joint at the
bottom. As appears from the drawing, the tattooing on the right and
left arm is different.

The men at the winter station of the Vega tattooed themselves
only with two short horizontal streaks across the root of the nose.
Some of the men at Rerkaypiya (C. North), on the other hand, had a
cross tattooed on each cheek bone; others had merely painted similar
ones with red mold. Some Chukchis at the latter place had also the
upper lip tattooed.

The Chukchi designs are much simpler than those of the Eskimo.

Dr. Bazin, in “Étude sur le Tatouage dans la Régence de Tunis,” in L’Anthropologie (_b_), tells that the practice of tattooing is very widespread and elaborate in Tunisia, but chiefly among the natives of Arab race, who are nomads, workmen in the towns, and laborers, and also among the fellahs. The Berbers, on the contrary, who have remained mountaineers, the merchants of the coast towns, and the rich proprietors are little or not at all tattooed. In regard to the last class this proves that tattooing has become nothing but an ornament, since the members of this class are clothed in such a way that the legs and arms are completely covered, so that it would be useless to draw figures which would be invisible or almost entirely hidden. He adds that the notables “du Tinge” do not disfigure themselves by incisions. The distinctive sign of the lower classes is the presence of three incisions on the temples, three on the cheeks, and three also on the lower part of the face.

Notes on East-Equatorial Africa, in Bull. Soc. d’Anthro. de Bruxelles (_a_) contains the following memoranda: Tattooing is done by traveling artists. Perhaps at first it showed tribal characteristics, but now it is difficult to distinguish more than fancy. The exception is that Wawenba alone tattoo the face. The local fetiches bear marks of tattoo.

Gordon Cumming (_a_) says:

One of the “generals” of Mosielely, King of the Bakatlas group
of the Bechuana tribe, had killed about twenty men in battle with
his own hand, and bore a mark of honor for every man. This mark was
a line tattooed on his ribs.

David Greig Rutherford (_a_) makes remarks on the people of Batanga, West Tropical Africa, from which the following is extracted:

Tattooing evidently originated in certain marks being applied
to the face and other parts of the body in order to distinguish the
members of one tribe from those of another. The same marks would be
used for both sexes, but as the tendency to ornamentation became
developed, they would be apt to observe some artistic method in
making them. Among the Dualles the custom at one time appears to
have obtained with both sexes, with a preponderance, however, in the
practice of it on the side of the women. The men did not always see
the force of giving themselves needless pain, but the women, with
a shrewd idea that it added to their charms, persisted in having
it done. The men (and it is significant that in places where the
men have ceased to tattoo themselves they continue to do it for the
women) tattooed their children at an early age, but as the girls
approached a marriageable age they added, on their own account,
various ornamentations to those already existing. As an example that
tattooing in its later stages is regarded as an increase of beauty,
I may mention an instance given me by the wife of a missionary here.
A woman belonging to some neighboring tribe having come to stay at
the mission, was presented with a dress of some showy material as
an inducement to her to discard the loin cloth she had been in the
habit of wearing and as an introduction to the habits of civilized
life. She objected to wear the dress, however, upon the ground that
if she did so she would thereby hide her beauty. It appears certain
that the unmarried woman who is most finely tattooed wins most
admiration from the men.

Oscar Peschel (_a_) describes tattooing as another substitute for raiment and remarks: “That it actually takes away from the impression of nudity is declared by all who have seen fully tattooed Albanese.” As bearing in the same direction Mr. Darwin, in “Voyage of the Beagle,” may be quoted, who, when at New Zealand, speaking of the clean, tidy, and healthy appearance of the young women who acted as servants within the houses, remarks: “The wives of the missionaries tried to persuade them not to be tattooed, but a famous operator having arrived from the south they said: ‘We really must have a few lines on our lips, else when we grow old our lips will shrivel, and we shall be so very ugly.’”

In September, 1891, a Zulu, claiming to be a son of the late Cetewayo, gave to a reporter of the Memphis Avalanche the following account:

When some one expressed a doubt of his coming from Zululand he
promptly rolled up his sleeve and showed on his right arm the brand
of the tribe. The brand is just below the elbow-joint, and it is of
a bright red color, showing conclusively that it had been burned
into the flesh. The design is very much on the principle of a double
heart with a cross running through the center. The same design has
been branded over his left eye in a somewhat smaller shape. When
questioned about these brands he said:

“In our country all the men have to have the brand of their
tribe burned into their skin so that they can never desert us, and
no matter where they are found, you can always tell a Zulu by the
brand. Always look for it just over the left eye and on the inside
of the right arm. Does it hurt? Oh, no: you see they just take the
skin together in their fingers and when the brand is red hot touch
it once to the skin and it is all done, and the brand can never wear
away.”

SCARIFICATION.

The following notes regarding scarification are presented:

Edward M. Curr (_b_), p. 94, says:

The principal and most general ornament throughout Australia
consists of a number of scars raised on the skin. They are made by
deep incisions with a flint or shell, which are kept powdered with
charcoal or ashes. The wounds thus made remain open for about three
months, and, when covered with skin, scars sometimes almost as thick
and long as one’s middle finger remain raised above the natural
surface of the skin. The incisions are made in rows on various
parts of the body, principally on the chest, back, and on the upper
muscle of the arm, and less frequently on the thighs and stomach.
The breasts of the female are often surrounded with smaller scars.
In some tribes dots cut in the skin take the place of scars. The
operation is a very painful one, and is often carried out amidst
yells of torture. Both sexes are marked in this manner, but the male
more extensively than the female.

In the same volume, p. 338, is the following:

When, as often happens, a young man and girl of the Whajook
tribe in Australia elope and remain away from the tribe for a time,
it is not unusual for them to scar each other in the interim as a
memorial of their illicit loves; a singular proceeding when one
remembers the agony caused by the operation and the length of time
required to get over it. This proceeding is a great aggravation of
the original offense in the eyes of husbands.

In Vol. II, p. 414, the same author says:

Men of the Cape river tribe scar their backs and shoulders in
this way. Scars are made generally on the left thigh both of the
men and women, continues Mr. Chatfield, but occasionally on the
right, for the purpose of denoting the particular class to which
they belong; but as such a practice would conflict with the custom
prevalent throughout the continent as far as known, which is to make
these marks for ornament alone, the statement cannot be received
without further evidence.

Thomas Worsnop, in the Prehistoric Arts of the Aborigines of Australia, says:

This practice of tattooing by scarification was common all over
the continent, varying in character amongst the respective tribes,
each having its own distinctive marks, although all patterned upon
one monotonous idea.

This is far from evidence of distinct tribal marks, the slight varieties of which may be only local or tribal fashions.

Alfred C. Haddon (_a_), p. 366, says:

Tattooing is unknown, but the body used to be ornamented
with raised cicatrices. * * * The Torres strait islanders are
distinguished by a large, complicated, oval scar, only slightly
raised and of neat construction. This, which I have been told has
some connection with a turtle, occupies the right shoulder and is
occasionally repeated on the left. I suspect that a young man was
not allowed to bear a cicatrice until he had killed his first turtle
or dugong.

The same author, op. cit., says of the Mabuiag of Torres straits:

The people were formerly divided up into a number of clans. *
* * A man belonging to one clan could not wear the badge of the
totem of another clan. * * * All the totems appear to have been
animals--as the crocodile, snake, turtle, dugong, dog, cassowary,
shark, sting-ray, kingfish, etc.

The same writer, in Notes on Mr. Beardsmore’s paper, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Br. and I. (_a_), says:

A large number of the women of Mowat, New Guinea, have a
Λ-shaped scar above the breasts. * * * Maino of Tud told me that it
was cut when the brother leaves the father’s house and goes to live
with the men; and another informant’s story was that it was made
when a brother harpooned his first dugong or turtle. Maino (who,
by the by, married a Mowat woman) said that a mark on the cheek
recorded the brother’s prowess.

D’Albertis (_c_) tells that the people of New Guinea produced scars “by making an incision in the skin and then for a lengthened period irritating it with lime and soot. * * * They use some scars as a sign that they have traveled, and tattoo an additional figure above the right breast on the accomplishment of every additional journey. * * * In Yuli island women have nearly the whole body covered with marks. Children are seldom tattooed; slaves never. Men are hardly ever tattooed, though they have frequently marks on the chest and shoulders; rarely on the face. Tribes and families are recognized by tattoo marks.”

Mr. Griffith, in his paper on Sierra Leone, in Jour. Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Br. and I. (_b_), says:

The girls are cut on their backs and loins in such a manner as
to leave raised scars, which project above the surface of the skin
about one-eighth of an inch. They then receive Boondoo names, and
after recovery from the painful operation are released from Boondoo
with great ceremony and gesticulation by some who personate Boondoo
devils. They are then publicly pronounced marriageable.

Dr. Holub (_b_), speaking of three cuts on the breast of a Koranna of Central South Africa, says:

They have among themselves a kind of freemasonry. Some of them
have on their chest three cuts. When they were asked what was the
reason of it they generally refused to answer, but after gaining
their confidence they confessed that they belonged to something like
a secret society, and they said, “I can go through all the valleys
inhabited by Korannas and Griquas, and wherever I go when I open my
coat and show these three cuts I am sure to be well received.”

Mr. H. H. Johnston (_a_) tells us that scarification is practiced right along the course of the Congo up to the Stanley falls. The marks thus made are tribal. Thus the Bateke are always distinguished by five or six striated lines across the cheek bones, while the Bayansi scar their foreheads with a horizontal or vertical band.

E. Brussaux, in L’Anthropologie (_c_), reports that scarifications in Congo, which are chiefly on the back, are made for therapeutic reasons.

Julian Thomas (_a_) gives the following description of a New Hebrides woman:

She had a pattern traced over her throat and breast like a
scarf. It was done with a shark’s tooth when a child. The women’s
skins are blistered up into flowers and ferns. The skin is cut
and earth and ashes placed inside the gashes, and the flesh grows
into these forms. Of course they do not cover up these beauties by
clothing.

According to Mr. Man, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. of Gr. Br. and I. (_c_), the Andamanese, who also tattoo by means of gashing, do so first by way of ornament, and, secondly, to prove the courage of the individual operated upon and his or her power of enduring pain.

SUMMARY OF STUDIES ON TATTOOING.

Many notes on the topic are omitted, especially those relating mainly to the methods of and the instruments used in the operation. But from those presented above it appears that tattooing still is or very recently was used in various parts of the world for many purposes besides the specific object of designating a tribe, clan, or family, and also apart from the general intent of personal ornament. The most notable of those purposes are as follows: 1, to distinguish between free and slave without reference to the tribe of the latter; 2, to distinguish between a high and low status in the same tribe; 3, as a certificate of bravery exhibited by supporting the ordeal of pain; 4, as marks of personal prowess, particularly, 5, as a record of achievements in war; 6, to show religious symbols; 7, as a therapeutic remedy for disease, and 8, as a prophylactic against disease; 9, as a brand of disgrace; 10, as a token of a woman’s marriage, or, sometimes, 11, of her marriageable condition; 12, identification of the person, not as tribesman or clansman, but as an individual; 13, to charm the other sex magically; 14, to inspire fear in the enemy; 15, to magically render the skin impenetrable by weapons; 16, to bring good fortune; and 17, as the device of a secret society.

The use of tattoo marks as certificates and records of prowess in war is considered to be of special importance in any discussion of their origin. A warrior returns from the field stained with blood from an honorable wound, the scars of which he afterwards proudly displays. It would be strictly in the line of ideography to make artificial scars or to paint the semblance of wounds on the person as designations of honor, and from such origin quite as well as from a totemic representation all other forms and uses may have been evolved. For instance, the vigor of manhood being thus signified, the similar use would show the maturity of women. Yet some of the practices of tattoo may have originated independently of either totem or glory mark. The mere idea of decoration as shown in what civilized people call deformations of nose, lip, ear, teeth, and in fact all parts of the body, is sufficient to account for the inception of any form of tattoo. Primitive man never seemed to be content to leave the surface of his body in its natural condition, and from recognition of that discontent studies of clothing and of ornament should take their point of departure.

In this paper many examples are presented of the use, especially by the North American Indians, of tribal signs carved or painted on rock, tree, bark, skin, and other materials, and suggestion is made of an interesting connection between these designs and those of heraldry in Europe. It would, therefore, seem natural that the same Indians who probably for ages used such totemic and tribal devices should paint or tattoo them on their own persons, and the meagerness of the evidence that they actually did so is surprising. Undoubtedly the statement has been made in a general way by some of the earlier explorers and travelers, but when analyzed it is frequently little more than a vague expression of opinion, perhaps based on a preconceived theory. Nearly all the Indian tribes have peculiarities of arrangement of the hair and of some article of apparel and accouterment by which they can always be distinguished. These are not totemic, nor are they by design expressions of a tribal character. They come under the heading of fashion, and such fashions in clothing and in arrangement of the hair still exist among civilized peoples, so that the people of one nation or province can at once be distinguished from others. Very little appears from the account of actual observers to show that the character of the tattoo marks of the North American Indians, perhaps excluding those of the northwest coast, was more than a tribal fashion. Such styles or fashions with no intent or deliberate purpose that they should serve as tribal signs prevail to-day in Africa and in some other regions, and have been introduced by the professional artists who had several styles. Besides the necessary influence of a school of artists, it is obvious that people living together would contract and maintain the same custom and fashion in their cutaneous decoration.