Chapter V: Part II: The Northern Territories (1)

=Tribes.=—The country which is included under the Northern Territories is inhabited by a number of tribes, now chiefly located in the northern half; the central portion being liable to inundation at certain times, and therefore almost unoccupied, and the southern being, perhaps, considered unsafe owing to the proximity to the warlike Ashantis. The more important tribes are the Mamprussis, under the king of Gambaga; the Gonjas, under the king of Kombe; the Walas, under the king of Wa; and two sections of the Dagombas, under the chiefs of Savelugu and Karaga (formerly under the king of Yendi, in German territory). The Lobis, Dagartis, Grunshis, Kussassis, and several others were dispersed by Samory and Barbetu in 1896 and 1898, and have now only nominal chiefs. (See _Colonial Reports—Annual_, No. 566, “Northern Territories of the Gold Coast,” 1907, p. 8.) The Moshis, whose country extended into the northern limits of the Northern Territories, were employed at one time as native levies, but since they were disbanded they have interfered with the tribes on the Gambaga-Kumassi road, in the Sapari Hills, and made trading by that route unsafe. (See _Colonial Reports_, _loc. cit._, p. 10.) Steps have been taken to expel them from the country, and it is hoped that the people living in the hills, who are said to be good agriculturists, will now come into closer contact with civilisation. The Dagombas are apparently the most industrious tribe in the country, and they seem to be numerous.

Although there does not appear to be any actual record of the invasion of the eastern part of the country by the Mohammedan rulers of the Western Sudan, they are said to have overrun the pagan countries between themselves and the region of dense forest on several occasions. In 1483 the kingdom of Mossi (Moshi) was conquered by Sonni Ali, King of Songhay, who was a native of the Eastern Sudan, and had come from Egypt. Two years later he extended his conquest through the mountain territory to the south and far into the pagan belt. Sonni Ali was followed by Askia, who again overran Mossi, in order to abolish paganism and establish the Mohammedan faith. This occurred in about the year 1500, and doubtless the people learnt to adopt the improved methods of agriculture which the conquerors had introduced into the Western Sudan from Egypt and the east. Many of the tribes have relapsed completely into paganism, but amongst others there is a mixture of Mohammedanism and paganism, which is evidence of the impression made. More recently, Samodu Almami of Ouassoulou, generally known as Samory, was driven from his kingdom in the Western Sudan by the French, and overran the Northern Territories with his Sofa troops; subduing Wa, Bole, and the whole of the western part of the country. It is, however, unlikely that agriculture was further improved by his invasion, as large tracts of country were devastated to feed his troops.

=FIELD CROPS.=—The soil is of a lighter and more sandy nature than that generally found in the forest region, but it is well adapted for the cultivation of many different kinds of crops, notably Guinea corn, millet, groundnuts, and cotton, while it is less satisfactory for yams. The latter are consequently of smaller size.

=Cotton.=—The cotton grown by the Dagombas is whiter than those found in the south, and the plants are of small stature; the species has a wide-opening pale flower, and has been grown at Labolabo from seed procured in the Northern Territories. The cotton fields are planted with regular lines of plants, and the ground appears to be exclusively used for the crop during the season. The seed is sown upon ridges which have been constructed from the high conical mounds, upon which the combined crop of millet (_Pennisetum spp._) or Guinea corn and yams were grown in the previous year. Cultivation is performed by means of a short-handled hoe, and the ridges are kept clear of weeds and grass until the crop is ready. The seed-cotton is sold in the markets, and is in good demand for the manufacture of native cloths. No insect pests have been observed attacking the plants, and it is probable that if an outside demand were established for the produce a large quantity could be grown. It might be necessary to introduce a better variety than that at present cultivated, as this yields a rather coarse and short staple. If cotton from this part of the country is to become an article of export, the difficulties at present experienced in transport will first have to be overcome; indeed, this applies to all the produce capable of being grown in the country. The navigation of the Volta river and the two main branches seems to suggest a means which might be employed, for, although there are several rapids in the course from Daboya and Bole to Labolabo, only one is impassable for canoes, even in the dry season. This rapid is at Krachi where a short line has been laid for transporting loaded canoes. The cost of the hire of canoes for making the journey would probably be prohibitive, but if the British Cotton Growing Association undertook the carriage by their own canoes of the salt and stores required by the merchants who have commenced business in Yeji and Tamale, the freight on these in the journey upwards would probably be found to cover the cost of bringing cotton down-stream, and the export trade in it could be developed in this manner. The British Cotton Growing Association made an effort to act upon the suggestion made here, but discontinued their operations in July 1916, when they handed over their buildings, at Tamale, to the Government, as it was shown that under the existing conditions and with but one European representative to further its interests, cotton-growing in the Northern Territories could not hope to become a remunerative export business (Colonial Reports, Northern Territories, G.C. 1916, No. 956). The irregularity of the rainfall is a matter which must be borne in mind in any future attempts to develop the industry here, but the possibilities of providing artificial irrigation should not be overlooked, as large tracts of flat land exist near the White Volta river capable of becoming fertile under proper irrigation and drainage.

=Other Field Crops.=—Yams are grown as a primary crop on mounds, and three different kinds are common, probably referable to _D. alata_, _D. sativa_, and _D. colocasiæfolia_, the last being what is termed the water yam and the first the winged yam. Guinea corn is the most important food grain grown, but millet is sometimes planted. A red species of sorghum (_S. guineensis_, var. _robustum_) is cultivated on a small scale for use in staining leather, but is not used for food. Rice (_Oryza sativa_) is grown in the vicinity of the large rivers, but is said to suffer damage from elephants and hippopotami. The variety seems to be similar to the red rice grown in the Gambia and Sierra Leone. Very little maize is planted, but some is grown near Salaga. Cassava is only seen in the south near the forest boundary, and groundnuts are not plentiful, owing, perhaps, to the fact that cooking oil is obtainable from shea butter trees, which are common in a wild state. Pigeon peas are often planted round the borders of fields, and are left to yield more than one crop. This pea is identical with one of the common “Dhalls” of India (_Cajanus indicus_); the origin of the introduction is obscure. Small beans are grown as well as _Indigofera spp._ Sweet potatoes, okra, capsicum-peppers, sorrel-hibiscus (_H. Sabdariffa_), and the Fra-Fra potato (_Plectranthus, sp._, “Tumuku” of the Haussas) are also grown.

=Fibre.=—Plants belonging to two species of _Hibiscus_ are used for the extraction of fibre for the preparation of cordage, the cleaned fibre being similar to jute. These plants grow, with perfectly straight stems, to eight or ten feet in height, bearing short thin branches with axillary flowers.

=Tobacco.=—The tobacco grown is used for smoking or the manufacture of snuff in many parts of the Northern Territories, and is prepared in a special manner. For smoking tobacco the green leaves are pressed into small gourds until a quantity of juice exudes, the mass being rolled in this until it assumes an oval form, in which it is sold in the markets before drying. For snuff it is ground up between heated stones until the requisite fineness has been obtained, and is then mixed with a small quantity of the powdered seeds of _Monodora myristica_. The tobacco fields are usually confined to small patches near houses, and wood ashes as well as sweepings are applied as a top dressing. This appears to be the only crop to which manure or fertiliser is given. The leaves always seem to be stripped off the stems at one operation, whereby old and immature leaves are mixed with mature.

=GUMS.=—Two species of _Acacia_ (_A. arabica_ and _A. Sieberiana_) are found, especially in the uninhabited tracts in the centre of the country, and the last named appears to yield a large flow of gum, which, however, is not collected. Examination of this at the Imperial Institute has shown it to be about equal in quality to inferior Sudan grades; _A. arabica_ does not seem to yield gum with such frequency in this locality as elsewhere. _Burkea africana_ and _Pseudocedrela Kotschyi_ produce a quality of gum comparable with “Talh” from the Sudan. (Cf. _Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute_, Pt. II., Gums and Resins, pp. 153, 165-7.)

=WOOD OIL.=—By cutting deeply into the base of a tree known as “Neou” (Dagomba), and “Kawa” (Haussa), a rather copious flow of resinous liquid is induced, which, when solidified, is a resin somewhat similar, but inferior, to copal. The tree from which this is procured is botanically known as _Daniellia thurifera_, Oliv., and the so-called “oil” obtained was at one time shipped from Northern Nigeria under the name of African Balsam of Copaiba. It is used in the Northern Territories for lighting purposes, as well as medicinally. The tree yields a handsomely grained timber. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1915.)

=SHEA BUTTER.=—A tree known botanically as _Butyrospermum Parkii_ bears a fruit, from the kernel of which this valuable vegetable fat is procured. The fat forms the cooking oil of the ultra-forest country, taking the place of palm oil in this respect. The mode of preparation in the Northern Territories is, doubtless, similar to that employed in Northern Nigeria. The prepared butter is one of the products carried by the Haussa traders, who visit Ashanti for the purpose of purchasing kola, and is much appreciated in Kumassi, where it obtains a high price. A small quantity is carried down the Volta river by the canoes which bring salt from Adda to Yeji and Daboya. An analysis made at the Imperial Institute of Shea butter from the Northern Territories showed that the material is in no way inferior to the better-known “Shea butter” of Northern Nigeria. Cf. _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vi. (1908), p. 370.

=RUBBER.=—Recently some species of _Landolphia_ were found growing in the district of Wa and elsewhere, and, upon examination, one of these proved to be _L. owariensis_, P. Beauv. This was at first thought to occur plentifully, and to assume the underground habits of _L. Thollonii_, one of the most important sources of root or rhizome rubber in the Congo. Specimens, which were found growing near the south bank of the Black Volta river, in grass land, exhibited a trailing form of growth owing to the absence of supporting trees, but, although the plants were probably dwarfed by the annual grass fires, no development of root growth was observed in excess of that ordinarily produced within the forests. The plant is now reported to occur rather rarely in the Northern Territories; another nearly allied, though useless, species having been mistaken for it.

=DYES.=—For dyeing the yarn made from the native cotton, indigo is made from a species of _Indigofera_, or from the young leaves of _Lonchocarpus cyanescens_, but the process of preparation employed in this country has not been carefully observed. It is, however, probably similar to that in common use in Sierra Leone, Northern Nigeria, and the Gambia.

=BEESWAX.=—Bees are attracted to hive in calabashes placed in trees, the honey and wax being taken from them and sold in the markets. The bee belongs to a small variety of _Apis mellifera_, known as var. _Adansonii_. A sample of beeswax obtained at Tamale was examined at the Imperial Institute, and proved to be of excellent quality and worth £6 15_s_. per cwt. (Dec. 1908).

=LEATHER.=—Tanning of sheep and goats’ skins is done to a small extent, the same process as that described for the preparation of Kano leather in Northern Nigeria being followed. The _Acacia_ pods used for the purpose are obtained from trees often found planted in the middle of towns.

=CATTLE AND POULTRY.=—A large breed of cattle with a dorsal hump exists in the Salaga district, and a straight-backed smaller kind throughout the country to the north. Although “tsetse” flies of three species are common on the stream banks, the cattle seem to be healthy for the most part, and often form part of a caravan travelling to the forest belt, where a good price is said to be obtained for them from the Ashantis. They are usually killed for food very soon after entering the forest, where they can no longer be kept free from the attacks of the three species of “tsetse” (_Glossina morsitans_, _G. palpalis_, and _G. pallidipes_), all of which seem to attack them. Horses are bred in some parts, but not to a large extent. Wire-haired sheep and goats are seen everywhere, and can be obtained in many places at a low price.

Fowls and Guinea-fowls are reared in several villages, and are carried to the south for sale. Long open-work baskets are used, and the fowls are usually conveyed as head-loads. Guinea-fowls, purchasable for threepence each in some of the villages south of Daboya, are sold at four or five shillings each near the coast. No coops seem to be employed in the villages to confine the guinea-fowls, which habitually roost upon the house-tops and which may frequently be seen in the adjoining fields. They are scarcely distinguishable from the wild birds which occur usually in the same localities. There is, however, a marked tendency on the part of the domesticated examples to acquire white feathers upon the breast or wings to a greater or lesser extent.

It should be recorded that a considerable local trade is carried on in the country in the sale of a flour-like substance obtained from the interior of the pods of _Parkia filicoidea_. This is made up with the seeds of the plant into an edible paste, locally termed “Dawadawa.”

=EXPORTS.=—Excluding cocoa, which is treated separately in its place, the following table shows the progress of the export trade between 1910 and 1919:—

KOLA. COPRA. COPAL.
YEAR. Lbs. £ Tons. £ Lbs. £
1910 5,156,500 77,716 755 13,032 53,847 647
1911 5,791,931 93,099 779 13,257 80,042 1,110
1912 7,133,165 134,231 620 11,841 67,133 1,077
1913 7,024,868 144,705 629 14,292 38,205 555
1914 7,862,414 142,190 656 11,825 18,549 265
1915 8,267,100 139,163 770 12,821 28,888 405
1916 6,760,898 130,566 633 14,384 12,549 132
1917 11,985,645 239,134 735 19,916 2,306 24
1918 13,254,538 262,144 99 2,772 1,693 35
1919 16,319,972 350,249 984 30,091 13,748 174

RUBBER. PALM OIL. PALM KERNELS.
Lbs. £ Galls. £ Tons. £
1910 3,223,265 358,876 2,044,868 161,388 14,182 185,058
1911 2,668,667 219,447 1,610,209 128,916 13,254 175,891
1912 1,990,699 168,729 1,444,432 112,885 14,628 205,365
1913 1,317,369 87,915 860,155 65,652 9,744 159,128
1914 654,133 21,631 495,763 37,646 5,633 88,671
1915 647,982 25,167 330,990 25,769 4,064 50,512
1916 2,215,973 78,865 450,360 38,299 5,857 85,899
1917 2,961,204 110,272 198,900 24,770 4,768 74,911
1918 1,391,097 57,006 670,867 83,689 8,933 152,922
1919 721,588 33,637 938,595 140,163 9,892 253,243

GROUNDNUTS.
LUMBER. COTTON. Tons. £
Feet. £ Lbs. £ 1907:
1910 14,938,749 148,122 11,421 263 197 1,815
1911 13,973,396 138,821 9,701 238 not given
1912 23,573,651 228,745 20,395 506 do.
1913 37,391,848 366,094 27,497 688 do.
1914 24,587,217 240,878 23,514 588 do.
1915 9,217,622 90,661 12,016 300 do.
1916 10,334,793 93,980 17,896 447 do.
1917 7,481,468 69,128 43,870 227 do.
1918 14,680,823 137,649 20,640 212 do.
1919 10,432,250 103,238 nil. 7 210

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in Red. [Legend]

_Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt., London._]

=NIGERIA-SOUTHERN PROVINCES=

=INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.= =Administrative Divisions.=—On January 1, 1914, the countries, hitherto administered separately under the names of Northern and Southern Nigeria, were amalgamated and placed under a Governor-General. It is, nevertheless, convenient, from the point of view of their agricultural and commercial interests, to deal with them in this place separately. The inhabitants of the Northern and Southern Provinces are to a very large extent dissimilar in languages, religion and customs, and the climatic conditions, by which distinct varieties of life are so much influenced, are so suitably defined by the artificial boundary which, until recently, divided Northern and Southern Nigeria, that little excuse need be offered for the maintenance of old division in the discussion of the subjects within the competence of this book. Following then the plan adopted in the first edition, Southern Nigeria, referred to now as the Southern Provinces, is being first dealt with and treated, as far as possible, independently of Northern Nigeria, now entitled the Northern Provinces, the separate account of which follows.

=Geographical Position.=—Pending the adjustment of the eastern frontier, occasioned by the outcome of the recent war, the Southern Provinces of Nigeria extend from 2° 45′ E. to 10° 15′ E. long.: the Western Province reaching 9° 10′ N., and the Central and Eastern about 7° 15′ N. lat.

=Area and Population.=—The estimated area of the country before adjustment was 94,000 sq. miles, and the census of 1911 showed the population as 7,857,983.

=Natural Divisions.=—The Southern Provinces are conveniently divided for agricultural considerations into _wet_ and _dry_ zones. In the former the rainfall ranges from about 90 inches at Bendi to 250 inches at Opobo. In the latter zone the highest rainfall is reached in Lagos Town, where about 75 inches are annually registered; the lowest reading being that of 40 inches at Olokemeji. The densely forested area is practically entirely within the wet zone; this also including a tract of brackish-water forest (mangrove) and swamp. In the dry zone grass-land and open “bush,” with trees peculiar to such localities, occur, and it is in this portion of the country that most of the agricultural people are found. The inhabitants of the forested area in the wet zone give more attention to the collection of forest products, such as palm oil and rubber, and only grow sufficient grain and roots for their own consumption.

=Inhabitants.=—The tribes found in the Western Province are chiefly Yorubas, and among these are some of the most intelligent people in the country. In the Central Province there are a large number of tribes speaking different languages, but among these the Benis are perhaps of most importance. The Ijoas, Ibos, Aros, and many other tribes inhabit the Eastern Province, and are generally of a lower grade of civilisation than the others mentioned. The country between the northern part of the Cross river and the Niger is populated by other pagan tribes, who seem to be careful cultivators, but very little is known of them at present.

=Cultivation.=—The Yoruba race are industrious cultivators, and show considerably more ambition than most of the other West African peoples. The country in which they live is particularly adapted to farming, and the climatic conditions are suitable for the cultivation of cotton and fibrous plants, in addition to the various grain crops. In some parts cocoa, rubber, and kola are being cultivated, but these are not so suitable under the prevailing conditions as they would be within the wet zone—the Western Province, which these people inhabit, being entirely within the dry region.

Although farming is so extensive, continuous cultivation is not found, and the use of manure is practically unknown. The usual practice is to farm a piece of land for a few years, and to permit it then to return to a wild state for a long period. In their want of knowledge concerning the value of manure and the application of artificial irrigation, the Yoruba farmers are behind the Haussas of Northern Nigeria, but are more careful than the Nupes of the same country. The depth of the Yoruba cultivation is greater than that of the northern Haussa, and this in some measure compensates for the non-employment of manure, etc.

The people of the Central Province are generally less careful in their farming methods; the Benis often planting their grain crops in only partially cleared land. Farther to the north in the same province a better system is noticeable among the Ishans, Ifons, and the people of Agbede. During recent years, owing to the energetic efforts of the Forestry Department, the cultivation and better treatment of the indigenous rubber tree (_Funtumia elastica_) have been extensively adopted, especially by the people in the neighbourhood of Benin City, where the climate is well suited to the species. In addition to rubber, cocoa and kola plantations might prove successful in the same localities, but as yet no large plantations of either exist.

In the Eastern Province farming is generally of poor quality until the region of heavy rainfall is left, when extremely large areas are met with, highly cultivated, with the earth thrown up into loose mounds, often five or six feet in height, for the purpose of growing yams, maize, pepper, okra, Guinea corn, pumpkins, etc., all of which are found planted upon each mound; the yams being carefully trained to climb along fibre strings towards central poles.

=Principal Crops.=—The chief crops grown in the Western Province are maize, cotton, cassava, yams, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, and to a small extent Guinea corn, sugar-cane, tobacco, Colocasia yams, peppers, okra, rice, eggplant, and native beans.

Indigo is extracted from _Lonchocarpus cyanescens_, which occurs in a wild state, and is preserved when making clearances for farms. The _Indigofera spp._ are used to a smaller degree for the same purpose. (See Sierra Leone Section, p. 39; also _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, 1909, p. 319; 1918, p. 11; and 1919, p. 31.)

Fruits are not grown plentifully, and are generally left in an uncultivated condition. The chief kinds are pineapples, bananas, pawpaws, akee apple (_Blighia sapida_), oranges, and guavas. There are several fruits and spices which are collected from the forest strips, but, taken generally, the Western Province people are not great fruit eaters. On the sea coast and for a considerable distance inland, coconut plantations are common, and, near Badagry, copra is prepared from them for shipment.

The crops cultivated in the Central Province are similar to those of the Western, but yams become more, and groundnuts less prominent. Large quantities of palm oil are prepared, and rubber is collected, the labour available for farm work being thereby reduced.

The most important product of the Eastern Province is undoubtedly palm oil, but fairly large quantities of yams and maize are grown outside the forest zone and are transported by native canoes to the coast ports, in the vicinity of which there is very little cultivation.

With the exception of the oil palm, which is of general occurrence throughout the country, the Lagos silk rubber tree (_Funtumia elastica_) is of the most importance from a commercial standpoint. Rubber vines of the genera _Landolphia_ and _Carpodinus_ are also valuable wild plants, from which some of the finest rubbers are at present extracted. Copal, known as “Ogea” gum, and collected from a tree which has been determined as _Cyanothyrsus oblongus_ (syn. _ogea_), is exported in varying quantity according to the market value. A fairly extensive local trade is done in “chew-sticks” in the Western Province; the sticks being cut from a tree which occurs in the grass country, and is recognised as _Anogeissus leiocarpus_. The ash made from the wood of the same tree is sold for use as a mordant in indigo dyeing. Camwood is a red dye-wood prepared from at least three different species of trees—_Baphia nitida_, _Pterocarpus tinctorius_, and _Pterocarpus sp._—and is almost entirely used locally for staining the human skin or dyeing leather. Fibre plants do not appear to be cultivated in any part of the country, but occur to some extent in all the forested parts. _Hibiscus guineensis_ and _Dombeya buettneri_ are usually employed for native ropes, and the bark of _Sterculia barteri_ is said to be prepared for the same purpose.

=OIL PALM.=—A description of this tree and information in connection with the principal characteristics and mode of propagation have been given in the Sierra Leone portion of this work, and it may merely be remarked that there is no difference in a general way between trees grown in the two localities. With regard to the form of fruit, however, that of Southern Nigeria is separated into several kinds, varying in the relative proportion of pericarp and kernel, and these will be referred to later.

The method of preparing palm oil varies to a large degree in the different localities. The best quality of oil is that produced in the Western Province. The oil, which on the market is classed as “Lagos fine grade,” and obtains the highest price among West African oils, is made from the fresh fruits boiled and pounded in the manner described for the Sierra Leone oil, but the extracted oil is further cleared by straining and boiling until a uniformly clear and limpid product is obtained.

Fig. 22, p. 97.]

Fig. 23, p. 113.]

Fig. 24, p. 118.]

An inferior quality is that made at Oshogbo and north of Ibadan generally. The fruits, after having been boiled for about three hours, have the fibrous pulp sufficiently loosened, so that the whole is easily separated from the nuts by pounding in a wooden mortar. The fibrous mass thus obtained is then put into a pit, which is filled to a depth of about eighteen inches with cold water, and the oil is expressed by women and young girls, who tread it out with their feet. After leaving the water undisturbed for a short time, the oil rises to the surface, from which it is skimmed, or it may be precipitated, by the removal of a plug placed in the side of the pit, into a vessel placed to receive it. The treading process is repeated until most of the oil is extracted. The oil is then separated from the water which it contains by boiling. The fibrous pulp is next removed, strained in baskets, and is placed upon rocks to dry in the sun, after which it is pressed into large balls, which are sold in the local markets at 1_d_. each. Much of this finds its way to Lagos Town, where it is sold for fuel at the rate of 8_d_. for 8½ lb. In this connection it may be mentioned that there appears to be no foundation for the statement which has been made to the effect that this residual pulp is exported in large quantities from Lagos for the further extraction of oil by chemical means in Europe. An illustration is given showing a girl straining fibrous pulp in an oil pit at Oshogbo (Fig. 22).

In the Central and Eastern Provinces “hard” oil is the commercial name applied to the kind which is generally made. At Onitsha the natives may be seen bringing in this oil, which is of such a consistency that even at an atmospheric temperature of 90° it remains in a solid wax-like condition. The earthen vessels in which such oil is conveyed to the factories, when accidentally dropped and broken, do not necessarily occasion the loss of any oil. The thickened condition is entirely due to the method of preparation, during which important chemical changes occur, which appear to be detrimental to the oil for some of its most important uses, especially that of soap manufacture, while rendering it suitable for employment for making candles. The important difference in the preparation of this oil lies in the fact that instead of the fresh fruits being used, the pericarp is separated from the nuts by means of partial decomposition, induced by burying the fruits in the ground for a period varying from three weeks to two months. The semi-decomposed pericarp is then easily removed by pounding or treading out in a canoe-shaped receptacle, after which the fibrous mass is boiled, and the liquid oil is skimmed and allowed to set in earthen jars, in which it is carried for sale to the factories.

The extraction of kernels from the nuts is one of the usual occupations of the women and children of a village, when not assisting in the preparation of oil. The nuts are spread in the sun for about a week or more until a shrinkage of the kernel occurs, which renders the nut-shell capable of being easily cracked without damage to the interior. It is said that in the Jebu district, to the north-east of Lagos, the local price paid for kernels ranges from 4_d_. to 4½_d_. for a filled tin bowl having the diameter of nine inches.

The primitive method of extracting kernels, by means of cracking the nut-shell between stones and picking out the contents, has not yet given way to the employment of the various machines which have been introduced from time to time to supersede it.

A black oil is extracted at Oshogbo by roasting the kernels in an earthen pot until black, and stirring meanwhile until the whole mass becomes covered with exuded oil. A small quantity of cold water is then sprinkled into the pot after removing it from the fire, and the contents are pounded in a mortar until an oily meal is produced. This is boiled, and, when the mixture is cool, the oil is skimmed from the surface of the water which has been added for the boiling. This oil is apparently only used locally.

The existing native social system, under which the male head of a family receives almost exclusive consideration, is opposed to native co-operation in any mechanical process, whereby a relief from labour of his numerous dependants—wives, children, and aged or infirm relatives—would be incurred at the expense of his enhanced personal labour; he being the carrier and disposer of the produce at the market. By the conveyance and sale of nuts instead of kernels, a much smaller return in value would be obtained for the same weight of material, _i.e._ a similar amount of personal energy. The dependants, incapable of assisting in transporting, would remain idle, unless some similar work could be found for them. Up to a short distance from the delivery point (which would determine itself) the nuts instead of the kernels would be brought in for sale, and, limited by the capabilities of the available palm-tree climbers, the family dependants would be able to prepare larger quantities of pericarp oil; but the increased accumulation of kernels would further decrease the radius from the selling centre at which the carriers would be able to work.

If the entire fruit were to be bought up for mechanical extraction of pericarp oil as well as kernels, the carrying labour would be still further enhanced, and the work of the oil-manufacturing communities would resolve itself into three operations—viz. climbing trees, chopping out fruit, and transporting—which would mean the exclusion from work of all but the strong adults, or the reduction of workers by 30 to 50 per cent. perhaps. The number of skilled palm-tree climbers is said to be decreasing in many districts, and, owing to the sparsity of the population in some localities, a very large proportion of the annual yield of fruit remains unharvested.

The investigation of the several varieties of the oil palm of the country is in progress at the Imperial Institute, and the characters of the most important are now well known, and may be compared here with the varieties from the Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria. The typical form, which, although subject to some variation, possesses certain marked characteristics, may be said to fall under the following general description:

Fruiting heads generally large. Fruit large, orange to scarlet in colour, with a variable amount of purplish black suffusion at the apex, which may extend over more than half of the fruit or may be altogether absent. Pericarp thin, kernel large with a thick shell. Names: “Ope yope” or “Ope pankora” (Yoruba), “Ok-poruk-pu” (Ibo), “Udin” (Beni), “Ak-porro-jub” (Efik), “Irök-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe pa” and perhaps “Abe dam” (Fanti, Gold Coast), “Tug bore” (Mendi, Sierra Leone), “Tabel-tiloli” (Timani, Sierra Leone), “Tengo” (Mandingo, Gambia), “Kabe-kalako” (Jolah, Gambia), “Neul” (Joloff, Gambia), “Qua-qua” (Haussa, N. Nigeria), “Yi-ku-niche” (Nupe, N. Nigeria). Only the typical form has as yet been observed in Sierra Leone, Gambia, and Northern Nigeria.

The other particularly important variety is that commonly referred to as the “_soft-shelled_” or “_thin-shelled_” palm fruit, which has been recorded from many localities in West Africa. The following description will include the forms contained in this group:

Fruiting heads often large. Fruits large or small, generally the latter, dark coloured. Pericarp thick, kernel rather small, with a thin shell. Names: “Ope-Arunfo” (Yoruba), “Au-su-ku” (Ibo), “Ivioronmila” (Beni), “Asoge-e-jub” (Efik), “Eduege Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-bobe” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The third kind is that frequently called the “_Fetish_” or “_King_” palm nut. It is rare wherever it occurs, and is scarcely worth consideration from an economic standpoint. The tree which bears this fruit has been described under the distinct specific name of _Elæis Thompsoni_, Chevalier.

Fruiting heads generally small. Fruits medium-sized, red with black markings occasionally present. Pericarp moderately thick, kernel and shell medium. The nuts, which possess four eyes, are not used in the manufacture of commercial oil, but are employed in connection with the worship of the deity Ifa (Dennett). Names: “Ope Ifa” (Yoruba), “Ojuku” (Ibo), “Oged-udin” (Beni), “Affia-ko-jub” (Efik), “Efiako-Eyop” (Ibibio), “Abe-ohene” (Fanti, Gold Coast).

The above are the three most marked forms of oil palm recognisable, although other varieties are given special names by natives in different parts of the country, distinctions being frequently made between the fruit from trees which assume a tall growth and those which remain stunted. (Cf. also _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1909, p. 362; and 1920, p. 223.)

As far as investigations have progressed, the advantage with regard to yield of oil as well as quality is maintained by the thin-shelled variety, the greater proportion of pericarp enabling a larger amount of pericarp oil to be expressed, while the thin kernel-covering facilitates the extraction of the kernel. Before being able to definitely state that this variety is of the greatest economic value, it is necessary that a comparison of the weight of the annual crops from all varieties should be made.

The advisability of planting any particular variety of oil palm would in the first place depend on the results obtained from the complete investigation of all; but at the present time such a project on a large scale is not likely to be practicable, as it is generally acknowledged that only a comparatively small proportion of the existing wild trees are at present utilised.

Experiments in the Kamerun, with different varieties of oil palms, seemed to indicate that the thin-shelled character was not a fixed one. In 1910 a forest officer in Nigeria was detailed to study the distribution, cultivation and preparation of the oil, of the most appreciated varieties, and a quantity of nuts of the soft-shelled “Lisombe” kind from the Kamerun were distributed for planting among the natives of the Eastern Province.

The export figures of this trade from 1910 to 1918 are tabulated below. Up to the year 1914, those of Northern were separated from those of Southern Nigeria. In this account, subsequent to that year, the two sets of figures have been taken together. A quantity of kernels is imported from Dahomey for re-export, amounting in 1910 to 21,120 tons. The figures indicate that the increase has been irregular, and, during the last few years, has been influenced by the war. In 1919 here, as in the other W. African Colonies, a differential export tax of £2 per ton was imposed, with respect to palm kernels.

Year Palm oil in tons Palm kernels in tons
(280 galls. = 1 ton)
1910 76,850 172,998
1911 79,337 176,390
1912 76,994 184,624
1913 83,088 174,718
1914 72,531 162,452
1915 72,994 153,319
1916 67,422 161,439
1917 74,619 185,998
1918 86,425 205,167
1919 100,967 216,913

It is interesting to compare the amount of oil produced in proportion to kernels collected, there being a marked difference in this respect between the output of the Western Province (Lagos) and the Central and Eastern Provinces. A previous series of thirteen years’ exports from the former showed an average of 60·9 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels; while for the latter a twelve-year period at the same time gave 219·6 gallons of oil to the ton of kernels. The mean for the whole was 140·25 gallons at that time, but during the last seven years it has fallen to 125·7 gallons. In 1912 the first shipments of kernel oil and cake were made from factories established under European control at Opobo and Lagos, the amounts exported being 500 tons of oil and 635 tons of cake. In the following year the value of both products turned out by these factories is given as £161,000, and in 1914 as £72,000, when, without any assigned reason, both factories were closed down.

Articles on the African palm-oil industry in the Southern Provinces of Nigeria will be found in _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, 1909, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1915, 1919.

An interesting article appears in the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. xviii., No. 2 (1920), entitled “The Cultivation of the African Oil Palm, with special reference to the East Indies.” From this it appears that the tree thrives and yields very satisfactorily, especially in Sumatra; the oil content of the fruit and kernels being both high. Attention is drawn in this article to the extension of the use of palm oil in Europe as an edible fat, in addition to its present uses.

=Other Oil Seeds.=—Excluding the shea nut tree, which will be referred to later on, three trees have been considered of sufficient importance for their seeds to be shipped to Europe in order that their value may be determined. These are _Pentaclethra macrophylla_ (Cutlass bean), _Irvingia Barteri_ (African mango), and _Lophira alata_. Although the trials proved that the oils of all might be valuable for the manufacture of soap and candles, none of the trees occur in sufficient profusion to permit a large export trade in the seeds being established. (See _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. v. [1907], pp. 10-14, and vol. vi. [1908], pp. 243, 354-80.)

=RUBBER.=—Following the progress made by the Forestry Department in re-establishing the indigenous rubber tree (_Funtumia elastica_) in places from which it had almost disappeared, an excellent system of communal plantations was established. This system, which has been largely adopted by the chiefs, is one to encourage the village inhabitants to re-establish rubber trees in their proximity; the planting and tapping and preparation of the rubber being under the direction of the Government officers. The resulting rubber is marketed by the Government, who retain one-third of the sale price to cover the cost of supervision, etc.; the remaining two-thirds being paid to the village community. In this manner a large number of communal plantations have now been established. In 1911 over 400 new plantations of this kind were made; about 100,000 Funtumia plants being put in. At the same time 129,000 Para rubber seeds and some 4,000 seedlings were distributed under the same scheme, while Ceara plantations were made in the drier parts of the country. Licences to collect wild rubber were simultaneously made compulsory.

The rubber produced on the Government plantation at Mamu Forest, by the boiling method, proved very satisfactory. In 1910 such rubber was sold at 6_s_. 6_d_. per lb., being only 6_d_. less than the best Para fetched at the same time. Three hundred communal plantations yielded rubber in 1911 against eighty-four in the previous year, the average yield per tree being 1·59 oz. against 1·406 oz. In 1912 communal rubber amounted to 3,031 lbs., which sold at about 3_s_. 4_d_. per lb.; and in the same year Government plantation rubber was 3,501 lbs., which realised 3_s_. 10_d_. per lb.

The next rubber plant of importance is the vine, _Landolphia owariensis_, which is somewhat variable in the form of growth. The latex at certain seasons coagulates almost instantaneously, but at other times it runs freely, and can be collected for coagulation by heat, the admixture of acid, alkali or alcohol, or by spontaneous exposure. The scrap rubber, which is collected from that coagulated upon the stem, is made into balls, and comes into the market under the name of “first Niggers,” and commands a high price.

The native has discovered that a larger amount of rubber can be obtained at one time if the roots and stems are cut and pounded up. The result is a product known as “root rubber,” the collection of which can be justified only where the plant, from which it is obtained, develops an extensive rhizome or subterranean growth, capable of being partially removed without killing the plant. Such vines, although found in some other parts of Africa, do not occur in Southern Nigeria, and the collection of so-called “root rubber” from _L. owariensis_ only leads to the complete destruction of the plant, and should be discouraged. The small yield of latex from this species after many years of growth, and the difficulties in connection with the collection of the rubber, render its cultivation in plantations unprofitable, although planting has been attempted in the French and German Colonies.

_Clitandra elastica_ is another vine said to yield a copious supply of latex, capable of being coagulated by means of heating after dilution with water. In appearance the vine is somewhat similar to _L. owariensis_, but does not appear to be common. The rubber produced from this species is reported to be of excellent quality.

_Carpodinus hirsutus_, a common vine in the dry zone and on the Niger river banks, furnishes a plentiful supply of latex of inferior quality, and is made into “root” and “paste” rubber by boiling; the latter being a sticky product of the consistency of birdlime, and only saleable in Europe at a low price.

The latices of _Landolphia Thompsonii_ and _L. senegalensis_ are used similarly. Both species are nearly allied to _L. florida_, which is prepared elsewhere.

A number of latex-yielding plants are employed in the adulteration of good rubber, among which the following may be mentioned as the commonest: _Funtumia africana_, _Conopharyngia sp._, _Alstonia congoensis_, and _Holarrhena Wulfsburgii_. The admixture of these is usually detected by the stickiness which they impart to good rubber.

The introduction of licences for permission to collect wild rubber and that of the communal plantation system, previously referred to, have rendered the position more secure than previously, and insured the preservation of the wild plants which were threatened with extinction. This has moreover been effected in the most economical manner.

The results of the tappings on the Para rubber plantations in different parts of the country are of interest. In 1911 at Ebute Metta, trees eighteen years old yielded 3 lbs. 5½ oz. per tree; at Calabar six year old trees gave an average of 6 oz. per tree; while at Sapele in the same year, five year old trees yielded from 14 oz. to 1 lb. 6½ oz. per tree. In the following year the same trees at Ebute Metta gave 7 lbs. 4¾ oz., while those at Sapele yielded from 1 lb. 4¾ oz. to 1 lb. 11¾ oz. In 1915 from two Para rubber estates at Sapele 94,413 lbs. of dry rubber was harvested. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1910, 1912, 1913, 1918.)

=Export of Rubber.=—The Commercial Intelligence Officer of Southern Nigeria, in his report on the trade of the country for 1907, gives a table showing the rubber exported from Southern Nigerian ports from 1900 to 1907; but as these figures include large quantities of the product from Northern Nigeria, shipped through Southern Nigerian ports, they do not represent the output from the latter country alone. Until 1907 apparently no record of the Northern Nigerian rubber exported was kept, but in the year mentioned 1,187,588 lbs., valued at £91,074, were recorded as having passed the customs post of Northern Nigeria at Ida, on the Niger. The amounts, in tons, exported from the Southern Provinces alone were: 1907, 690; 1908, 545; 1909, 620; and from the whole of Nigeria from that time: 1910, 1,180; 1911, 966; 1912, 705; 1913, 510; 1914, no figures; 1915, 248; 1916, 396; 1917, 392; 1918, 157; 1919, 398. The rubber production of the country is to some extent controlled by the market price, which is at present very low (1921).

=COPAL.=—Some quantity of a kind of copal resin is collected from _Cyanothyrsus oblongus_ (syn. _C. ogea_), and is exported under the name of “Ogea gum.” The quality appears to be similar to that obtained from the Gold Coast _Cyanothyrsus sp._, and which is sold under the name of “Accra copal.” Both are obtained in a fresh and a fossil state. Owing to the recent fall in the price of ogea gum, the collection of it has diminished, but there are said to be large quantities available which would be collected as soon as a better demand occurred. (See articles on “Copal Resins from British West Africa,” _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1908, p. 245; and 1914, p. 218.)

=COCOA.=—The good fortune which has recently attended the planters in West Africa, owing to a sudden demand for their cocoa, has encouraged them, especially to the north and north-east of Lagos, to make more extensive plantations. The climatic conditions in the Western Province, however, are not favourable, and the repeated failures of trees, due to the exhausting effect of the long dry seasons, give the plantations an irregular appearance. The trees in the plantations made at Agege, where many well-to-do planters have made farms, are stunted, and planted in too close proximity, mostly without permanent shade trees. In some instances the trees showed disease from the sapping of the bark juices occasioned by a Capsid, the species of which is as yet undetermined. The chief cause of their sterility and death seems, however, to be the unfavourable climatic conditions. In the direction of the Abeokuta-Ibadan boundary, better planting seems to have been done and permanent shade trees preserved.

It is said that the Agege planters are dissatisfied with the prices they obtain for their cocoa, which they maintain is properly fermented and of better quality than that of their neighbours. An association of the local planters was recently formed to ship their own produce direct to the European markets. The Agege cocoa generally, however, does not appear to be more carefully prepared or of better quality than the other local kinds. Fermentation is certainly practised in many places, and is becoming popular throughout the Western Province, owing to the discovery that the fermented pulp juice forms a beverage, which is said to be used as a substitute for palm wine, but the beans are frequently improperly dried.

In the Eastern Province the climatic conditions appear to be more favourable for the plant, and there are now a number of small plantations near Eket, Old Calabar, and Itu. The product is still improperly prepared and usually unfermented, but time and experience will remedy this.

In the Central Province from 1915 some activity in cocoa planting has occurred in the Benin district, but attention there is still mainly devoted to rubber planting.

See also _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1914, p. 213; 1915, p. 553; and 1919, p. 289.

The exports of cocoa have been as follows:

Year Lagos (W. Province) S. Nigeria (C. & E. Provs.)
lbs. value £ lbs. value £
1890 13,657 322 No record
1891 15,254 332 „
1892 15,820 390 „
1893 18,027 488 46,977 655
1894 39,177 929 58,180 992
1895 48,187 832 1,520
1896 27,968 442 109,399 1,532
1897 101,186 1,528 101,214 1,393
1898 76,965 1,579 120,633 1,459
1899 157,708 3,411 142,235 2,548
1900 256,234 5,913 196,455 2,710
1901 229,952 5,042 230,726 3,139
1902 385,540 7,530 302,305 3,677
1903 341,461 6,705 288,614 3,653
1904 821,732 13,892 367,728 4,982
1905 896,350 10,889 388,479 6,019
1906 1,153,439 20,893 466,548 6,161
1907 Combined 2,089,225 47,840
1908 „ 3,060,609 50,587
1909 „ 5,019,417 71,917
1910 „ 6,567,181 101,150
1911 „ 9,858,774 164,664
1912 „ 7,593,711 130,542
1913 „ 8,111,920 157,480
1914 „ 5,000 tons app. 171,751
1915 „ 9,105 „ 313,946
1916 „ 8,956 „ 393,101
1917 „ 15,442 „ 499,009
1918 „ 10,219 „ 235,870
1919 „ 25,711 „ 1,067,675

=COTTON.=—Reviewing the work which has been done in inducing the agricultural population of the country to cultivate cotton for export, by far the greatest prominence must be given to the untiring efforts of the British Cotton Growing Association, who are gradually surmounting all the obstacles which retarded their progress. The condition of the industry, especially in the Western Province, is extremely favourable, and shows signs of further development.

In every Yoruba market sales of cotton are now conducted as a part of the regular transactions of the day, and cotton from distant villages filters through from market to market, increasing in value as it approaches a ginnery, where the full price for it may be ultimately claimed by the trader who has collected it.

On account of this system of passing from one market to another, chiefly in the form of barter for other produce, it becomes nearly impossible to accurately determine the origin of the supplies brought to the ginneries; and, by reference to the records kept, very large quantities of cotton often appear as having been sent from towns which are little more than accumulating centres, and in the vicinity of which there is little or no cotton grown.

Experience in the plantation of cotton under European control has shown that without combining the work of a general trader, farmer, and ginner with that of grower, such an attempt is not likely to prove remunerative. The British Cotton Growing Association have abandoned development upon these lines, directing their attention solely towards buying, ginning and inducing the native farmers to cultivate the plant in their ordinary field rotations. Such plantations as still exist are now under the direct control of the Government and are maintained for the purpose of experimental work and for the propagation of improved types.

The local varieties of cotton may be roughly classed under five heads, which are easily recognisable by the characters of the seed and lint. These are:

1. Black, clean-seeded with a brown tuft or brown woolly and a brick-red lint.—“Eponkon.”

2. Black, clean-seeded, with a creamy white lint.—Common Western Province kind; rarer in the Central Province (Ishan).

3. Black, adhering seeds, “kidney” kind, lint creamy.—Common Central Province.

4. White or brownish woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Meko and Agbede kinds.

5. Green woolly seeded, lint creamy.—Rather uncommon except at Agege.

The characters of the above classes do not appear to be sufficiently constant to render it easy to give each class a specific position, although some of them are doubtless separable. All native forms of plant are constantly of greater stature than American, and in this particular resemble Egyptian kinds.

The red-linted form known as “Eponkon” is identical with the “Dhoole” of Sierra Leone, and, although prolific, yields a cotton which is of little value for export. The other four kinds are those from which the Southern Nigerian output of exported cotton is almost wholly obtained, and the price realised varies from ½_d_. under to 1_d_. or more over Middling American. The finest cottons are those grown at Agege and Meko; the former being supposed to be a hybrid with an American variety, and the latter a constant local variety. Some of the shipments, from Illushi, of cotton grown near Agbede appear to have been of equally desirable quality.

A large number of specimens of cotton have been examined at the Imperial Institute, and the length of fibre is generally found to be over one inch in average, but the colour is yellowish, and there is less lustre than is found in the American kinds. Although the price obtained is often somewhat higher than that of the standard Middling American grade, Manchester spinners do not regard West African cotton as quite suitable for their ordinary requirements, and it appears that the higher prices have only been paid for small quantities which were capable of being used for special purposes.

For the reason mentioned, efforts have been made to replace the indigenous cottons by American kinds, or to hybridise the two, but the results have not yet been successful, the tendency being to produce an irregular mixed lint, which is commercially inferior. American and Egyptian cottons seem to be less capable of withstanding the attacks of the local insect pests, and a large proportion of the seed is rendered sterile by the cotton seed bug. Grown experimentally on a small scale at Olokemeji, the following results were obtained from several exotic and local cottons (American Middling at 6·64_d_. per lb.):—

Yield Staple
Variety per A. Lint % average Value
lbs.